Download 10 The Byzantine Empire and Russia 330–1613

Chapter
The
Byzantine
Empire
and
Russia
10 330–1613
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1 The Byzantine Empire
2 The Rise of Russia
3 Shaping Eastern Europe
Chapter Review and Assessment
Major Religions in Eastern Europe About 1300
Several religious traditions—including Roman Catholic Christianity, Orthodox Christianity, and Islam—reflect the
diversity of Eastern Europe and interaction with its neighbors.
CHAPTER EVENTS
GLOBAL EVENTS
SECTION
1
Reading Focus
How did Justinian
extend Byzantine
power?
What were the key
elements of Byzantine
Christianity?
Why did the Byzantine
empire collapse?
What was the heritage
of the Byzantine
empire?
The Byzantine Empire
Vocabulary
autocrat
patriarch
icon
Taking Notes
As you read this section, create an
outline of the main ideas. Use Roman
numerals to indicate the major headings
of the section, capital letters for the
subheadings, and numbers for the
supporting details. Print out the sample to
help get you started.
The emperor Justinian expanded the Byzantine empire, erected grand
buildings, and established a code of laws.
Setting the Scene
The bazaars of Constantinople awed visitors. Benjamin of Tudela, a Jewish
traveler from Spain, saw merchants there from the Middle East, Egypt, and
Eastern Europe. “The city's daily income,” he noted, “what with rent from
shops and markets and taxes levied on merchants coming by sea and by
land, reaches 20,000 gold pieces.” As the cities of the western Roman
empire crumbled, Constantinople prospered. With its high walls and
golden domes, it stood as the proud capital of the Byzantine empire.
The Growth of Byzantine Power
You will recall that, as German invaders pounded the Roman
empire in the west, emperors shifted their base to the eastern
Mediterranean. The emperor Constantine rebuilt the Greek city
of Byzantium and gave it the name Constantinople. In 330, he
made Constantinople the new capital of the empire. From this
“New Rome,” roads fanned out to the Balkans, to the Middle
East, and to North Africa. In time, the eastern Roman empire
became known as the Byzantine empire.
The vital center of the empire was
Constantinople. The city was located on the shores of the
Bosporus, a strait that linked the Mediterranean and Black
seas. Constantinople had an excellent harbor and was guarded
on three sides by water. Later emperors built an elaborate
system of land and sea walls to bolster its defenses. Equally
important, Constantinople commanded key trade routes
linking Europe and Asia. For centuries, the city's favorable
location made it Europe's busiest marketplace. There,
merchants sold silks from China, wheat from Egypt, gems
from India, spices from Southeast Asia, and furs from Viking
lands in the north.
Constantinople
At the center of the city, Byzantine emperors and empresses
lived in glittering splendor. Dressed in luxurious silk, they
attended chariot races at the Hippodrome, an arena built in the
200s. Crowds cheered wildly as rival charioteers careened
their vehicles around and around. The spectacle was another
reminder of the city's glorious Roman heritage.
A Blending of Cultures After rising to spectacular heights, the
Byzantine empire eventually declined to a small area around
Constantinople itself. Yet it was still in existence nearly 1,000
years after the fall of the western Roman empire. As the heir to
Rome, it promoted a brilliant civilization that blended ancient
Greek, Roman, and Christian influences with other traditions
of the Mediterranean world.
The Quest for Silk
It is nearly impossible for us
today to imagine how rare
and costly silk was in the
Byzantine empire. Wars
made the supply unreliable.
Persia, which controlled the
silk trade with China, levied
high taxes that made silk
outrageously expensive.
The Byzantine emperor
Justinian wanted a reliable
supply of silk at a reasonable
price. He tried to set up other
trade routes, but with little
success. In the end,
smugglers changed the
picture. According to one
legend, monks sneaked
silkworm eggs out of China in
their walking sticks. Although
the details are unclear, the
results are not. By the 700s,
state-owned silk factories in
the Byzantine empire fed a
growing and profitable silk
industry.
Theme: Economics and
TechnologyWhy did the
Persians want to keep
control over the silk trade
with China?
