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SpanishAmerican War
Spanish–American War
The Spanish–American War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of
American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions
led to involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine–American War.[1]
Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by Americans. There
had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873. By 1897–98, American public opinion grew angrier at
reports of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. After the mysterious sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana
harbor, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the administration of Republican President William
McKinley into a war he had wished to avoid.[2] Compromise proved impossible, resulting in the United States
sending an ultimatum to Spain demanding it immediately surrender control of Cuba, which the Spanish rejected.
First Madrid, then Washington, formally declared war.[3]
Although the main issue was Cuban independence, the ten-week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the
Pacific. American naval power proved decisive, allowing U.S. expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a
Spanish garrison already reeling from nationwide insurgent attacks and wasted by yellow fever.[4] Cuban, Philippine,
and American forces obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila owing to their numerical superiority in
most of the battles and despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units and spirited defenses in places
like San Juan Hill.[5] With two obsolete Spanish squadrons sunk in Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay and a third,
more modern fleet recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts, Madrid sued for peace.[6]
The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S., which allowed temporary
American control of Cuba and, following their purchase from Spain, indefinite colonial authority over Puerto Rico,
Guam, and the Philippines. The defeat and collapse of the Spanish Empire was a profound shock to Spain's national
psyche, and provoked a thoroughgoing philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the
Generation of '98.[7] The victor gained several island possessions spanning the globe and a rancorous new debate
over the wisdom of expansionism.[8]
Historical background
Spain's colonial retrenchment
The combined traumas of the Peninsular War, the loss of most of its colonies in the Americas in the early 19th
century Spanish American wars of independence, and two disastrous Carlist wars effected a new interpretation of
Spain’s remaining empire. Liberal Spanish elites like Antonio Cánovas del Castillo and Emilio Castelar tried to
redefine "empire" to dovetail with Spain's emerging nationalism. As Cánovas made clear in an address to the
University of Madrid in 1882,[9][10] the Spanish nation was a cultural and linguistic concept that tied Spain’s colonies
to the metropole despite the oceans that separated them.
Cánovas argued that Spain was markedly different from rival empires like Britain and France. Unlike these empires,
spreading civilization was Spain’s unique contribution to the New World.[11] This popular reimagining of the
Spanish Empire bestowed special significance on Cuba as an integral part of the Spanish nation. The focus on
preserving the empire would have disastrous consequences for Spain’s sense of national identity in the aftermath of
the war.
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American interest in Caribbean
In 1823, U.S. President James Monroe enunciated the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would
not tolerate further efforts by European governments to colonize land or interfere with states in the Americas;
however, Spain's colony in Cuba was exempted. Before the Civil War Southern interests attempted to have the U.S.
purchase Cuba and make it new slave territory. The proposal failed, and national attention shifted to the Civil War.
The U.S. became interested in a canal either in Nicaragua, or in Panama, where the Panama Canal was built, and
realized the need for naval protection. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was an especially influential theorist; his ideas
were much admired by Theodore Roosevelt, as the U.S. rapidly built a powerful fleet in the 1890s. Roosevelt served
as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 1897–98 was an aggressive supporter of a war with Spain over Cuba.
Meanwhile the Cuba Libre movement, led by Cuban intellectual José Martí, had established offices in Florida[12] and
New York to buy and smuggle weapons. It mounted a large propaganda campaign to generate sympathy that would
lead to official pressure on Spain. Protestant churches and Democratic farmers were supportive, but business
interests called on Washington to ignore them.[13]
Although Cuba attracted American attention, little note was made of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico.[14]
Historians see little popular demand for an empire, but note that Britain, France, Germany and Japan had expanded
their overseas empires dramatically, in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.[15]
The path to war
Cuban struggle for independence
The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years War, erupted in 1868 and was suppressed by the
Spanish colonial authorities a decade later. Neither the brutal fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjón
(February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for independence. One such revolutionary, José Martí,
continued to promote Cuban financial and political autonomy even in exile. In early 1895, after years of organizing,
Martí launched a three-pronged invasion of the island.[16]
The plan called for one group from Santo Domingo led by Máximo Gómez, one group from Costa Rica led by
Antonio Maceo Grajales, and another from the United States (preemptively thwarted by U.S. officials in Florida) to
land in different places on the island and provoke a nationalist revolution. While their call for revolution, the grito de
Baíre, was successful, the expected revolution was not the grand show of force Martí had expected. With a quick
victory effectively lost, the revolutionaries settled in to fight a protracted guerrilla campaign.[17]
Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, the architect of Spain’s Restoration constitution and the prime minister at the time,
ordered General Arsenio Martínez-Campos, a distinguished veteran of the war against the previous uprising in Cuba,
to quell the revolt. Campos’s reluctance to accept his new assignment and his method of containing the revolt to the
province of Oriente earned him ridicule in the Spanish press.[18]
The mounting political pressure thus forced Cánovas to replace General Campos with General Valeriano Weyler y
Nicolau, a soldier who had proved he could quash rebellions in the colonies and the Spanish metropole. Weyler
deprived the insurgency of weaponry, supplies, and assistance by ordering the residents of some Cuban districts to
move to reconcentration camps near the military headquarters.[19] Although this strategy was brutally effective at
slowing the spread of rebellion, it stirred indignation in the United States.[20] McKinley remarked that this “was not
civilized warfare" but "extermination.”[21]
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Spanish attitude
The Spanish government regarded
Cuba as a province of Spain rather than
a colony, and depended on it for
prestige and trade, and as a training
ground for the army. Prime minister
Cánovas del Castillo announced that
“the Spanish nation is disposed to
sacrifice to the last peseta of its
treasure and to the last drop of blood of
the last Spaniard before consenting that
anyone snatch from it even one piece
of its territory.”[22] He had long
dominated and stabilized Spanish
politics. He was assassinated in 1897,
leaving a Spanish political system that
was not stable and could not risk a
blow to its prestige.[23]
U.S. response
A Catalan satirical drawing published in La Campana de Gràcia (1896), criticizing U.S.
behavior regarding Cuba.
The eruption of the Cuban revolt, Weyler’s measures, and the popular fury these events whipped up proved to be a
boon to the newspaper industry in New York City, where Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William
Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell
copies. Both papers covered Spain’s actions and Weyler’s tactics in a way that confirmed the popular disparaging
attitude toward Spain in America. In the minds, schoolbooks, and scholarship of the mostly Protestant U.S. public,
the Catholic Spanish Empire was a backward, immoral union built on the backs of enslaved natives and funded with
stolen gold.[24]
The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening
uncertainty about the future of Cuba. Shipping firms that relied heavily on trade with Cuba suffered huge losses as
the conflict continued unresolved.[25] These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt. Other
U.S. business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore
order.[26] Stability, not war, was the goal of both interests. How stability would be achieved would depend largely on
the ability of Spain and the U.S. to work out their issues diplomatically.
President McKinley, well aware of the political complexity surrounding the conflict, wanted to end the revolt
peacefully. Threatening to consider recognizing Cuba’s belligerent status, and thus allowing the legal rearming of
Cuban insurgents by U.S. firms, he sent Stewart L. Woodford to Madrid to negotiate an end to the conflict. With
Práxedes Sagasta, an open advocate of Cuban autonomy, now Prime Minister of Spain (the more hard-line Cánovas
del Castillo had been assassinated before Woodford arrived), negotiations went smoothly. Cuban autonomy was set
to begin on January 1, 1898.[27]
SpanishAmerican War
USS Maine
Eleven days after the Cuban autonomous government
took power, a small riot erupted in Havana. The riot
was thought to be ignited by Spanish officers who were
offended by the persistent newspaper criticism of
General Valeriano Weyler’s policies.[28] McKinley sent
the USS Maine to Havana to ensure the safety of
American citizens and interests.[28]
The need for the U.S. to send Maine to Havana had
been expected for months, but the Spanish government
was notified just 18 hours before its arrival, which was
contrary to diplomatic convention. Preparations for the
possible conflict started in October 1897, when
The sunken USS Maine in Havana harbor.
President McKinley arranged for Maine to be deployed
[28]
to Key West, Florida,
as a part of a larger, global
deployment of U.S. naval power to attack simultaneously on several fronts if the war was not avoided. As Maine left
Florida, a large part of the North Atlantic Squadron was moved to Key West and the Gulf of Mexico. Others were
also moved just off the shore of Lisbon, and still others were moved to Hong Kong.[29]
At 9:40 pm on February 15, 1898, Maine sank in Havana harbor after suffering a massive explosion. While
McKinley preached patience, the news of the explosion and the death of 266 sailors stirred popular American
opinion into demanding a swift belligerent response. McKinley asked Congress to appropriate $50 million for
defense, and Congress unanimously obliged. Most American leaders took the position that the cause of the explosion
was unknown, but public attention was now riveted on the situation and Spain could not find a diplomatic solution to
avoid war. It appealed to the European powers, all of whom advised Spain to back down and avoid war.
