Download Long-Term Memory - Wando High School

Unit 7A:
Cognition: Memory
Introduction
• Memory: the persistence of learning
over time through the storage and
retrieval of information.
The 7 Dwarfs…
• Difficulty of the task?
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
• Organization of memory by
sound, letter and meaning
• Recall vs. Recognition
The 7 Dwarfs…
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Grouchy
Gabby
Fearful
Sleepy
Smiley
Jumpy
Hopeful
Shy
Droopy
Dopey
Nifty
Happy
Stubby
Crazy
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Sniffy
Wishful
Puffy
Dumpy
Sneezy
Lazy
Pop
Grumpy
Bashful
Cheerful
Teach
Shorty
Doc
Wheezy
I. Information Processing
Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model
A. Encoding: the processing of getting
information into the memory systems
– for example, by extracting meaning
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Processing: 3 types
1. Parallel processing:
– Processing many aspects of a
problem simultaneously
– brain’s natural mode of
information
– Contrasts with the step-by-step
(serial) processing of most
computers and of conscious
problem solving.
2. Automatic processing:
– unconscious encoding of
incidental information
– such as
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Space
Time
Frequency
Well-learned information
3. Effortful Processing:
• encoding that
requires attention
and conscious effort
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
• Rehearsal: the conscious
repetition of information
–maintain it in
consciousness
–encode it for storage.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
• German philosopher
• early memory studies with
nonsense syllables
• Developed “forgetting curve”
– “retention curve”
– “Ebbinghaus curve”
– Amount remembered depends
on the time spent.
Ebbinghaus curve
•JIH, BAZ, FUB,
YOZ, SUJ, XIR,
DAX, LEQ, VUM,
PID, KEL, WAV,
TUV, SOF, GEK,
HIW, JEP, RUX
• Overlearning:
–Continuing to rehearse
after already learned
–Rehearsing past the point
of mastery
–Information will be
available even under
stress
• Spacing effect:
– the tendency for
distributed study or
practice to yield better
long-term retention than is
achieved through massed
study or practice.
• Testing effect: repeated quizzing of
previously studied materials is more
beneficial to memory than restudying
the information over and over.
Serial Position Effect
– Our tendency to recall
the last and first items in
a list better than other
items.
–Recency effect
• Recall quickly and
well b/c recent
–Primacy effect
• Recall b/c it was
first
• Mnemonics
–memory aids
–vivid imagery
–organizational devices
• Peg-word system: Grocery list activity
• First-letter technique: ROY G. BIV
• Substitution technique: 843-TOO-FINE
Organizing Information for Encoding
• Chunking
–organizing items
into familiar,
manageable
units
–often occurs
automatically
–Examples?
Encoding: Getting Information In
What We Encode
FINISHED FILES ARE THE
RESULTS OF YEARS OF
SCIENTIFIC STUDY COMBINED
WITH THE EXPERIENCE OF
YEARS
Levels of Processing
–Visual encoding:
• picture images
–Acoustic encoding:
• sounds, words
–Semantic encoding:
• meaning, words
Encoding: Getting Information In
What We Encode
CHAIR
brain
gun
Visual Encoding
• Imagery
– mental pictures
– powerful aid to
effortful processing
– Grocery List
**Typewriter, void,
cigarette, inherent,
fire, process example
Chunking
Chunking
Chunking
Chunking
Chunking
Chunking
Storage: Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
Sperling’s memory experiment
Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model
B. Storage: the retention of
encoded information over time.
One modern model: Connectionism
Modified version of the three-stage processing model
of memory
• Sensory memory:
–the immediate, very
brief recording of
sensory information in
the memory system.
–Working memory:
• a newer understanding of
short-term memory that
focuses on
–Conscious
–active processing of incoming
auditory and visual-spatial
information
–information retrieved from
long-term memory.
Connectionism
• Short-term memory:
–activated memory that
holds a few items briefly
–Encode via rehearsal
–such as the seven digits
of a phone number
while dialing before the
information is stored or
forgotten.
Connectionism
• Long-term memory
–relatively permanent
and limitless
storehouse of the
memory system.