The Age of Justinian
The Byzantine empire reached its greatest size under the emperor Justinian, who ruled from
527 to 565. Justinian was determined to revive ancient Rome by recovering the provinces that
had been overrun by invaders. Led by the brilliant general Belisarius, Byzantine armies
reconquered North Africa, Italy, and southern Spain. The fighting exhausted Justinian's
treasury and weakened his defenses in the east. In the end, the victories were temporary.
Justinian's successors lost the bitterly contested lands.
Justinian left a more lasting monument in his buildings. To restore Roman glory,
he launched a program to beautify Constantinople. His great triumph was the church of Hagia
Sophia (“Holy Wisdom”). Its immense, arching dome improved on earlier Roman buildings.
The interior glowed with colored marble and embroidered silk curtains. Seeing this church,
the emperor recalled King Solomon's temple in Jerusalem. “Glory to God who has judged me
worthy of accomplishing such a work as this!” Justinian exclaimed. “O Solomon, I have
surpassed you!”
Hagia Sophia
Inside the Church of Hagia Sophia, dazzling mosaics adorn the walls. This mosaic shows
Christ Pantocrator, center, flanked by Emperor Constantine IX Monamachus and the
Empress Zoë.
Code of Laws Justinian is best remembered for his reform of the law. Early in his reign, he set
up a commission to collect, revise, and organize all the laws of ancient Rome. The result was
the Corpus Juris Civilis, or “Body of Civil Law,” popularly known as Justinian's Code. This
massive collection included laws passed by Roman assemblies or decreed by Roman
emperors, as well as the legal writings of Roman judges and a handbook for students.
Justinian's Code had an impact far beyond the Byzantine empire. By the 1100s, it had reached
Western Europe. There, both the Roman Catholic Church and medieval monarchs modeled
their laws on its principles. Centuries later, the code also guided legal thinkers who began to
put together the international law in use today.
Absolute Power
Justinian used the law to unite the empire under his control. He ruled as an
autocrat, or sole ruler with complete authority. The emperor also had power over the Church.
He was deemed Christ's co-ruler on Earth. As a Byzantine official wrote, “The emperor is
equal to all men in the nature of his body, but in the authority of his rank he is similar to God,
who rules all.” Unlike feudal monarchs in Western Europe, he combined both political power
and spiritual authority. His control was aided by his wife, Theodora. A shrewd politician, she
served as adviser and co-ruler to Justinian and even pursued her own policies.
Changing Fortunes In the centuries after Justinian, the fortunes of the empire rose and fell.
Attacks by Persians, Slavs, Vikings, Mongols, and Turks were largely unsuccessful. The
empire thus served as a buffer for Western Europe. Beginning in the 600s and 700s, however,
Theodora
500–548
From humble beginnings as
the daughter of a
bearkeeper, Theodora rose
to become Justinian's
adviser and co-ruler. A
shrewd, tough, and
sometimes ruthless politician,
Theodora did not hesitate to
challenge the emperor and
pursue her own policies.
Her most dramatic act came
during a revolt in 532.
Arab armies gained control of much of the Mediterranean world. Constantinople itself
withstood their attack, and the Byzantines held onto their heartland in the Balkans and Asia
Minor. The empire's greatest strengths came from a strong central government and a
prosperous economy.
Peasants formed the backbone of the empire, working the land, paying taxes, and providing
soldiers for the military. In the cities of the empire, trade and industry flourished. While
Western Europe was reduced to a barter economy, the Byzantine empire preserved a healthy
money economy. The bezant, the Byzantine gold coin stamped with the emperor's image,
circulated from England to China.
“Emperor, if you wish to flee,
well and good, you have the
money, the ships are ready,
the sea is clear,” calmly
spoke Theodora. “But I shall
stay,” she concluded. “I
accept the ancient proverb:
Royal purple is the best
burial sheet.” Theodora's
courageous words inspired
Justinian to remain in
Constantinople and crush the
revolt that threatened his
power.
Theme: Impact of the
IndividualHow did Theodora
affect the outcome of the
revolt?
Byzantine Christianity
Christianity was as influential in the Byzantine empire as it was
in Western Europe. But religious divisions grew between the
two regions.