The U.S. Navy’s investigation, made public on March 28, concluded that the ship’s powder magazines were ignited
when an external explosion was set off under the ship’s hull. This report poured fuel on popular indignation in the
U.S., making the war inevitable.[30] Spain’s investigation came to the opposite conclusion: the explosion originated
within the ship. Other investigations in later years came to various contradictory conclusions, but had no bearing on
the coming of the war. In 1974, Admiral Hyman George Rickover had his staff look at the documents and decided
there was an internal explosion. A study commissioned by National Geographic magazine in 1999, using AME
computer modelling, stated that the explosion could have been caused by a mine, but no definitive evidence was
found.[31]
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Declaring war
After the Maine was destroyed,[32] newspaper publishers Hearst and Pulitzer
decided that the Spanish were to blame, and they publicized this theory as fact in
their New York City papers using sensationalistic and astonishing accounts of
"atrocities" committed by the Spanish in Cuba. Their press exaggerated what was
happening and how the Spanish were treating the Cuban prisoners.[33] The stories
were based on truth but written with incendiary language causing emotional and
often heated responses among readers. A common myth states, to the opinion of
his illustrator Frederic Remington, that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to
warrant hostilities, Hearst responded: "You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the
war."[34]
This new "yellow journalism" was, however, uncommon outside New York City,
and historians no longer consider it the major force shaping the national mood.[35]
Public opinion nationwide did demand immediate action, overwhelming the
efforts of President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, and
the business community to find a negotiated solution.
United States Army officer Colonel
Charles A. Wikoff was the most
senior U.S. military officer killed in
the Spanish–American War.
A speech delivered by Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17, 1898 thoroughly analyzed the situation,
concluding that war was the only answer. The speech helped provide one final push for the United States to declare
war.[36]: 210 [37] Many in the business and religious communities, which had, until then, opposed war, switched sides,
leaving McKinley and Speaker Reed almost alone in their resistance to a war.[38] On April 11, McKinley ended his
resistance and asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there, knowing that
Congress would force a war.
On April 19, while Congress was considering joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence, Senator Henry M.
Teller of Colorado proposed the Teller Amendment to ensure that the U.S. would not establish permanent control
over Cuba after the war. The amendment, disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, passed the Senate 42 to 35; the
House concurred the same day, 311 to 6. The amended resolution demanded Spanish withdrawal and authorized the
President to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuba gain independence from Spain.
President McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, 1898, and the ultimatum was sent to Spain. In response,
Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a
blockade of Cuba.[39] Spain declared war on April 23. On April 25, Congress declared that a state of war between the
U.S. and Spain had existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun.[39]
The Navy was ready, but the Army was not well-prepared for the war and made radical changes in plans and quickly
purchased supplies. In the spring of 1898, the strength of the Regular U.S. Army was just 28,000 men. The Army
wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000, through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard
units.[40]
SpanishAmerican War
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Pacific Theater
Philippines
In the 300 years of Spanish rule, the
country developed from a small
overseas colony governed from the
Viceroyalty of New Spain to a land
with modern elements in the cities. The
Spanish-speaking middle classes of the
19th century were mostly educated in
the liberal ideas coming from Europe.
Among these Ilustrados was the
Filipino national hero José Rizal, who
demanded larger reforms from the
Spanish authorities. This movement
eventually led to the Philippine
The Pacific theatre of the Spanish–American War.
Revolution against Spanish colonial
rule. The revolution had been in a state
of truce since the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile
outside of the country.
The first battle between American and Spanish forces
was at Manila Bay where, on May 1, Commodore
George Dewey, commanding the U.S. Navy's Asiatic
Squadron aboard USS Olympia, in a matter of hours
defeated a Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio
Montojo. Dewey managed this with only nine
wounded.[41][42] With the German seizure of Tsingtao
in 1897, Dewey's squadron had become the only naval
force in the Far East without a local base of its own,
and was beset with coal and ammunition problems.[43]
Despite these problems, the Asiatic Squadron not only
destroyed the Spanish fleet but also captured the harbor
of Manila.[43]
The Battle of Manila Bay.
Following Dewey's victory, Manila Bay was filled with
the warships of Britain, Germany, France and Japan.[43] The German fleet of eight ships, ostensibly in Philippine
waters to protect German interests, acted provocatively – cutting in front of American ships, refusing to salute the
United States flag (according to customs of naval courtesy), taking soundings of the harbor, and landing supplies for
the besieged Spanish.[44]
The Germans, with interests of their own, were eager to take advantage of whatever opportunities the conflict in the
islands might afford. The Americans called the bluff of the Germans, threatening conflict if the aggression
continued, and the Germans backed down.[45][46] At the time, the Germans expected the confrontation in the
Philippines to end in an American defeat, with the revolutionaries capturing Manila and leaving the Philippines ripe
for German picking.[47]
Commodore Dewey transported Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader who had led rebellion against Spanish rule in
the Philippines in 1896, to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong to rally more Filipinos against the Spanish
SpanishAmerican War
colonial government.[48] By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the
walled city of Intramuros. On June 12, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines.[49][50]
On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a cease-fire had been signed between Spain and the U.S. on
the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish.[48][51] This battle marked the end of
Filipino-American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured
city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the Philippine–American War,[52] which would
prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish–American War.
The U.S. had sent a force of some 11,000 ground troops to the Philippines. Armed conflict broke out between U.S.
forces and the Filipinos when U.S. troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country after the
end of the war, resulting in the [Philippine–American War]. On August 14, 1899, the Schurman Commission
recommended that the U.S. retain control of the Philippines, possibly granting independence in the future.[53]
Guam
On June 20, a U.S. fleet commanded by Captain Henry Glass, consisting of the armored cruiser USS Charleston and
three transports carrying troops to the Philippines, entered Guam's Apra Harbor, Captain Glass having opened sealed
orders instructing him to proceed to Guam and capture it. Charleston fired a few cannon rounds at Fort Santa Cruz
without receiving return fire. Two local officials, not knowing that war had been declared and believing the firing
had been a salute, came out to Charleston to apologize for their inability to return the salute. Glass informed them
that the U.S. and Spain were at war.[54]
The following day, Glass sent Lt. William Braunersruehter to meet the Spanish Governor to arrange the surrender of
the island and the Spanish garrison there. Some 54 Spanish infantry were captured and transported to the Philippines
as prisoners of war. No U.S. forces were left on Guam, but the only U.S. citizen on the island, Frank Portusach, told
Captain Glass that he would look after things until U.S. forces returned.[55]
Caribbean Theater
Cuba
Theodore Roosevelt advocated intervention in Cuba,
both for the Cuban people and to promote the Monroe
Doctrine. While Assistant Secretary of the Navy, he
placed the Navy on a war-time footing and prepared
Dewey's Asiatic Squadron for battle. He also worked
with Leonard Wood in convincing the Army to raise an
all-volunteer regiment, the 1st U.S. Volunteer Cavalry.
Wood was given command of the regiment that quickly
became known as the "Rough Riders".[56]
The Spanish armored cruiser Cristóbal Colón. Destroyed during the
The Americans planned to capture the city of Santiago
Battle of Santiago on July 3, 1898.
de Cuba to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet.
To reach Santiago they had to pass through
concentrated Spanish defenses in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. The American forces were aided
in Cuba by the pro-independence rebels led by General Calixto García.
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8
Land campaign
From June 22–24, the U.S. V Corps under General
William R. Shafter landed at Daiquirí and Siboney, east
of Santiago, and established an American base of
operations. A contingent of Spanish troops, having
fought a skirmish with the Americans near Siboney on
June 23, had retired to their lightly entrenched positions
at Las Guasimas. An advance guard of U.S. forces
under former Confederate General Joseph Wheeler
ignored Cuban scouting parties and orders to proceed
with caution. They caught up with and engaged the
Spanish rearguard commanded of about 2000 soldiers
led by General Antonio Rubin[57] who effectively
ambushed them, in the Battle of Las Guasimas on June
24. The battle ended indecisively in favor of Spain and
the Spanish left Las Guasimas on their planned retreat
to Santiago.
Detail from Charge of the 24th and 25th Colored Infantry and
Rescue of Rough Riders at San Juan Hill, July 2, 1898 depicting the
Battle of San Juan Hill.
