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Module 2: Grapevine mineral nutrition and fertiliser management
Grapevine mineral nutrition and fertiliser management
Author: Jennifer Hashim-Maguire, AUSCAL Viticulture
An understanding of the seasonal uptake and partitioning of mineral nutrients of grapevines is essential in
order to time fertiliser applications. Over the last three decades, several important studies were conducted to
determine seasonal nutrition demands of field-grown grapevines and to quantify the partitioning of mineral
nutrients. This paper aims to summarise what has been learned over the last few decades and also to provide
a background in grapevine mineral nutrition.
Effects of soil pH on nutrient availability
The availability of mineral nutrients is often determined by the soil chemical properties and nutrient interactions
(See Module 1: Healthy Soil = Healthy grapes: Sustainable soil management). Soil pH, a measure of the
acidity or alkalinity of a soil, affects the availability and absorption of nutrients to the plant. The ideal vineyard
soil is pH 5.5-8.0, but many Australian vineyard soils are alkaline and have a natural pH above 8.0, particularly
in the subsoil. Alkaline soils are often found in low rainfall areas (<500mm annually) where table grapes are
grown and carbonate and bicarbonate are frequently present. Plant nutrients, such as phosphorus (P), zinc
(Zn), iron (Fe), boron (B) and manganese (Mn) may be less available for grapevine root uptake in alkaline soils
where soil pH is above 8.0 (Figure 1). Availability of mineral nutrients and their interaction with soil chemistry
will be further discussed throughout this paper.
Figure 1: The effect of soil pH on the availability of nutrients to grapevines (Longbottom, 2009).
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Grapevine mineral nutrition and fertiliser management
Macronutrients
Nitrogen
Nitrogen (N) is the mineral element that grapevines require in the greatest amount. It plays a key role in vine
growth, serves as an important constituent of the protein makeup of all plant tissues and is a structural
component of the chlorophyll molecule. Nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+) are the main forms of N that are
absorbed by plants, however nitrate is readily available and taken up immediately while ammonium is taken up
more slowly and is converted to nitrate through nitrification by nitrifying bacteria.
When grapevines become deficient of N, shoot growth slows and the leaves become light green to pale yellow
in colour, indicating a lack of chlorophyll. In contrast, vines with an abundant supply of N have dark green
leaves, growth is vigorous and canopies are dense, making canopy management difficult. Too much N may
also contribute to other problems such as poor bud fruitfulness, poor colouration of red grapes, excessive
shatter and increased levels of bunch rot and bunch stem necrosis.
The timing of N fertilisers, like other nutrients, should occur when demand is high and uptake is rapid. Nitrogen
is needed most during the period of rapid vegetative growth, which occurs during the spring, from budburst to
early berry development. It is during this period that new growth may accumulate up to 50% of its annual N
requirement. Because active root growth and mineral uptake is generally minimal during the budburst period,
N demand is met primarily from reserves stored in the roots and other permanent woody structures (trunk,
cordons, canes). The amount of N remobilised from permanent structures between budburst and fruit set
account for up to 40% of that needed by shoots, leaves and clusters. Since the need for N is most critical in
the spring and highly dependent on reserves, it can be inferred that the need for soil N is minimal very early in
the season and that fertilisers should be applied when vines can best absorb and assimilate N as a part of the
reserve while minimising losses thorough leaching and denitrification.
Nitrogen absorption is most rapid between flowering and véraison (berry ripening), with the developing clusters
being the largest ‘sink’ for N during this time. Therefore, N fertiliser applications are best applied late in the
spring, after the risk of frost, when uptake and demand is optimal. A good timing for N fertiliser application is at
fruit set (just after flowering), to correspond with rapid uptake and demand by developing bunches, and to a
lesser extent by shoots and leaves. From bunch closure to véraison, when shoot growth slows, available N will
also be allocated and incorporated into permanent woody vine structures for storage.
Another suggested timing for N fertiliser application is during the postharvest period. The postharvest period is
an excellent time to provide N for uptake and storage to support new growth the following season. Studies
using isotopically labelled N to measure seasonal uptake and partitioning of ‘Thompson Seedless’ grapevines,
found that fertiliser applications made in mid-summer or autumn (postharvest) resulted in the greatest
concentration of labelled N in both storage tissues and in leaf tissue during the following spring and at
flowering.
Furthermore, N absorbed during this period accounts for up to 60% of the total amount of N reserves available
for vine growth at the start of the next season. When fertilising during the postharvest period, the canopy
should be healthy and functional to ensure adequate uptake. Furthermore, the postharvest window may be too
short for late harvested varieties, like 'Crimson Seedless', for effective uptake to occur.