Since early Christian times,
differences had emerged over Church leadership. Although the
Byzantine emperor was not a priest, he controlled Church
affairs and appointed the patriarch, or highest Church official,
in Constantinople. Byzantine Christians rejected the pope's
claim to authority over all Christians.
Differences East and West
Further differences developed. Unlike priests in Western
Europe, the Byzantine clergy kept their right to marry. Greek,
not Latin, was the language of the Byzantine Church. The chief
Byzantine holy day was Easter, celebrated as the day Jesus rose
from the dead. In contrast, western Christians placed greater
emphasis on Christmas, the birthday of Jesus.
Schism During the Middle Ages, the two branches of
Christianity drew farther apart. A dispute over the use of icons,
or holy images, contributed to the split. Many Byzantine
Christians prayed to images of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the
saints. In the 700s, however, a Byzantine emperor outlawed the
veneration of icons, saying it violated God's commandment
against worshiping “graven images.”
The ban set off violent battles within the empire. From the west,
the pope took a hand in the dispute, excommunicating the
emperor. Although a later empress eventually restored the use
of icons, the conflict left great resentment against the pope.
In 1054, other controversies provoked a schism, or permanent
split, between the Byzantine, or Eastern (Greek) Orthodox, and
the Roman Catholic churches. The pope and the patriarch
excommunicated each other. Thereafter, contacts between the
two churches were guarded and distant. They treated each other
as rivals rather than as branches of the same faith.
Crisis and Collapse
By the time of the schism, the Byzantine empire was declining.
Struggles over succession, court intrigues, and constant wars
undermined its strength. As in Western Europe, powerful local
To see other examples
of Orthodox Christian
icons, visit
www.phschool.com.
lords gained control of large areas. As the empire faltered, its
enemies advanced. The Normans conquered southern Italy. Even
more serious, the Seljuk Turks advanced across Asia Minor. A
nomadic people out of central Asia, the Seljuks had converted to
Islam in their migrations westward.
In the 1090s, the Byzantine emperor called for
western help to fight the Seljuks, who had closed the pilgrimage
routes to Jerusalem. The result was the First Crusade. During
later crusades, however, trade rivalry sparked violence between
the Byzantine empire and Venice. Venetian merchants persuaded
knights on the Fourth Crusade to attack Constantinople in 1204.
For three days, crusaders burned and plundered the city, sending
much treasure westward. Western Christians ruled
Constantinople for 50 years. Although a Byzantine emperor
reclaimed the capital in the 1260s, the empire never recovered.
Venetian merchants gained control of Byzantine trade, draining
the wealth of the empire. More threatening, the Ottoman Turks
overran most of Asia Minor and the Balkans.
The Crusades
In 1453, Ottoman forces surrounded the city
of Constantinople. After a siege lasting two months, they
stormed the broken walls. When the last Byzantine emperor was
offered safe passage, he replied, “God forbid that I should live an
emperor without an empire.” He chose instead to die fighting.
Constantinople Falls
Forces led by Ottoman ruler Muhammad II entered the city in
triumph. The ancient Christian city was renamed Istanbul and
became the capital of the Ottoman empire. Hagia Sophia was
turned into an Islamic house of worship, and Istanbul soon
emerged as a great center of Muslim culture.
The Byzantine Heritage
Although Byzantine power had faded long before, the fall of
Constantinople marked the end of an era. To Europeans, the
empire had stood for centuries as the enduring symbol of Roman
civilization. Throughout the Middle Ages, Byzantine influence
radiated across Europe. Even the Ottoman conquerors adapted
features of Byzantine government, social life, and architecture.
What was the Byzantine heritage? For 1,000 years, the Byzantines
built on the culture of the Hellenistic world. Byzantine civilization
blended Christian religious beliefs with Greek science,
philosophy, arts, and literature. The Byzantines also extended
Roman achievements in engineering and law.
Byzantine artists made unique contributions, especially
in religious art and architecture, that influenced western styles
from the Middle Ages to the present. Icons, designed to evoke the
presence of God, gave viewers a sense of personal contact with the
sacred. Mosaics brought scenes from the Bible to glowing life. In
architecture, Byzantine palaces and churches blended Greek,
Roman, Persian, and other Middle Eastern styles.