The U.S. Army employed American Civil War-era skirmishers at the head of the advancing columns. All four U.S.
soldiers who had volunteered to act as skirmishers walking point at the head of the American column were killed,
including Hamilton Fish, from a well-known patrician New York City family, and Captain Alyn Capron, whom
Theodore Roosevelt would describe as one of the finest natural leaders and soldiers he ever met.[58]
The Battle of Las Guasimas showed the U.S. that the old linear Civil War tactics did not work effectively against
Spanish troops who had learned the art of cover and concealment from their own struggle with Cuban insurgents,
and never made the error of revealing their positions while on the defense. Spanish troops were equipped with
smokeless powder arms that also helped them to hide their positions while firing. Regular Spanish troops were
mostly armed with modern charger-loaded 1893 7mm Spanish Mauser rifles and using smokeless powder, while
militia and irregular troops were armed with Remington Rolling Block rifles in .43 Spanish using smokeless powder
and brass jacketed bullet.[59]
The high-speed 7x57mm Mauser round was termed the "Spanish Hornet" by the Americans because of the
supersonic crack as it passed overhead. In response, American troops using .30–40 Krag-Jørgensen and worse,
.45–70 Springfield single-shot black powder rifles found themselves unable to respond with an equivalent volume of
fire. American soldiers could advance against the Spaniards only in what are now called "fireteam" rushes,
four-to-five man groups advancing while others laid down supporting fire from small arms.
On July 1, a combined force of about 15,000 American troops in regular infantry and cavalry regiments, including all
four of the army's "Colored" regiments, and volunteer regiments, among them Roosevelt and his "Rough Riders", the
71st New York, the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry, and 1st North Carolina, and rebel Cuban forces attacked 1,270
entrenched Spaniards in dangerous Civil War-style frontal assaults at the Battle of El Caney and Battle of San Juan
Hill outside of Santiago.[60] More than 200 U.S. soldiers were killed and close to 1,200 wounded in the fighting.[61]
Supporting fire by Gatling guns was critical to the success of the assault.[62][63] Cervera decided to escape Santiago
two days later.
The Spanish forces at Guantánamo were so isolated by Marines and Cuban forces that they did not know that
Santiago was under siege, and their forces in the northern part of the province could not break through Cuban lines.
This was not true of the Escario relief column from Manzanillo,[64] which fought its way past determined Cuban
resistance but arrived too late to participate in the siege.
SpanishAmerican War
After the battles of San Juan Hill and El Caney, the American advance halted. Spanish troops successfully defended
Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly
began a bloody, strangling siege of the city.[65] During the nights, Cuban troops dug successive series of "trenches"
(raised parapets), toward the Spanish positions. Once completed, these parapets were occupied by U.S. soldiers and a
new set of excavations went forward. American troops, while suffering daily losses from Spanish fire, suffered far
more casualties from heat exhaustion and mosquito-borne disease.[66] At the western approaches to the city, Cuban
general Calixto Garcia began to encroach on the city, causing much panic and fear of reprisals among the Spanish
forces.
Naval operations
The major port of Santiago de Cuba
was the main target of naval operations
during the war. The U.S. fleet
attacking Santiago needed shelter from
the
summer
hurricane
season;
Guantánamo Bay, with its excellent
harbor, was chosen. The 1898 invasion
The Santiago Campaign (1898).
of Guantánamo Bay happened between
June 6 and 10, with the first U.S. naval
attack and subsequent successful landing of U.S. Marines with naval support.
The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, was the largest naval engagement of the Spanish–American War and
resulted in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (also known as the Flota de Ultramar). In May, the
fleet of Spanish Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete had been spotted by American forces in Santiago harbor, where
they had taken shelter for protection from sea attack. A two-month stand-off between Spanish and American naval
forces followed.
When the Spanish squadron finally attempted to leave the harbor on July 3, the American forces destroyed or
grounded five of the six ships. Only one Spanish vessel, the new armored cruiser Cristobal Colon, survived, but her
captain hauled down her flag and scuttled her when the Americans finally caught up with her. The 1,612 Spanish
sailors who were captured, including Admiral Cervera, were sent to Seavey's Island at the Portsmouth Naval
Shipyard in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, where they were confined at Camp Long as prisoners of war from July 11
until mid-September.
During the stand-off, U.S. Assistant Naval Constructor Richmond Pearson Hobson had been ordered by Rear
Admiral William T. Sampson to sink the collier USS Merrimac in the harbor to bottle up the Spanish fleet. The
mission was a failure, and Hobson and his crew were captured. They were exchanged on July 6, and Hobson became
a national hero; he received the Medal of Honor in 1933 and became a Congressman.
U.S. withdrawal
Fiebre amarilla, yellow fever, had quickly spread amongst the American occupation force, crippling it. A group of
concerned officers of the American army chose Theodore Roosevelt to draft a request to Washington that it
withdraw the Army, a request that paralleled a similar one from General Shafter, who described his force as an “army
of convalescents”. By the time of his letter, 75% of the force in Cuba was unfit for service.[67]
On August 7, the American invasion force started to leave Cuba. The evacuation was not total. The U.S. Army kept
the black Ninth Infantry Regiment in Cuba to support the occupation. The logic was that their race and the fact that
many black volunteers came from southern states would protect them; this logic led to these soldiers being
nicknamed “Immunes”. Still, when the Ninth left, 73 of its 984 soldiers had contracted the disease.[67]
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10
Puerto Rico
In May 1898, Lt. Henry H. Whitney of the United
States Fourth Artillery was sent to Puerto Rico on a
reconnaissance mission, sponsored by the Army's
Bureau of Military Intelligence. He provided maps and
information on the Spanish military forces to the U.S.
government prior to the invasion. On May 10, U.S.
Navy warships were sighted off the coast of Puerto
Rico. On May 12, a squadron of 12 U.S. ships
commanded by Rear Adm. William T. Sampson
bombarded San Juan. During the bombardment, many
government buildings were shelled. On June 25, the
USS Yosemite blockaded San Juan harbor.
Puerto Rican and Spanish troops in Guayama, Puerto Rico.
On July 25, General Nelson A. Miles, with 3,300
soldiers, landed at Guánica, beginning the Puerto Rican Campaign. The troops faced resistance early in the invasion.
The first skirmish between the American and Spanish troops occurred in Guánica. The first organized armed
opposition occurred in Yauco in what became known as the Battle of Yauco.[68] This encounter was followed by the
Battles of Fajardo, Guayama, Guamaní River Bridge, Coamo, Silva Heights and finally by the Battle of
Asomante.[68][69] On August 9, 1898, infantry and cavalry troops encountered Spanish and Puerto Rican soldiers
armed with cannons in a mountain known as Cerro Gervasio del Asomante, while trying to enter Aibonito.[69]
The American commanders decided to retreat and regroup, returning on August 12, 1898, with an artillery unit.[69]
The Spanish and Puerto Rican units began the offensive with cannon fire, being led by Ricardo Hernáiz. The sudden
attack caused confusion among some soldiers, who reported seeing a second Spanish unit nearby.[69] In the cross
fire, four American troops—Sergeant John Long, Lieutenant Harris, Captain E.T. Lee and Corporal Oscar
Swanson—were gravely injured.[69] Based on this and the reports of upcoming reinforcements, Commander
Landcaster ordered a retreat.[69]
Making peace
With defeats in Cuba and the Philippines, and both of
its fleets incapacitated, Spain sued for peace.
Hostilities were halted on August 12, 1898, with the
signing in Washington of a Protocol of Peace between
the United States and Spain.[70] After over two months
of difficult negotiations, the formal peace treaty, the
Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris on December 10,
1898,[71] and was ratified by the United States Senate
on February 6, 1899.
The United States gained almost all of Spain's colonies
in the treaty, including the Philippines, Guam and
Puerto Rico.[71] The treaty came into force in Cuba
April 11, 1899, with Cubans participating only as
observers. Having been occupied since July 17, 1898,
and thus under the jurisdiction of the United States
Jules Cambon, the French Ambassador in the U.S., signing the
memorandum of ratification on behalf of Spain.
SpanishAmerican War
11
Military Government (USMG), Cuba formed its own civil government and gained independence on May 20, 1902,
with the announced end of USMG jurisdiction over the island. However, the U.S. imposed various restrictions on the
new government, including prohibiting alliances with other countries, and reserved the right to intervene. The U.S.
also established a perpetual lease of Guantánamo Bay.