The N requirement of grapevines is considerably less compared to other agricultural crops (Table 1). A study
conducted to determine the amount of N used by ‘Thompson Seedless’ grapevines grown for raisins in
California found that approximately 84kg per hectare (ha) was required to support annual growth of leaves,
stems and clusters. Harvested fruit accounted for the greatest losses from the vine at approximately 35kg/ha,
while other vine parts contributing to losses such as fallen leaves and prunings would be returned to the soil,
recycled and remobilised within the vine. Based on this work and other studies, it has been estimated that a
vineyard with an average yield of 22 tonne per ha, would require approximately 33kg (N equivalents) per ha, or
1.5kg (N) per tonne in order to replenish the losses from the fruit at harvest. Using this formula, a table grape
vineyard with an average yield of 2,500 (10-kg) boxes per hectare, would require approximately 38kg/ha and
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InnoGrape: Innovation in Table Grape Production
Grapevine Mineral Nutrition and Fertiliser Management
the requirement would increase with larger yields. In general, vine yields and fruit quality can be sustained with
25kg/ha to 50kg/ha of N applied annually.
Table 1. Approximate total nitrogen removed by crops and typical N fertiliser rates.
Crop
Yield
(tonnes per ha)
N harvested in crop
(kg per ha)
Optimum N fertiliser rates
(kg per ha)
Grapes
17-34
16-34
0-56
Peaches/Nectarines
17-56
22-90
0-200
Almonds
1.7-2.7
84-135
85-225
Oranges
17-34
40-90
85-150
Cotton
2.4-3.4
80-125
135-225
Adapted from Peacock (1996).
Finally, determining the amount of N to apply to the vineyard depends on several factors. Nitrogen sources
from irrigation water, crop residues/cover crops, mineralisation of soil organic matter and other factors such as
the variety, rootstock, irrigation practices and canopy management practices should be taken into
consideration when determining the N fertiliser requirements.
In table grape vineyards, the goal of N fertilisation is to meet the vine requirements in order to maximise yields
and quality. Fertilisation practices should be assessed and adjusted annually according to tissue analysis and
observations of vine vigour and fruit quality.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P) is mobile in plants and involved in the transfer of energy within plant cells that facilitate
metabolism. It is a component of cell membranes and of compounds involved with assimilation and
metabolism of carbohydrates. P is commonly low in Australian soils where fertilisers have not been applied.
Ionic forms of inorganic P are pH dependent. Between pH 4.0 and 6.0, most of the P in soil solution is present
as H2PO4-, the form that is easily absorbed by plant roots because it is soluble in water. Between pH 6.5 and
7.5, P in soil solution is present as both H2PO4– and the HPO42- phosphate ions. HPO42-phosphate can also be
taken up, but not as easily as the former. In alkaline soil conditions, when soil pH is between 8.0 and 10.0, the
less readily available H2PO4- ion is dominant. Furthermore, in calcareous-alkaline soils, P binds to calcium
(Ca) forming insoluble compounds.
Phosphorus deficiency may be observed as reduced vine vigour and yellowing between the main veins of
basal (lower) leaves. In extreme P deficiency, some red discolouration between veins of basal leaves may
occur, followed by premature defoliation of affected leaves. These symptoms may be confused for the leafrollassociated viruses, but the timing at which P deficiency is observed is often prior to flowering, whereas leafroll
symptoms are expressed much later in the season. Phosphorus deficiency may contribute to poor bud
initiation and poor fruit set. Excessive P has not been shown to be a direct problem for grapevines, however it
may limit the uptake of other essential nutrients, such as zinc and calcium. Studies have also showed a
synergistic interaction between P and magnesium (Mg), where the application of P increased the translocation
of Mg from the roots to the shoots of P deficient vines.
The seasonal uptake patterns of P have not been intensely surveyed and unlike N, P nutrition of grapevines
and response to fertilisers is not well understood.
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Like N, mineral uptake of P is minimal prior to and during the budburst period and demand is met primarily
from reserves stored in the roots. From flowering to véraison, P is absorbed at a steady rate and root uptake is
sufficient to support the demand for vine and fruit growth. Root uptake is minimal from véraison to harvest, and
any further demand by the fruit is met by translocation of P from roots and leaves to the ripening bunches.
From harvest to leaf drop, P uptake resumes. Therefore, it appears that P has two distinct absorption periods
during the season, with the first about 3 weeks after budburst to véraison and the second from harvest to leaf
drop. Since P uptake is a relatively prolonged period, this necessitates the demand to have adequate
concentrations in the rootzone for most of the growing season. Vines found to be low in P, often respond
quickly to the application of soluble P fertilisers by fertigation.