The Arts
Byzantine scholars preserved the classic
works of ancient Greece. In addition, they produced their own
great books, especially in the field of history.
The World of Learning
Like the Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides, Byzantine
historians were mostly concerned with writing about their own
times. Procopius, an adviser to the general Belisarius, chronicled
the Byzantine campaign against Persia. In his Secret History,
Procopius savagely criticized Justinian and Theodora. He called
the emperor “both an evil-doer and easily led into evil … never of
his own accord speaking the truth.” Anna Comnena is considered
by many scholars to be the western world's first important female
historian. In the Alexiad, she analyzed the reign of her father,
Emperor Alexius I. Comnena's book portrayed Latin crusaders as
greedy barbarians.
As the empire tottered in the 1400s, many Greek scholars left
Constantinople to teach at Italian universities. They took valuable
Greek manuscripts to the West, along with their knowledge of
Greek and Byzantine culture. The work of these scholars
contributed to the European cultural flowering that became known
as the Renaissance.
SECTION
2
Reading Focus
How did geography
help shape early
Russia and the growth
of Kiev?
The Rise of Russia
Vocabulary
steppe
boyar
czar
Taking Notes
Create a timeline that shows events in the rise
of Russia between the 700s and 1613. Print out
the sample to help get you started.
How did the Mongol
conquest affect
Russia?
Why did Moscow
emerge as the chief
power in Russia?
In its early years, Russia was influenced by the Slavs, Vikings,
Byzantines, and Mongols.
Setting the Scene
In Russia, a patriotic monk saw a special meaning in the fall of
Constantinople. Moscow, he declared, was a “third Rome,” the successor
to the Roman and Byzantine empires:
“The third Rome … shines like the sun … throughout the whole
universe…. Two Romes have fallen, and the third one stands,
and a fourth one there shall not be.”
—Philotheos, quoted in Tsar and People (Cherniavsky)
Moscow had reason to claim itself heir to the Byzantine empire. Over
many centuries, Byzantine culture greatly influenced the development of
Russian society.
The Geography of Russia
Russia lies on the vast Eurasian plain that reaches from Europe to the
borders of China. Although mapmakers use the Ural Mountains to
mark the boundary between Europe and Asia, these ancient
mountains were long ago worn away to wooded hills. They posed no
obstacle to migration.
Three broad zones with different climates and resources helped
shape early Russian life. The northern forests supplied lumber for
building and fuel. Fur-bearing animals attracted hunters, but poor
soil and a cold, snowy climate hindered farming. Farther south, a
band of fertile land attracted early farmers. This region—today the
country of Ukraine—was home to Russia's first civilization.
A third region, the southern steppe, is an open, treeless grassland. It
offered splendid pasture for the herds and horses of nomadic
peoples. With no natural barriers, the steppe was a great highway,
along which streams of nomads migrated from Asia into Europe.
Russia's network of rivers provided transportation for both people
and goods. The Dnieper (nee puhr) and Volga rivers became
productive trade routes. Major rivers ran from north to south, linking
the Russians early on to the advanced Byzantine world in the south.
Growth of Kiev
During Roman times, the Slavs expanded into southern Russia. Like
the Germanic peoples who pushed into Western Europe, the Slavs had
a simple political organization and were organized into clans. They
lived in small villages, farmed, and traded along the rivers that ran
between the Baltic and the Black seas.
In the 700s and 800s, the Vikings steered their long
ships out of Scandinavia. These expert sailors were as much at home
on Russian rivers as on the stormy Atlantic. The Vikings, called
Varangians by later Russians, worked their way south along the
rivers, trading with and collecting tribute from the Slavs. They also
conducted a thriving trade with Constantinople.
The Varangians
Located at the heart of this vital trade network was the city of Kiev. In
time, it would become the center of the first Russian state. Within a
few generations, the Varangians who had settled among the Slavs
were absorbed into the local culture. Viking names like Helga and
Waldemar became the Slavic names Olga and Vladimir.
Early on, trade had brought Kiev into the
Byzantine orbit. Constantinople later sent Christian missionaries to
convert the Slavs. About 863, two Greek monks, Cyril and
Methodius, adapted the Greek alphabet so they could translate the
Bible into Slavic languages. This Cyrillic (suh rihl ihk) alphabet
became the written script used in Russia and Ukraine to the present.