Aftermath
The war lasted four months. John Hay (the United States
Ambassador to the United Kingdom), writing from London to his
friend Theodore Roosevelt declared that it had been "a splendid
little war."[72][73] The press showed Northerners and Southerners,
blacks and whites fighting against a common foe, helping to ease
the scars left from the American Civil War.[74]
The war marked American entry into world affairs. Since then, the
U.S. has had a significant hand in various conflicts around the
world, and entered many treaties and agreements. The Panic of
1893 was over by this point, and the U.S. entered a long and
prosperous period of economic and population growth, and
technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s.[75]
The war redefined national identity, served as a solution of sorts to
the social divisions plaguing the American mind, and provided a
model for all future news reporting.[76]
With the end of the war, Colonel Theodore Roosevelt
The war also effectively ended the Spanish Empire. Spain had
musters out of the U.S. Army after the required 30-day
quarantine period at Montauk, Long Island, in 1898.
been declining as an imperial power since the early 19th century as
a result of Napoleon's invasion. The loss of Cuba caused a national
trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain
rather than as a colony. Spain retained only a handful of overseas holdings: Spanish West Africa, Spanish Guinea,
Spanish Sahara, Spanish Morocco and the Canary Islands.
The Spanish soldier Julio Cervera Baviera, who served in the Puerto Rican Campaign, published a pamphlet in
which he blamed the natives of that colony for its occupation by the Americans, saying: "I have never seen such a
servile, ungrateful country [i.e., Puerto Rico].... In twenty-four hours, the people of Puerto Rico went from being
fervently Spanish to enthusiastically American.... They humiliated themselves, giving in to the invader as the slave
bows to the powerful lord."[77] He was challenged to a duel by a group of young Puerto Ricans for writing this
pamphlet.[78]
Culturally, a new wave called the Generation of '98 originated as a response to this trauma, marking a renaissance in
Spanish culture. Economically, the war benefited Spain, because after the war large sums of capital held by
Spaniards in Cuba and America were returned to the peninsula and invested in Spain. This massive flow of capital
(equivalent to 25% of the gross domestic product of one year) helped to develop the large modern firms in Spain in
the steel, chemical, financial, mechanical, textile, shipyard, and electrical power industries.[79] However, the political
consequences were serious. The defeat in the war began the weakening of the fragile political stability that had been
established earlier by the rule of Alfonso XII.
SpanishAmerican War
12
Congress had passed the Teller Amendment prior to the war,
promising Cuban independence. However, the Senate passed the
Platt Amendment as a rider to an Army appropriations bill, forcing
a peace treaty on Cuba which prohibited it from signing treaties
with other nations or contracting a public debt. The Platt
Amendment was pushed by imperialists who wanted to project
U.S. power abroad (this was in contrast to the Teller Amendment
which was pushed by anti-imperialists who called for a restraint on
U.S. rule). The amendment granted the United States the right to
stabilize Cuba militarily as needed. The Platt Amendment also
provided for a permanent American naval base in Cuba.
Guantánamo Bay was established after the signing of treaties
between Cuba and the U.S. beginning in 1903.
The U.S. annexed the former Spanish colonies of Puerto Rico, the
Philippines and Guam. The notion of the United States as an
imperial power, with colonies, was hotly debated domestically
with President McKinley and the Pro-Imperialists winning their
way over vocal opposition led by Democrat William Jennings
Bryan, who had supported the war. The American public largely
supported the possession of colonies, but there were many
outspoken critics such as Mark Twain, who wrote The War Prayer
in protest.
The cover of Puck from April 6, 1901. Caricaturizes an
Easter bonnet made out of a warship that alludes to the
gains of the Spanish–American War.
Roosevelt returned to the United States a war hero, and he was soon elected governor and then vice president.
The war served to further repair relations between the
American North and South. The war gave both sides a
common enemy for the first time since the end of the
Civil War in 1865, and many friendships were formed
between soldiers of northern and southern states during
their tours of duty. This was an important development,
since many soldiers in this war were the children of
Civil War veterans on both sides.[80]
1900 Campaign poster.
SpanishAmerican War
The African-American community strongly supported
the rebels in Cuba, supported entry into the war, and
gained prestige from their wartime performance in the
Army. Spokesmen noted that 33 African-American
seamen had died in the Maine explosion. The most
influential Black leader, Booker T. Washington, argued
that his race was ready to fight. War offered them a
chance "to render service to our country that no other
race can," because, unlike Whites, they were
"accustomed" to the "peculiar and dangerous climate"
Segregation in the U.S. military, 1898
of Cuba. One of the Black units that served in the war
was the 9th Cavalry Regiment. In March 1898,
Washington promised the Secretary of the Navy that war would be answered by "at least ten thousand loyal, brave,
strong Black men in the south who crave an opportunity to show their loyalty to our land, and would gladly take this
method of showing their gratitude for the lives laid down, and the sacrifices made, that Blacks might have their
freedom and rights."[81]
In 1904, the United Spanish War Veterans was created from smaller groups of the veterans of the Spanish American
War. Today, that organization is defunct, but it left an heir in the Sons of Spanish–American War Veterans, created
in 1937 at the 39th National Encampment of the United Spanish War Veterans. According to data from the United
States Department of Veterans Affairs, the last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Nathan E. Cook, died on
September 10, 1992, at age 106. (If the data is to be believed, Cook, born October 10, 1885, would have been only
12 years old when he served in the war.)
The Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States (VFW) was formed in 1914 from the merger of two prior
veterans organizations which both arose in 1899: the American Veterans of Foreign Service and the National Society
of the Army of the Philippines.[82] The former was formed for veterans of the Spanish–American War, while the
latter was formed for veterans of the Philippine–American War. Both organizations were formed in response to the
general neglect veterans returning from the war experienced at the hands of the government.
To pay the costs of the war, Congress passed an excise tax on long-distance phone service.[83] At the time, it affected
only wealthy Americans who owned telephones. However, the Congress neglected to repeal the tax after the war
ended four months later, and the tax remained in place for over 100 years until, on August 1, 2006, it was announced
that the U.S. Department of the Treasury and the IRS would no longer collect the tax.[84]
Spanish–American War in film and television
The Spanish–American War was the first U.S. war in which the motion picture camera played a role.[85] The Library
of Congress archives contain many films and film clips from the war.[86] In addition, many feature films have been
made about the war. These include
• The Rough Riders, a 1927 silent film
• Rough Riders, a 1997 television miniseries directed by John Milius, and featuring Tom Berenger (Theodore
Roosevelt), Gary Busey (Joseph Wheeler), Sam Elliott (Buckey O'Neill), Dale Dye (Leonard Wood), Brian Keith
(William McKinley), George Hamilton (William Randolph Hearst), and R. Lee Ermey (John Hay)
• The Spanish–American War: First Intervention, a 2007 docudrama from The History Channel
• Baler, a 2008 film about the Siege of Baler
• Los últimos de Filipinas ("The Last Ones of the Philippines"), a 1945 Spanish biographical film film directed by
Antonio Román.
13
SpanishAmerican War
14
Military decorations
United States
The United States awards and
decorations of the Spanish–American
War were as follows:
Wartime service and honors
• Medal of Honor
U.S. Army "War with Spain" campaign streamer
• Specially Meritorious Service Medal
• Spanish Campaign Medal – upgradeable to include the Silver Citation Star to recognize those U.S. Army
members who had performed individual acts of heroism.
• West Indies Campaign Medal
• Sampson Medal, West Indies service under Admiral William T. Sampson
• Dewey Medal, service during the Battle of Manila Bay under Admiral George Dewey
• Spanish War Service Medal, U.S. Army homeland service
Postwar occupation service
• Army of Puerto Rican Occupation Medal
• Army of Cuban Occupation Medal
Other countries
The governments of Spain and Cuba also issued a wide variety of military awards to honor Spanish, Cuban, and
Philippine soldiers who had served in the conflict.
Notes
[1] Some recent historians prefer a broader title to encompass the fighting in Cuba and the Philippine Islands.
examples:
•
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Louis A. Pérez (1998), The war of 1898: the United States and Cuba in history and historiography (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=OVFV4qclY-YC), UNC Press Books, ISBN 978-0-8078-4742-8,
• Benjamin R. Beede (1994), The War of 1898, and U.S. interventions, 1898–1934: an encyclopedia (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=48g116X9IIwC), Taylor & Francis, ISBN 978-0-8240-5624-7,
• Thomas David Schoonover; Walter LaFeber (2005), Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=3u3ctVjVNPsC), University Press of Kentucky, ISBN 978-0-8131-9122-5,
• Virginia Marie Bouvier (2001), Whose America?: the war of 1898 and the battles to define the nation (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=dwp3AAAAMAAJ), Praeger, ISBN 978-0-275-96794-9,
Beede 1994, p. 148.
