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1 Chapter 19 Observation and Interviewing Presented by Tracy Hanzal © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 Observation Certain kinds of research questions can best be answered by observing how people act or how things look. There are four different roles an observer can take: 1) Participant Observation 2) Non-Participant Observation 3) Naturalistic Observation 4) Simulations © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 Participant vs. Non-Participant Observation Participant Observation the researcher actually participates as an active member of the group in the situation or setting they are observing complete participant (covert) participant-as-observer (overt) Non-Participant Observation the researcher does not participate in an activity or situation, but observes “from the sidelines” observer-as-participant complete observer © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 Naturalistic Observation involves observing individuals in their natural settings no effort to manipulate variables or control settings Simulation an artificially created situation in which subjects are asked to act out certain roles individual role playing team role playing © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Variations in Approaches to Observation Role of the Observer Full-participant observation Partial participation Onlooker; observer is an outsider How the Observer Is Portrayed to Others Participants know that observations are being made and they know who is making them. Some but not all of the participants know the observer. Participants do not know that observations are being made or that there is someone observing them. How the Purpose of the Observation Is Portrayed to Others The purpose of the observation is fully explained to all involved. The purpose of the observation is explained to some of the participants. No explanation is given to any of the participants. False explanations are given; participants are deceived about the purpose of the observation. Duration of the Observations A single observation of limited duration (e.g., 30 minutes). Multiple observations; long-term duration (e.g., months, even years). Focus of the Observations Narrow focus: Only a single element or characteristic is observed. Broad focus: Holistic view of the activity or characteristic being observed and all of its elements is sought. 5 6 Observer Effect observer can have a considerable effect on the behavior of those being observed, and affect the outcome of the study Bernard (2000) “catch a glimpse of people in their natural behavior before they see you coming”. it is quite likely that the observer will have some form of effect upon the individuals being observed participants should not be informed of the study’s purpose until after data has been collected © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 Observer concerns Observer bias Observer expectations refers to the possibility that certain characteristics or ideas of observers may bias what they “see” when researchers know to observe certain characteristics of subjects. Comparing notes or impressions among other researchers assists in reducing this threat second observer © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 Importance of a Second Observer © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 Coding Observational Data Coding scheme a set of categories an observer uses to record a person’s or group’s behavior used to measure interactions between parents and adolescents in a lab setting an observer still must choose what to observe, even with a fixed coding scheme these data are coded into categories that emerge as the analysis proceeds ethnographic research © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 10 Amidon/Flanders Scheme © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11 The Use of Technology Video or digital recording Advantages permits researcher to view behavior repeatedly decide how to code later files may be replayed for continued study or analysis other researchers can offer insight Disadvantages requires training or technicians (expensive) may distort behaviors by those being observed © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12 Interviewing an important way for a researcher to check the accuracy of the impressions he or she gained through observation Fetterman (1989) describes interviewing as the most important datacollection technique for qualitative research © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 Types of Interviews There are four types of interviews: 1) Structured 2) Semistructured 3) Verbal questionnaires, formal series of questions designed to elicit specific answers on the part of respondents Best conducted near the end of a study Informal 4) Verbal questionnaires, formal series of questions designed to elicit specific answers on the part of respondents Most useful for obtaining information to test a hypothesis Less formal than the previous methods Casual conversations, pursuing the interests of both parties Considered the most common form of interviewing Retrospective Can be all of the above Tries to get the respondent to recall and reconstruct from memory something from the past 14 Types of Interview Questions Patton (1990) identified six types of interview questions: 1) Background/demographic questions 2) Knowledge questions 3) Experience/behavior questions 4) Opinion/values questions 5) Feelings questions 6) Sensory questions © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 Interviewing Behavior A set of expectations exists for all interviews: Respect the culture of the group being studied Respect the individual being interviewed Be natural Develop an appropriate rapport with the participant Ask one question at a time © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ask the same question in different ways during the interview Ask the interviewee to repeat an answer when in doubt Vary who controls the flow of communication Avoid leading questions Don’t interrupt 16 Interview of Dubious Validity © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Don’t Ask More Than One Question at a Time © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 18 Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research important check on the validity and reliability Triangulation compare one informant’s description of something with another informant’s description of the same thing a check on reliability/validity by comparing different information on the same topic Efforts should be made to ensure reliability and validity Proper vocabulary Recording questions and personal reaction Describing content and documenting sources © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Qualitative Research Questions, Strategies, and Data-Collection Techniques Purpose of the Study Exploratory To investigate a littleunderstood event, situation, or circumstance To identify or discover important variables To generate hypotheses for further research Descriptive To document an event, situation, or circumstance of interest Explanatory To explain the forces causing an event, situation, or circumstance To identify plausible causal networks shaping an event, situation, or circumstance Predictive To predict the outcome of an event, situation, or circumstance To forecast behaviors or actions that might result from an event, situation, or circumstance Possible Research Questions What is happening in this school? What are the important themes or patterns in the ways teachers behave in this school? How are these themes or patterns linked together? What are the important behaviors, events, attitudes, processes, and/or structures occurring in this school? What events, beliefs, attitudes, and/or policies are shaping the nature of this school? How do these forces interact to shape this school? What is likely to occur in the future as a result of the policies now in place at this school? Who will be affected, and in what ways? Research Strategies Examples of DataCollection Techniques Case study Observation Field study Participant observation Non-participant observation In-depth interviewing Selected interviewing Case study Field study Ethnography Observation Participant observation Non-participant observation In-depth interviewing Written questionnaire Content analysis Case study Field study Ethnography Participant observation Non-participant observation In-depth interviewing Written questionnaire Content analysis Observation Interview In-depth interviewing Written questionnaire Content analysis 19