Byzantine Influences
In 957, Princess Olga of Kiev converted to Byzantine Christianity.
But it was not until the reign of her grandson Vladimir that the new
religion spread widely. After his own conversion, Vladimir married
the sister of a Byzantine emperor. Soon, Greek priests arrived in Kiev
to preside over the mass baptisms organized by the prince.
As Byzantine Christianity gained strength in Russia, princes began to
see themselves as heirs to many cultural and political aspects of the
Byzantine empire. The Russians acquired a written language, and a
class of educated Russian priests emerged. Russians adapted
Byzantine religious art, music, and architecture. Byzantine domes
capped with colorful, carved “helmets” became the onion domes of
Russian churches.
Byzantine Christianity set the pattern for close ties between Church
and state. Russian rulers, like the Byzantine emperor, eventually
controlled the Church, making it dependent on them for support. The
Russian Orthodox Church would long remain a pillar of state power.
Kiev enjoyed a golden age under Yaroslav the Wise, who
ruled from 1019 to 1054. Like Justinian, he issued a written law code
to improve justice. A scholar, he translated Greek works into his
language. Yaroslav arranged marriages between his children and some
of the royal families of Western Europe.
Yaroslav
The Russians Become
Christians
Prince Vladimir of Kiev sent
representatives to visit the
churches of many lands:
“The envoys reported, ‘When
we journeyed among the
Bulgars, we beheld how they
worship in their temple….
Their religion is not good.
Then we went among the
Germans, … but we beheld
no glory there. Then we went
on to Greece, and the
Greeks led us to the edifices
[buildings] where they
worship their God, and we
knew not whether we were in
heaven or on earth. For on
earth there is no such
splendor or such beauty, and
we are at a loss how to
describe it. We know only
that God dwells there among
men, and their service is
fairer than the ceremonies of
other nations. For we cannot
forget that beauty.’”
—The Primary Chronicle
Kiev declined in the 1100s as rival families battled for the throne.
Also, Russian trading cities were hurt because Byzantine prosperity
faded. As Russian princes squabbled among themselves, Mongol
invaders from central Asia struck the final blow.
Mongol Conquest
In the early 1200s, a young leader united the nomadic Mongols of
central Asia. As his mounted bowmen overran lands from China to
Eastern Europe, he took the title Genghiz Khan (gehng gihz kahn),
“World Emperor.”
Between 1236 and 1241, Batu, the grandson of
Genghiz, led Mongol armies into Russia. Known as the Golden Horde,
from the color of their tents, they looted and burned Kiev and other
The Golden Horde
Primary Sources What
impressed the Russians
about the Greek Orthodox
Church?
Russian towns. So many inhabitants were killed, declared a Russian
historian, that “no eye remained to weep for the dead.” From their
capital on the Volga, the Golden Horde ruled Russia for the next 240
years.
The Mongols, although fierce conquerors, were generally tolerant
rulers. They demanded regular payments of heavy tribute, and Russian
princes had to acknowledge the Mongols as their overlords. But as long
as the tribute was paid, the Mongols left Russian princes to rule without
much interference.
Historians have long debated how Mongol rule
affected Russia. Peasants felt the burden of heavy taxes. Some fled to
remote regions, and others sought protection from Mongol raids by
becoming serfs of Russian nobles. Even though the Golden Horde
converted to Islam, the Mongols tolerated the Russian Orthodox
Church, which grew more powerful during this period. The Mongol
conquest brought peace to the huge swath of land between China and
Eastern Europe, and Russian merchants benefited from new trade
routes across this region.
Mongol Influences
During the period of Mongol rule, Russians adopted the practice of
isolating upper-class women in separate quarters. Beginning in the
1200s, women became totally subject to male authority in the
household. Husbands could even sell their wives into slavery to pay
family debts.
The absolute power of the Mongols served as a model for later Russian
rulers. Russian princes developed a strong desire to centralize their own
power without interference from nobles, the clergy, or wealthy
merchants. Perhaps most important, Mongol rule cut Russia off from
contacts with Western Europe at a time when Europeans were making
rapid advances in the arts and sciences.