Beede 1994, p. 120.
Pérez 1998, p. 89 states: "In the larger view, the Cuban insurrection had already brought the Spanish army to the brink of defeat. During three
years of relentless war, the Cubans had destroyed railroad lines, bridges, and roads and paralyzed telegraph communications, making it all but
impossible for the Spanish army to move across the island and between provinces. [The] Cubans had, moreover, inflicted countless thousands
of casualties on Spanish soldiers and effectively driven Spanish units into beleaguered defensive concentrations in the cities, there to suffer the
further debilitating effects of illness and hunger."
"Military Book Reviews" (http:/ / www. strategypage. com/ articles/ default. asp?target=spaniard/ spaniard. htm). StrategyPage.com. .
Retrieved 2011-03-22.
Dyal 1996, pp. 108–109 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CWaCEfeuQXkC& pg=PA108).
[7] Dyal 1996, pp. 108–109 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CWaCEfeuQXkC& pg=PA108).
[8] George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign relations since 1776 (2008) ch. 8
[9] Baycroft & Hewitson 2006, pp. 225–226 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0RuPcvc2F4YC& pg=PA225)
SpanishAmerican War
[10] Antonio Cánovas del Castillo (November 1882). "Discurso sobre la nación" (http:/ / www. cervantesvirtual. com/ servlet/ SirveObras/
67927392103470562565679/ p0000001. htm) (in Spanish). cervantesvirtual.com. .Baycroft & Hewitson 2006, pp. 225–226 (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=0RuPcvc2F4YC& pg=PA225)
[11] Schmidt-Nowara, The Conquest of History, p.34–42
[12] Gary R. Mormino, "Cuba Libre, Florida, and the Spanish American War," Theodore Roosevelt Association Journal (2010) Vol. 31 Issue 1/2,
pp. 43–54
[13] G. Wayne King, "Conservative Attitudes in the United States toward Cuba (1895–1898)," Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical
Association, (1973) pp. 94–104
[14] George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (2008)
[15] Edward P. Crapol, "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century. American Foreign Relations,"
Diplomatic History 16 (Fall 1992): 573–97; Hugh DeSantis, "The Imperialist Impulse and American Innocence, 1865–1900," in Gerald K.
Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review (1981), pp. 65–90; James A. Field, Jr.,
"American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book," American Historical Review 83 (June 1978): 644–68
[16] Trask 1996, pp. 2–3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC& pg=PA2)
[17] Trask 1996, pp. 2–3 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC& pg=PA2)
[18] Jonathan Krohn, "Review of Tone, John Lawrence, War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898. "H-War, H-Net Reviews." May, 2008. online
(http:/ / www. h-net. org/ reviews/ showrev. php?id=14509)
[19] Jonathan Krohn, "Review of Tone, John Lawrence, War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898. "H-War, H-Net Reviews." May, 2008. online
(http:/ / www. h-net. org/ reviews/ showrev. php?id=14509)
[20] Trask 1996, pp. 8–10 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC& pg=PA8); Carr 1982, pp. 379–388.
[21] James Ford Rhodes (2007), The McKinley and Roosevelt Administrations 1897–1909 (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=em-5IEHHTAUC),
READ BOOKS, pp. 44 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=em–5IEHHTAUC& pg=PA44), ISBN 978-1-4067-3464-5, , citing an annual
message delivered December 6, 1897 from French Ensor Chadwick (1968), The relations of the United States and Spain: diplomacy (http:/ /
books. google. com/ ?id=ozGTAAAAIAAJ), Russell & Russell,
[22] Quoted in Trask 1996, p. 6 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC& pg=PA6)
[23] Octavio Ruiz, "Spain on the Threshold of a New Century: Society and Politics before and after the Disaster of 1898," Mediterranean
Historical Review (June 1998), Vol. 13 Issue 1/2, pp 7–27
[24] Richard L. Kagan, "Prescott's Paradigm: American Historical Scholarship and the Decline of Spain," The American Historical Review 101,
no. 2 (April 1996): 423–46.
[25] Trade with Cuba had dropped by more than two thirds from a high of 100 Million USD. Offner 2004, p. 51.
[26] David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Trade and Investment: American Economic Expansion in the Hemisphere, 1865–1900 (Columbia:
University of Missouri Press, 1998).
[27] Offner 2004, pp. 54–55.
[28] Trask 1996, p. 24 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC& pg=PA24)
[29] Offner 2004, p. 56.
[30] Offner 2004, p. 57. For a minority view that downplays the role of public opinion and asserts that McKinley feared the Cubans would win
their insurgency before the U.S. could intervene, see Louis A. Pérez, "The Meaning of the Maine: Causation and the Historiography of the
Spanish–American War," The Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 58, No. 3 (Aug., 1989), pp. 293–322.
[31] For a summary of all the studies see Louis Fisher, "Destruction of the Maine (1898)" (2009) (http:/ / loc. gov/ law/ help/ usconlaw/ pdf/
Maine. 1898. pdf)
[32] Casualties on USS Maine (http:/ / www. history. navy. mil/ faqs/ faq71-2. htm), Naval Historical Center, Department of the Navy, , retrieved
2007-12-20
[33] Ruiz, Vicki L. 2006. "Nuestra América: Latino History as United States History." Journal of American History P.655
[34] Campbell, W. Joseph (August 2000). "Not likely sent: the Remington-Hearst "telegrams"" (http:/ / academic2. american. edu/ ~wjc/ wjc3/
notlikely. htm). Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly. . Retrieved 2008-09-06.
[35] Smythe 2003, p. 192.
[36] Dyal 1996
[37] http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=1wv5KHk2_dsC& pg=PA210
[38] Offner 1992, pp. 131–35; Michelle Bray Davis and Rollin W. Quimby, "Senator Proctor's Cuban Speech: Speculations on a Cause of the
Spanish–American War," Quarterly Journal of Speech 1969 55(2): 131–141. ISSN 0033-5630.
[39] Trask 1996, p. 57 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC& pg=PA57)
[40] Graham A. Cosmas, An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish–American War (1971) ch. 3–4
[41] Battle of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898 (http:/ / www. history. navy. mil/ faqs/ faq84-1. htm), Department of the Navy – Naval Historical Center.
Retrieved on October 10, 2007
[42] The Battle of Manila Bay by Admiral George Dewey (http:/ / www. wtj. com/ archives/ dewey2. htm), The War Times Journal. Retrieved on
October 10, 2007
[43] James A. Field, Jr. (June 1978), "American Imperialism: the Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book", The American Historical Review
(American Historical Association) 83 (3): 659, doi:10.2307/1861842, JSTOR 1861842
15
SpanishAmerican War
[44] Dewey characterized the German interests as a single import firm; Admiral Otto von Diederichs responded with a list of eleven.Wionzek
2000, p. x.
[45] Seekins, Donald M. (1991), "Historical Setting—Outbreak of War, 1898" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ r?frd/
cstdy:@field(DOCID+ ph0023)), in Dolan, Philippines: A Country Study (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ frd/ cs/ phtoc. html), Washington: Library
of Congress, , retrieved 2007-12-25
[46] Augusto V. de Viana (September 21, 2006), What ifs in Philippine history (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071030050605/ http:/ / www.
manilatimes. net/ national/ 2006/ sept/ 21/ yehey/ top_stories/ 20060921top9. html), Manila Times, archived from the original (http:/ / www.
manilatimes. net/ national/ 2006/ sept/ 21/ yehey/ top_stories/ 20060921top9. html) on October 30, 2007, , retrieved 2007-10-19
^ What ifs in Philippine history, Conclusion (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20071030050610/ http:/ / www. manilatimes. net/ national/ 2006/
sept/ 22/ yehey/ top_stories/ 20060922top9. html), Manila Times, September 22, 2006, archived from the original (http:/ / www. manilatimes.
net/ national/ 2006/ sept/ 22/ yehey/ top_stories/ 20060922top9. html) on October 30, 2007, , retrieved 2007-10-19
[47] Wionzek 2000, p. xvi, citing Hubatsch, Walther, Auslandsflotte und Reichspolitik, Mărwissenschaftliche Rundschau (August 1944), pp.
130–153.