–Includes knowledge,
skills, and
experiences.
Modified Three-stage Processing
Model of Memory
Storage: Retaining Information
Storing Memories in the Brain
Storage: Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
• Iconic memory
– a momentary sensory
memory of visual
stimuli
– a photographic
picture-image memory
– few tenths of a second
Storage: Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
• Echoic memory
– a momentary sensory
memory of auditory
stimuli
– if attention is
elsewhere, sounds
and words can still be
recalled within 3 or 4
seconds
Storage: Retaining Information
Working/Short-Term Memory
• Magic number Seven
– Plus or minus 2
• The list of magic sevens
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Seven wonders of world
Seven seas
Seven deadly sins
Seven rainbow colors
Seven musical scale notes
Seven days of the week
Storage: Retaining Information
Long-Term Memory
• Unlimited nature of long-term memory
Synaptic Changes
• Long-term potentiation LTP:
• an increase in a
synapse’s firing
potential after brief,
rapid stimulation
• Believed to be a neural
basis for learning and
memory
Stress Hormones and Memory
• Emotions and memories
• Flashbulb memory
– clear memory of an emotionally significant
moment or event.
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
• Implicit memory:
– retention independent of
conscious recollection.
– Nondeclarative/Procedural
memory (motor skills, bike
riding, playing instrument)
• Explicit memory
– Facts & experiences that
one can consciously know
and “declare.”
– Declarative memory
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories
• Hippocampus
– Neural center located in
the limbic system
– Explicit memories
– Names, images, events
• Cerebellum
– Brain region extending
from rear of brainstem
– Implicit memories
– Created by Classical
Conditioning
The study of H.M.
• Amnesia:
– loss of memory
• http://thebrainobservatory.
ucsd.edu/content/videoscientia-nova-memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin Three-Stage Model
C. Retrieval: the process of getting
information out of memory storage.
• Recall
– retrieve information
learned earlier
– fill-in-the-blank test
• Recognition
– identify items
previously learned
– multiple-choice test
• Relearning
– assesses the amount
of time saved when
learning material for a
2nd time
Retrieval Cues
• Mnemonic
devices
• Priming
– the activation,
often
unconsciously, of
particular
associations in
memory.
Context Effects
• Déjà vu
– Eerie sense that
“I’ve experienced
this before”
– Cues from current
situation may
subconsciously
trigger retrieval of
earlier experience
Moods and Memories
• State dependent memory
– More easily recalled when
we are in that same state
– Study drunk or sober
• Mood congruent memory
– recall experiences that are
consistent with current
good or bad mood
II. Forgetting
Schacter’s sevens sins of memory
• Sins of Forgetting
1. Absent-mindedness:
Inattention to detail
leads to encoding
failure
2. Transience: storage
decay over time
3. Blocking: inaccessibility
of stored information
• Sins of Distortion
4. Misattribution:
confusing the source
of information
5. Suggestibility: the
lingering effects of
misinformation
6. Bias: belief-colored
recollections
• Sin of Intrusion
7. Persistence:
unwanted memories
Encoding Failure
Encoding Failure
Encoding Failure
Retrieval Failure
Interference
• Proactive interference (forward acting)
–the disruptive effect of prior learning on
the recall of new information.
Interference
• Retroactive interference (backward-acting)
– the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of
old information.
Retrieval Failure
Interference
Retrieval Failure
Motivated Forgetting
• Self-serving
personal histories
• Repression
– in psychoanalytic theory,
the basic defense
mechanism
– Protects our self-concept
and minimizes anxiety
III. Memory Construction
Misinformation and Imagination Effects
(False Memories)
• Loftus memory studies
–Misinformation effect: incorporating
misleading information into one’s memory of
an event.
Source Amnesia
• Retain the memory of
an event but not of the
context in which we
acquired it.
• Experienced, heard
about, read about, or
imagined
• Source misattribution
• Source amnesia,
along with the
misinformation effect,
is at the heart of many
false memories.
Improving Memory
Improving Memory Techniques
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Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it
and to help determine what you do not yet know
The End