Moscow Takes the Lead
During the Mongol period, the princes of Moscow steadily increased
their power. Their success was due in part to the city's location near
important river trade routes. They also used their positions as tribute
collectors for the Mongols to subdue neighboring towns. When the head
of the Russian Orthodox Church made Moscow his capital, the city
became not just Russia's political center, but its spiritual center as well.
As Mongol power declined, the princes of Moscow took on a new role
as patriotic defenders of Russia against foreign rule. In 1380, they rallied
other Russians and defeated the Golden Horde at the battle of Kulikovo.
Although the Mongols continued their terrifying raids, their strength was
much reduced.
Ivan the Great A driving force behind Moscow's successes was Ivan III,
known as Ivan the Great. Between 1462 and 1505, he brought much of
northern Russia under his rule. He also recovered Russian territories that
had fallen into the hands of neighboring Slavic states.
Ivan built the framework for absolute rule. He tried to limit the power of
the boyars, or great landowning nobles. After he married Sophia-Zoë
Paleologus, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, he adopted Byzantine
court rituals to emphasize Russia's role as the heir to Byzantine power.
Like the Byzantine emperors, he used a double-headed eagle as his
symbol. Ivan and his successors took the title czar, the Russian word for
Ivan the
Terrible
1530–1584
“I grew up on the throne,”
explained Ivan of his
unhappy childhood. His
father, Vasily, died when Ivan
was only three years old.
Intelligent, well read, and
Caesar. “The czar,” claimed Ivan, “is in nature like all men, but in
authority he is like the highest God.”
religious, young Ivan was
crowned czar at age 17.
Ivan IV, grandson of Ivan the Great, further centralized
royal power. He limited the privileges of the old boyar families and
granted land to nobles in exchange for military or other service. At a
time when the manor system was fading in Western Europe, Ivan IV
introduced new laws that tied Russian serfs to the land.
Though Ivan had long been a
harsh ruler, his behavior
became increasingly
unstable after his wife died.
Prone to violence, he
crushed any opposition, real
or imagined. He had
thousands of people killed in
the city of Novgorod because
he feared a plot. Almost
every noble family was
affected by his murders.
“From Adam to this day I
have surpassed all sinners,”
he confessed in his will.
Ivan the Terrible
About 1560, Ivan IV became increasingly unstable. He trusted no one
and became subject to violent fits of rage. In a moment of madness, he
even killed his own son. He organized the oprichniki(aw preech nee
kee), agents of terror who enforced the czar's will. Dressed in black
robes and mounted on black horses, they slaughtered rebellious boyars
and sacked towns where people were suspected of disloyalty. Their
saddles were decorated with a dog's head and a broom, symbols of their
constant watchfulness to sweep away their master's enemies.
The czar's awesome power, and the ways he used it, earned him the title
“Ivan the Terrible.” When he died in 1584, he left a land seething with
rebellion. But he had introduced Russia to a tradition of extreme
absolute power.
Looking Ahead
Disputes over succession, peasant uprisings, and foreign invasions soon
plunged Russia into a period of disorder. This “Time of Troubles” lasted
from 1604 to 1613. Finally, the zemsky sobor (zehm skee suh bawr), an
assembly of clergy, nobles, and townsmen, chose a new czar, 17-year-old
Michael Romanov. His reign established the Romanov dynasty, which
would rule Russia until 1917.
In the 1600s, Russia was an emerging power. Like monarchs in France or
Spain, the czars expanded national borders and centralized royal control.
But Russia developed along far different lines. Byzantine influences had
helped establish a strong tradition of autocratic rule. Later Russian rulers
were generally more autocratic than western kings and queens.
Authoritarian leaders, from Peter the Great and Catherine the Great to
Joseph Stalin, would shape Russian history down to this century.
Theme: Impact of the
IndividualHow did Ivan's
reign affect Russia?
SECTION
3
Shaping Eastern Europe
Reading Focus
Vocabulary
How did geography
influence developments
in Eastern Europe?
Why did Eastern
Europe become a
cultural crossroads with
a diverse mix of
peoples?
What threats did the
early kingdoms of
Europe face?
ethnic group
diet
Taking Notes
the concept web. As you read the
section, fill in the blank circles with
relevant information about Eastern
Europe. Add more circles if needed.