[48] The World of 1898: the Spanish–American War (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/ hispanic/ 1898/ intro. html), U.S. Library of Congress, , retrieved
2007-10-10
[49] Guevara, Sulpico, ed. (2005), "Philippine Declaration of Independence" (http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/ cgi/ t/ text/
pageviewer-idx?c=philamer;cc=philamer;rgn=full text;idno=aab1246. 0001. 001;didno=aab1246. 0001. 001;view=image;seq=00000221), The
laws of the first Philippine Republic (the laws of Malolos) 1898–1899 (http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/ cgi/ t/ text/
text-idx?c=philamer;iel=1;view=toc;idno=aab1246. 0001. 001), Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Library (published 1972),
[50] "Philippine History" (http:/ / pinas. dlsu. edu. ph/ history/ history. html). DLSU-Manila. . Retrieved 2006-08-21.
[51] "Our flag is now waving over Manilia" (http:/ / www. footnote. com/ spotlight/ 6879/ newspaper_article_americans_capture/ ), San
Francisco Chronicle, , retrieved 2008-12-20
[52] Lacsamana 2006, p. 126.
[53] Brune & Burns 2003, p. 290 (http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=Xux-LSxSY6cC& pg=PA290)
[54] Beede 1994, pp. 208–209 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=48g116X9IIwC& pg=PA208); Rogers 1995, pp. 110–112 (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=AEn9J3tXFS8C& pg=PA110)
[55] Beede 1994, pp. 208–209 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=48g116X9IIwC& pg=PA208); Rogers 1995, pp. 110–112 (http:/ / books.
google. com/ books?id=AEn9J3tXFS8C& pg=PA110)
[56] Roosevelt 1899
[57] The Spanish–American War in Cuba : Battle of Las Guasimas (http:/ / spanishamericanwar. info/ cuba. htm#LasGuasimas).
[58] Roosevelt, Theodore, The Rough Riders, Scribner's Magazine, Vol. 25 (January–June), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 572
[59] Roosevelt, Theodore, The Rough Riders, Scribner's Magazine, Vol. 25 (January–June), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 572
[60] The Battles at El Caney and San Juan Hills (http:/ / www. homeofheroes. com/ wallofhonor/ spanish_am/ 10_sanjuan. html) at
HomeOfHeroes.com.
[61] The Crowded Hour: The Charge at El Caney & San Juan Hills (http:/ / www. homeofheroes. com/ wallofhonor/ spanish_am/
11_crowdedhour. html) at HomeOfHeroes.com.
[62] Parker 2003
[63] History of the Gatling Gun Detachment (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 6888), John Henry Parker at Project Gutenberg.
[64] Escario's Column (http:/ / www. spanamwar. com/ escario. htm), Francisco Jose Diaz Diaz.
[65] Daley 2000, pp. 161–71
[66] McCook 1899
[67] Vincent J. Cirillo. 2004. Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish–American War and Military Medicine. (Rutgers University Press).
[68] The American Army Moves on Puerto-Rico (http:/ / www. spanamwar. com/ puertoland2. htm), Retrieved August 2, 2008
[69] Edgardo Pratts (2006) (in Spanish), De Coamo a la Trinchera del Asomante (First ed.), Puerto Rico: Fundación Educativa Idelfonso Pratts,
ISBN 0-9762185-6-9
[70] Protocol of Peace Embodying the Terms of a Basis for the Establishment of Peace Between the Two Countries (http:/ / www. msc. edu. ph/
centennial/ pr980812. html), Washington, D.C., U.S.A., August 12, 1898, , retrieved 2007-10-17
[71] "Treaty of Paris, 1898" (http:/ / avalon. law. yale. edu/ 19th_century/ sp1898. asp). . Retrieved 2009-12-31.
[72] Bethell, John (November–December 1998), "A Splendid Little War"; Harvard and the commencement of a new world order (http:/ /
harvardmagazine. com/ 1998/ 11/ war. html), Harvard magazine, , retrieved 2007-12-11
[73] Millis 1979, p. 340 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=e_QlhpIsrXgC& pg=PA340)
This source provides a more complete quote:
It has been a splendid little war; begun with the highest motives, carried on with magnificent
intelligence and spirit, favored by the fortune which loves the brave. It is now to be concluded, I hope,
with that firm good nature which is after all the distinguishing trait of our American character.
[74] Montoya 2011, p. 78 (http:/ / books. google. com. ph/ books?id=ro77t2oCXhEC& pg=PA78).
[75] Bailey 1961, p. 657
[76] Kaplan, Richard L. 2003. "American Journalism Goes to War, 1898–2001: a manifesto on media and empire."P. 211
16
SpanishAmerican War
[77] Negrón-Muntaner 2004, p. 11 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3bbp-8X0U9YC& printsec=frontcover&
ei=Fo1tSci2FYHmkgTG_sTLBA#PPA11,M1), citing Julio Cervera Baviera (1898), La defensa militar de Puerto Rico, Puerto Rico,
pp. 79–80
[78] Protagonistas de la Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico Parte II – Comandante Julio Cervera Baviera (http:/ / home. coqui. net/
sarrasin/ pers2. htm#anchor134043), 1898 La Guerra Hispano Americana en Puerto Rico, , retrieved 2008-02-06 (an excerpt frem Carreras &
Tafunell 2004)
[79] Albert Carreras & Xavier Tafunell: Historia Económica de la España contemporánea, p. 200–208, ISBN 84-8432-502-4.
[80] Confederate & Federal Veterans of '98: Civil War Veterans who served in the Spanish–American War, Philippine Insurrection, and China
Relief Expedition by Micah J. Jenkins (http:/ / www. geocities. com/ sonsofspanamwar/ CSUSVets. html). Retrieved on October 13, 2007
[81] Gatewood 1975, pp. 23–29; there were some opponents, ibid. p. 30–32.
[82] "VFW at a Glance" (http:/ / www. vfw. org/ resources/ pdf/ glance. pdf) (PDF). VFW. September 2, 2004. . Retrieved 2006-11-04.
[83] Reardon, Marguerite (June 30, 2005). "Senators want to nix 1898 telecom tax" (http:/ / www. news. com/
Senators-want-to-nix-1898-telecom-tax/ 2100-1036_3-5769948. html?tag=st. nl). CNET Networks. . Retrieved 2008-02-15.
[84] Reardon, Marguerite (August 1, 2006). "Telecom tax imposed in 1898 finally ends" (http:/ / www. news. com/ 2100-1037_3-6101004.
html). CNET Networks. . Retrieved 2008-02-15.
[85] The Spanish American War in Motion Picture (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ ammem/ sawhtml/ sawhome. html), U.S. Library of Congress.
[86] Early Motion Pictures, 1897–1920 (http:/ / memory. loc. gov/ cgi-bin/ query/ S?ammem/ papr:@FIELD(COLLID+ spanam)), U.S. Library
of Congress
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• Levy, Jack S.; Thompson, William R. (2010), Causes of War (http://books.google.com/
books?id=6puH_395tUYC), John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 978-1-4051-7559-3
• Millis, Walter (1979), The martial spirit (http://books.google.com/books?id=e_QlhpIsrXgC), Ayer Publishing,
ISBN 978-0-405-11866-1
• Montoya, Arthur (2011), America's Original Sin: Absolution & Penance (http://books.google.com/
books?id=ro77t2oCXhEC), Xlibris Corporation, ISBN 978-1-4628-4434-0
• Negrón-Muntaner, Frances (2004), Boricua Pop: Puerto Ricans and the Latinization of American Culture, NYU
Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-5818-2.
• Offner, John L. (1992), An Unwanted War: the Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898.
• Offner, John L. (2004), "McKinley and the Spanish–American War", Presidential Studies Quarterly 34 (1):
50–61, doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00034.x, ISSN 0360-4918.
• Parker, John H. (2003), The Gatlings at Santiago (http://authorama.com/gatlings-at-santiago-1.html),
Indypublish.com, ISBN 978-1-4043-8137-7
• Pérez, Louis A. (1998), The war of 1898: the United States and Cuba in history and historiography (http://
books.google.com/books?id=OVFV4qclY-YC), UNC Press Books, ISBN 978-0-8078-4742-8
• Rogers, Robert F. (1995), Destiny's Landfall: A History of Guam (http://books.google.com/
?id=AEn9J3tXFS8C) (illustrated ed.), University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-1678-0.
• Roosevelt, Theodore (1899), "I. RAISING THE REGIMENT" (http://bartleby.com/51/1.html), The Rough
Riders (http://bartleby.com/br/51.html), New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
• Smithsonian Institution (2005), The Price of Freedom: Americans at War – Spanish American War, National
Museum of American History (U.S.), ISBN 978-0-9744202-3-3.
• Smythe, Ted Curtis (2003), The Gilded Age press, 1865–1900 (http://books.google.com/
books?id=iIhZAAAAMAAJ), Praeger, ISBN 978-0-313-30080-6.
• Tone, John Lawrence. War and Genocide in Cuba 1895–1898 (2006) online review (http://www.h-net.org/
reviews/showrev.php?id=14509)
• Trask, David F. (1996), The war with Spain in 1898 (http://books.google.com/books?id=2f0Gf0DQfmUC), U
of Nebraska Press, ISBN 978-0-8032-9429-5.
• Tucker, Spencer (2009), The encyclopedia of the Spanish–American and Philippine–American wars: a political,
social, and military history (http://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC), ABC-CLIO,
ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1.
• Wionzek, Karl-Heinz (2000), Germany, the Philippines, and the Spanish–American War: four accounts by
officers of the Imperial German Navy (http://books.google.com/books?id=F-RxAAAAMAAJ), National
Historical Institute.
Further reading
• Bradford, James C. ed., Crucible of Empire: The Spanish–American War and Its Aftermath (1993), essays on
diplomacy, naval and military operations, and historiography.
• Dobson, John M. Reticient Expansionism: The Foreign Policy of William McKinley. (1988).
• Fry, Joseph A. "William McKinley and the Coming of the Spanish–American War: A Study of the Besmirching
and Redemption of an Historical Image," Diplomatic History 3 (Winter 1979): 77–97
• Gould, Lewis. The Spanish–American War and President McKinley (1980) excerpt and text search (http://www.
amazon.com/dp/0700602275)
• Foner, Philip, The Spanish–Cuban–American War and the Birth of American Imperialism, 1895–1902 (1972)
• Hamilton, Richard. President McKinley, War, and Empire (2006).
18
SpanishAmerican War
• Harrington, Fred H. "The Anti-Imperialist Movement in the United States, 1898–1900," Mississippi Valley
Historical Review, Vol. 22, No. 2 (Sep., 1935), pp. 211–230 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1898467)
• Herring, George C. From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 (2008), the latest survey
• Hoganson, Kristin. Fighting For American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish–American and
Philippine–American Wars (1998)
• Holbo, Paul S. (1967), "Presidential Leadership in Foreign Affairs: William McKinley and the Turpie-Foraker
Amendment", The American Historical Review 72 (4): 1321–1335, doi:10.2307/1847795, JSTOR 1847795.
• LaFeber, Walter, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1865–1898 (1963)
• May, Ernest. Imperial Democracy: The Emergence of America as a Great Power (1961)
• McCartney, Paul T. American National Identity, the War of 1898, and the Rise of American Imperialism (2006)
• Maass, Matthias. "When Communication Fails: Spanish–American Crisis Diplomacy 1898," Amerikastudien,
2007, Vol. 52 Issue 4, pp 481–493
• Mellander, Gustavo A.(1971) The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Daville,
Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568.
• Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río
Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1-56328-155-4. OCLC 42970390.
• Richard H. Miller, ed., American Imperialism in 1898: The Quest for National Fulfillment (1970)
• Millis, Walter. The Martial Spirit: A Study of Our War with Spain (1931)
• Morgan, H. Wayne., America's Road to Empire: The War with Spain and Overseas Expansion (1965)
• Paterson. Thomas G. "United States Intervention in Cuba, 1898: Interpretations of the
Spanish–American–Cuban–Filipino War," The History Teacher, Vol. 29, No. 3 (May 1996), pp. 341–361 in
JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/494551)
• Pratt, Julius W. The Expansionists of 1898 (1936)
• Schoonover, Thomas. Uncle Sam's War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization. (2003)
• Tone, John Lawrence. War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898 (2006)
• Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role (1998)
• Cirillo, Vincent J. Bullets and Bacilli: The Spanish–American War and Military Medicine (2004)
• Cosmas, Graham A. An Army for Empire: The United States Army and the Spanish–American War (1971),
organizational issues
• Feuer, A. B. The Spanish–American War at Sea: Naval Action in the Atlantic (1995) online edition (http://www.
questia.com/read/6830920?title=The Spanish-American War at Sea: Naval Action in the Atlantic)
• Freidel, Frank. The Splendid Little War (1958), well illustrated narrative by scholar ISBN 0-7394-2342-8
• Keller, Allan. The Spanish–American War: A Compact History (1969)
• Leeke, Jim. Manila and Santiago: The New Steel Navy in the Spanish–American War (2009)
• Linderman, Gerald F. The Mirror of War: American Society and the Spanish–American War (1974), domestic
aspects
• Smith, Joseph. The Spanish–American War: Conflict in the Caribbean and the Pacific (1994)
• O'Toole, G. J. A. The Spanish War: An American Epic—1898 (1984)
• Stewart, Richard W. "Emergence to World Power 1898–1902" Ch. 15 (http://www.history.army.mil/books/
AMH-V1/ch15.htm), in "American Military History, Volume I: The United States Army and the Forging of a
Nation, 1775–1917" (http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH-V1/), Center of Military History, United
States Army. (2004), official U.S. Army textbook
• Barnes, Mar. The Spanish–American War and Philippine Insurrection, 1898–1902: An Annotated Bibliography
(Routledge Research Guides to American Military Studies) (2010)
• Corbitt, Duvon C. "Cuban Revisionist Interpretations of Cuba's Struggle for Independence," Hispanic American
Historical Review 32 (August 1963): 395–404. in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2510074)
19
SpanishAmerican War
• Crapol, Edward P. "Coming to Terms with Empire: The Historiography of Late-Nineteenth-Century American
Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History 16 (Fall 1992): 573–97;
• DeSantis, Hugh. "The Imperialist Impulse and American Innocence, 1865–1900," in Gerald K. Haines and J.
Samuel Walker, eds., American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review (1981), pp. 65–90
• Field, Jr., James A. "American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book," American Historical
Review 83 (June 1978): 644–68, past of the "AHR Forum," with responses in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/
stable/1861842)
• Fry, Joseph A. "William McKinley and the Coming of the Spanish American War: A Study of the Besmirching
and Redemption of an Historical Image," Diplomatic History 3 (Winter 1979): 77–97
• Fry, Joseph A. "From Open Door to World Systems: Economic Interpretations of Late-Nineteenth-Century
American Foreign Relations," Pacific Historical Review 65 (May 1996): 277–303
• Paterson, Thomas G. "United States Intervention in Cuba, 1898: Interpretations of the
Spanish–American–Cuban–Filipino War," History Teacher 29 (May 1996): 341–61
• Pérez, Jr. Louis A. (1989), "The Meaning of the Maine: Causation and the Historiography of the
Spanish–American War", The Pacific Historical Review 58 (3): 293–322.
• Pérez Jr. Louis A. The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography University of
North Carolina Press, 1998
• Smith, Ephraim K. "William McKinley's Enduring Legacy: The Historiographical Debate on the Taking of the
Philippine Islands," in James C. Bradford, ed., Crucible of Empire: The Spanish–American War and Its Aftermath
(1993), pp. 205–49
• Funston, Frederick. Memoirs of Two Wars, Cuba and Philippine Experiences. New York: Charles Schribner's
Sons, 1911 online edition (http://books.google.com/books?id=rK4-AAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor:funston&lr=&
as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=0)
• U.S. War Dept. Military Notes on Cuba. 2 vols. Washington, DC: GPO, 1898. online edition (http://books.
google.com/books?id=S8V1mebWwUwC&dq=intitle:Military+intitle:Notes+intitle:on+intitle:Cuba&lr=&
as_drrb_is=q&as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=0)
• Wheeler, Joseph. The Santiago Campaign, 1898. (1898). online edition (http://books.google.com/
books?id=V_kLAAAAIAAJ&dq=intitle:Santiago+intitle:Campaign+intitle:1898&lr=&as_drrb_is=q&
as_minm_is=0&as_miny_is=&as_maxm_is=0&as_maxy_is=&as_brr=0)
• Cull, N. J., Culbert, D., Welch, D. Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the
Present. "Spanish–American War". (2003). 378–379.
• Daley, L. (2000), "Canosa in the Cuba of 1898", in Aguirre, B. E.; Espina, E., Los últimos días del comienzo:
Ensayos sobre la guerra, Santiago de Chile: RiL Editores, ISBN 956-284-115-4
• McCook, Henry Christopher (1899), The Martial Graves of Our Fallen Heroes in Santiago de Cuba, G. W.
Jacobs & Co.
• Muller y Tejeiro, Jose. Combates y Capitulacion de Santiago de Cuba. Marques, Madrid:1898. 208 p. English
translation by U.S. Navy Dept.