Print out
Ethnic diversity contributed to the varied cultural traditions of Eastern
Europe.
Setting the Scene
Many times in the past hundred years, people have opened their
newspapers to find news about turbulent events in Eastern Europe. In
1914, a political assassination by Serbian nationalists triggered World War
I. In 1938 and 1939, German aggression in Czechoslovakia and Poland
sparked World War II. In 1989, revolts in Eastern European nations helped Balkan Boiling Pot
topple the Soviet empire. In the 1990s, war again erupted in the Balkans as
rival national groups clashed in Bosnia and Kosovo.
Throughout the 1990s,
The roots of such conflicts lie deep in the history of Eastern Europe. As
you will see, it has been a history often marked by war, revolution, and
foreign conquest. At the same time, its diverse mix of peoples has enriched
the culture of the region.
violence exploded in the
Balkans. In 1992, Eastern
Orthodox Serbs, Bosnian
Muslims, and Catholic Croats
fought a bloody civil war in
Bosnia. In 1998, Christian
Serbs and Muslims of
Albanian heritage clashed in
Kosovo.
The modern-day wars echo
ethnic struggles that have
gone on for more than 600
years in the Balkans. In
1389, Turkish soldiers from
the Ottoman empire defeated
Serbs at the Battle of Kosovo
and took over the region.
Different ethnic groups
practicing different religions
dispersed throughout the
area. Even though they were
forced to live together, the
different groups have
remained fiercely
independent. Instead of
being a melting pot of
cultures, the Balkan region
has continued to simmer and
occasionally boil over.
Theme: Religions and
Value SystemsHow have
religions and ethnic groups
affected life in the Balkans?
The Geography of Eastern Europe
The region known as Eastern Europe is a wide swath of territory lying
between German-speaking Central Europe to the west and the largest
Slavic nation, Russia, to the east. Many peoples and many nations have
flourished in the area over the centuries.
The Blue Danube
Eastern Europe reaches from the chilly waters of the Baltic Sea, down
across the plains of Poland, then through the mountainous Balkans. The
Balkan Peninsula, a roughly triangular arm of land, juts southward into the
warm Mediterranean. Several geographic features contributed to
developments in Eastern Europe. Much of the region lies on the great
European plain that links up with the steppes of southern Russia.
The main rivers of Eastern Europe, like the Danube and the Vistula, flow
either south into the Black Sea or north into the Baltic Sea. Goods and
cultural influences traveled along these river routes. As a result, the
Balkans in the south felt the impact of the Byzantine empire and, later, the
Muslim Ottoman empire. In contrast, the northern regions bordering
Germany and the Baltic Sea forged closer links to Western Europe.
“The Danube is Eastern
Europe's great throbbing
artery,” wrote one journalist.
“No other river in Europe …
flows through as many
nations … or echoes to as
many languages.” For more
than 2,500 years, the
Danube River has been a
pathway for armies, goods,
and ideas. Greek traders
sailed along the lower part of
the river as early as 600 b.c.
Roman and, later, Ottoman
armies built forts along its
banks. Some of those
fortresses grew into major
cities, including Budapest
and Belgrade. Today, dams
on the 1,800 mile-long “Blue
Danube” are a vital source of
electric power.
Theme: Geography and
History What resources has
the Danube provided over
the centuries?
A Diverse Mix of Peoples
Eastern Europe's geography has made it a cultural crossroads. The ease of
migration encouraged many different peoples to seek new homes, as well as
increased power, in the region. As a result, Eastern Europe now includes a
wealth of languages and cultures.
In the early Middle Ages, the Slavs spread out from a central
heartland in Russia. The West Slavs filtered into present-day Poland and
the Czech and Slovak republics. The South Slavs descended into the
Balkans and became the ancestors of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes.
The Balkans
The Balkans were peopled by other ethnic groups as well. An ethnic group
is a large group of people who share the same language and cultural
heritage. Waves of Asian peoples migrated into Eastern Europe, among
them the Huns, Avars, Bulgars, Khazars, and Magyars. Vikings and other
Germanic peoples added to the mix.