• Dirks, Tim. "War and Anti-War Films" (http://www.filmsite.org/warfilms.html). The Greatest Films.
Retrieved November 9, 2005.
• Adjutant General's Office Statistical Exhibit of Strength of Volunteer Forces Called Into Service During the War
With Spain; with Losses From All Causes. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1899.
• Harrington, Peter, and Frederic A. Sharf. "A Splendid Little War." The Spanish–American War, 1898. The
Artists' Perspective. London: Greenhill, 1998.
20
SpanishAmerican War
External links
• The Spanish American War lesson from EDSITEment (http://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plan/
spanish-american-war)
• America's Black Patriots – Spanish American War (http://www.forloveofliberty.net/wars/
spanish-american-war)
• Spanish–American War Centennial (http://www.spanamwar.com/)
• Points of Confusion over the Cuba Question and Cuba Sovereignty (http://www.taiwanadvice.com/csovtrust.
htm)
• Individual state's contributions to the Spanish–American War: Illinois (http://www.sos.state.il.us/
departments/archives/spanam.html), Pennsylvania (http://www.paspanishamericanwar.com/)
• Sons of Spanish American War Veterans (http://www.ssawv.org/)
• From 'Dagoes' to 'Nervy Spaniards,' American Soldiers' Views of their Opponents, 1898 (http://www.
strategypage.com/articles/default.asp?target=spaniard/spaniard.htm) by Albert Nofi
• Excerpts (http://americanhistory.si.edu/militaryhistory/printable/section.asp?id=7) from The National
Museum of American history (http://americanhistory.si.edu/).
• Reenactment of Spanish–American War (video) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mBfh7lop880)
Media
• William Glackens prints at the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/trm121.html)
• Images of Florida and the War for Cuban Independence, 1898 (http://web.archive.org/web/20100501183342/
http://philippine-revolution.110mb.com/spanish-occupation_detailed.htm) from the state archives of Florida
(archived from the original (http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/PhotoAlbum/s-a_war.cfm) on
2010-05-01)
• Pictures of the Army Nurse Corps in the war (http://www.history.army.mil/documents/spanam/WS-ANC.
htm)
• Art and images from the War with Spain (http://www.history.army.mil/documents/spanam/ws-art.htm) at
the United States Army Center of Military History
• Spanish–American War photographic collections (http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/browse/
keyword/"Spanish-American+war"), via Calisphere, California Digital Library
• The Spanish–American War in Motion Pictures—U.S. Library of Congress (http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/
sawhtml/sawhome.html)
• Wehman Collection of Spanish–American War Photographs (http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?w6) at the University
of South Florida (http://lib.usf.edu)
• Ensminger Brothers Spanish–American War Photographs (http://digital.lib.usf.edu/?e6) at the University of
South Florida (http://lib.usf.edu)
Reference materials
• Joint Resolution Resolution of Congress April 19, 1898, point 4 is the Teller amendment (http://
chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85054468/1898-04-19/ed-1/seq-1/)
• Operations of the U.S. Signal Corps Cutting and Diverting Undersea Telegraph Cables from Cuba (http://
atlantic-cable.com/Cables/1888Santiago-Guantanamo/index.htm)
• Library of Congress Guide to the Spanish–American War (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/spanishwar/)
• Emergence to World Power, 1898–1902 (http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH/AMH-15.htm) (an
extract from Matloff's American Military History a publication of the United States Army Center of Military
History)
• Buffalo Soldiers at San Juan Hill (http://www.history.army.mil/documents/spanam/BSSJH/BS-SJH.htm)
21
SpanishAmerican War
• Impact on the Spanish Army (http://www.history.army.mil/documents/spanam/WS-SpARmy.htm) by
Charles Hendricks
• Black Jack in Cuba (http://www.history.army.mil/documents/spanam/WS-Prshg.htm) – General John J.
Pershing’s service in the Spanish–American War, by Kevin Hymel
• The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War – Library of Congress Hispanic Division (http://www.loc.
gov/rr/hispanic/1898/index.html)
• Centennial of the Spanish–American War 1898–1998 (http://www.zpub.com/cpp/saw.html) by Lincoln
Cushing
• History of Negro soldiers in the Spanish–American War, and other items of interest (http://texashistory.unt.
edu/permalink/meta-pth-14388), by Edward Augustus Johnston, published 1899, hosted by the Portal to Texas
History. (http://texashistory.unt.edu/)
• The War of 98 (The Spanish–American War) (http://forum.stirpes.net/modern-contemporary-history/
2576-memoriam-heroes-cuba-phillipines.html) The Spanish–American War from a Spanish perspective (in
English).
• Name Index to New York in the Spanish–American War 1898 (http://www.dmna.state.ny.us/historic/reghist/
spanAm/spanAm_indexToNY.htm)
• 1898: El Ocaso de un Imperio (http://www.kbismarck.com/1898.html) Article in Spanish about naval
operations during the Spanish–American war.
• Spanish–American War Service Summary Cards (http://content.sos.state.ga.us/cdm4/swc.php) from the
Georgia Archives (http://www.sos.ga.gov/archives/).
Newspapers
• Spain to Use Privateers; An Official Decree Declares that She is Determined to Reserve This Right (http://www.
nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/big/0424.html#article) (Headline, NY Times, April 24, 1898)
22
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Spanish–American War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=518749894 Contributors: $1LENCE D00600D, $antander, (aeropagitica), .s, 0x0077BE, 1234r00t,
193.133.134.xxx, 21655, 23prootie, 2bad2, 4shizzal, 5 albert square, 63.205.166.xxx, 7, 75for76, 9-11 suicide bomber, 9258fahsflkh917fas, ABF, ACSE, ARC1964, Aarktica, Aaronpinto,
Aatomic1, Abce2, Abeg92, Abrech, Acad Ronin, Acalamari, Acalanes8900, Ace of Spades, Acepectif, Acroterion, Adam sk, Adambro, Adashiel, Addshore, Adjwilley, Adolphus79, Aellingboe,
AgentPeppermint, Ahoerstemeier, Aion, Ajdizzle62, Ajraddatz, Akadruid, Akuyume, Al-Nofi, Alansohn, Alarbus, Albrecht, AlchemystNF128, Alcuin, Aldaron, Aldis90, Alessandro.badella,
AlexPlank, Alexandria, Alexf, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alfion, Allen3, Allstarecho, Alonso de Mendoza, AlphaEta, Alphachimp, Altenmann, Ammaalay, Ams80, Anbu121, Andonic, Andre
Engels, Andrewrp, Andromeda54, Andy M. Wang, Andy120290, Anetode, Anotherclown, Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Antioch, Apicton12, Apparition11, Arcadia616, Archie Gar, Ardfern,
Arjun01, Art LaPella, Arthena, Aruton, Ashenai, Ashwinr, AtheistAmerican, Atif.t2, Atomician, Auric, AustralianRupert, Avenged Eightfold, Avoided, Awesomebitch, Awesomeperson89,
Awod, AxelBoldt, Az81964444, BD2412, BES89, Bahamut0013, Balcer, Bammerjammer, Barfly2001, Barret1216, Barryob, Bart133, Bautcher, Bayerischermann, BazookaJoe, Bbartlog,
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File:La fallera de l'oncle Sam.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:La_fallera_de_l'oncle_Sam.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Capsot
File:USSMaine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:USSMaine.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Killiondude, Makthorpe, Mschlindwein, 2 anonymous edits
File:Charles A Wikoff.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charles_A_Wikoff.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ejosse1
File:Pacifico-98.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pacifico-98.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Neoliquid
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Contributors: USS_Olympia_art_NH_91881-KN.jpg: unknown derivative work: Bellhalla (talk)
File:Cristobal-colon h63229.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cristobal-colon_h63229.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Antramir, D.W., Pibwl, Rcbutcher,
Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, Takashi kurita, VanKleinen, 1 anonymous edits
File:San Juan Hill by Kurz and Allison.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Juan_Hill_by_Kurz_and_Allison.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors:
Albrecht, D Monack, 2 anonymous edits
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Santiago campaign 1898.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Santiago_campaign_1898.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Frank Martini. Cartographer.
File:Spanish defenders of Guayama.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spanish_defenders_of_Guayama.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Marine 69-71, 1
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File:TR On Horseback Back From Cuba 1898.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:TR_On_Horseback_Back_From_Cuba_1898.jpg License: Public Domain
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File:Puck cover2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Puck_cover2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ehrhart, S. D. (Samuel D.), ca. 1862-ca. 1920, artist. (from
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File:BuffaloSoldiers-SpanAmWar.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BuffaloSoldiers-SpanAmWar.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was
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