Although Byzantine civilization influenced many people in Eastern
Europe, conflict often erupted. In this illustration from the 1300s,
Byzantine knights defeat Bulgar soldiers.
Powerful neighboring states exercised strong cultural influences on Eastern
Europe. Byzantine missionaries carried Eastern Orthodox Christianity and
Byzantine culture throughout the Balkans. German knights and
missionaries from the West spread Roman Catholic Christianity to Poland,
Hungary, the Czech area, and the western Balkans. In the 1300s, the
Ottomans invaded the Balkans, spreading Islam into pockets of that area.
Jewish Settlements In the late Middle Ages, Eastern Europe was a refuge
for many Jewish settlers. Western European Christians launched brutal
attacks on Jewish communities, particularly during the Crusades and the
Black Death. To escape persecution, many Jews fled east. Monarchs in
England, France, and Spain also expelled Jews from their lands.
In the 1300s, Polish kings followed a policy of toleration toward Jews. As a
result, Jewish villages sprang up in Poland and other sparsely populated
areas of Eastern Europe. Jewish merchants and scholars contributed to the
economic and cultural development of Poland during this period.
Early Kingdoms
During the Middle Ages, Eastern Europe included many kingdoms and
small states. Sometimes, empires absorbed national groups. Alliances or
royal marriages might bind others together for a time. To get a sense of
these shifting fortunes, we will look at the kingdoms of Poland, Hungary,
and Serbia.
Poland Missionaries brought Roman Catholicism to the West Slavs of
Poland in the 900s. A century later, the first Polish king was crowned. To
survive, Poland often had to battle Germans, Russians, and Mongols.
Poland's greatest age came after Queen Jadwiga (yahd vee gah) married
Duke Wladyslav Jagiello (vwah dihs wahv yahg yeh loh) of Lithuania in
1386. Poland-Lithuania controlled the largest state in Europe, stretching
from the Baltic to the Black Sea. Jadwiga supported a university in
Cracow, which became a major center of science and the arts.
Unlike Russia or Western Europe, Poland gradually increased the power of
its nobles at the expense of the monarch. They met in a diet, or assembly,
where the vote of a single noble was enough to block the passage of a law.
This liberum veto, or “free veto,” made it hard for the government to take
decisive action.
Without a strong central government, Poland declined. It enjoyed a final
moment of glory in 1683 when the Polish king Jan Sobieski (yahn saw
byeh skee) broke the Ottoman siege of Vienna. In the next century,
however, Poland was gobbled up by ambitious neighbors and disappeared
from the map entirely.
Hungary The Magyars raided Europe from the Asian steppes and settled in
Hungary. Like the West Slavs of Poland, they adopted Roman Catholic
Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the country was much larger than it
is today. Hungarian rulers controlled present-day Slovakia, Croatia, and
parts of Romania.
Like King John of England, the Hungarian king was forced to sign a
charter recognizing the rights of his nobles. Known as the Golden Bull of
1222, it strictly limited royal power.
The Mongols overran Hungary in 1241, killing perhaps as much as half its
population. They soon withdrew, so their invasion did not have the same
impact it had on Russia. The expansion of the Ottoman Turks, though,
ended Hungarian independence in 1526.
During the 600s, South Slavs settled the mountainous Balkans.
Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, and other Slavic peoples in the Balkans had
different histories during the Middle Ages. The Serbs accepted Orthodox
Christianity. By the late 1100s, they had set up their own state, which
reached its height under Stefan Dušan (steh fahn doo shahn). Stefan also
encouraged Byzantine culture, even modeling his law code on that of
Justinian.
Serbia
Dušan's successors lacked his political gifts, however, and Serbia could not
withstand the advance of Ottoman Turks. At the battle of Kosovo in 1389,
Serbs fought to the death, a memory still honored by their descendants
more than 600 years later.
Looking Ahead
Migration, conquest, dynastic marriages, and missionary activity helped
produce a tangle of overlapping claims to territories in Eastern Europe.
During the 1600s and 1700s, large empires to the east and west swallowed
up much of the region. Yet whenever they had a chance, the peoples of
Eastern Europe tried to recover their independence. In later chapters, we
will see how the desire to rebuild separate states repeatedly ignited new
turmoils.