Potassium
Potassium (K) is essential for grapevine growth and yield and serves an important purpose in several different
plant functions. Potassium is a cation (positively charged ion) and is readily translocated throughout the
grapevine and may be involved in carbohydrate transport and metabolism. It is used as an osmotic agent in
the opening and closing of stomata, an important mechanism of vine water relations. Potassium also
neutralises organic acids and plays a role in controlling acidity and pH of the fruit’s juice. Very little is known
about the exact functions of K in grape berries; however it is known that K is vital for berry growth.
Potassium deficiency is often observed in areas with sandy soils with low native K fertility or where topsoil was
removed for levelling. Compacted, poorly drained soils, those with water stress and vines weak root systems
due to damage by soils pests (phylloxera and nematodes) may also contribute to K deficiency due to poor K
uptake.
Vines deficient of K will exhibit yellowing of the leaf margin and between the main veins by mid-summer and
marginal burning and curling (cupping) as symptoms progress. When K deficiency is severe, shoot growth is
significantly reduced and vines may defoliate prematurely, especially if the crop is large. Vines may also have
fewer, smaller clusters with poorly coloured, small berries.
Like nitrogen, the demand of new growth for K in the spring exceeds root uptake during the period from
budburst to bloom. The need for K is most critical during berry development and ripening, and it is during this
time that the fruit becomes the strongest ‘sink’ for available K. This period also corresponds with the time at
which root uptake for K is most rapid. Root uptake of soil K accounts for only about 50% or less of K
accumulated in developing clusters and the remainder of the demand to support fruit growth is met from K
reserves in the permanent vine structures.
Given that the developing fruit has such a strong demand for K, timing of K fertilisers should be applied during
the early spring (a few weeks after budburst) up to véraison. Potassium fertiliser efficiency is best when
applied under drip irrigation, as much lower rates are required to correct deficiencies compared to banded
applications in furrow/flood irrigated vineyards. This is due to the fact that many soils with high clay content
have a great capacity to fix (tie up) K. Efficiency under drip delivery is improved because high concentrations
of K saturate the soil in the area of greatest root density. Previous work has demonstrated that a single
application of K with drip is just as effective as multiple applications, given that the same amount is applied.
However, it is often more practical to apply K in incremental units through the drip system on a weekly basis
rather than all at once. Recommended K fertilisation strategy for effective for K maintenance is 12 to 16kg/ha
applied weekly over the course of 5 to 10 weeks (ending at véraison).
Magnesium
Magnesium (Mg) in grapevines plays two main roles. First, magnesium is an essential component of the
chlorophyll molecule and is vital for photosynthesis. Magnesium also activates enzymes required for plant
growth. Because Mg is a constituent of chlorophyll, deficiency symptoms are observed as creamy-white or
reddish (in red varieties) discolouration of the leaf. The discolouration pattern is quite distinct with Mg
deficiency, where fading begins near the leaf margin and progresses inward toward the primary and secondary
veins. The pattern is generally described as a ‘Christmas tree’ where areas surrounding the veins remain
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InnoGrape: Innovation in Table Grape Production
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green. Magnesium is a mobile element and is readily translocated from older tissues to younger tissues.
Because of this, older basal leaves show deficiency symptoms first, usually in mid- to late-season.
Mild Mg deficiency, where a few basal leaves express symptoms, are commonly observed in table grape
vineyards by late summer and are usually ignored. This generally does not contribute to negative effects on
vine growth or yield because these basal leaves are well shaded during the summer and their contribution to
the photosynthetic capacity of the vine is negligible. However, if 10-20% or more of the canopy is affected,
correction is warranted, as 20% reduction in functional leaf area and thus photosynthetic capacity could
present problems with respect to carbohydrate production, fruit ripening and overall vine growth.
Magnesium is leachable in the soil and is often found in subsoils rather than in the upper portion of the profile
where most of the root activity and uptake occurs. Because of this, young vines with shallow root systems and
vines planted on older, highly weathered soils are more susceptible to Mg deficiency. It is important to note
that severe and/or chronic Mg deficiency may be caused by a pre-existing soil condition or an interaction with
other nutrients on the soil’s (cation) exchange sites.
Magnesium deficiency is more prevalent where soils have become acidic (pH ≤ 5.5) after years of repeated
use of urea and/or ammonia-based fertilisers (Figure 1). This can be corrected with the application and
incorporation of lime, thus neutralising the acid and adding calcium and Mg to the soil. Furthermore, Ca, K and
Mg interact on the soil’s exchange site and compete for entry into plants. It has been observed in vineyards
under drip irrigation, that the application of calcium to improve water infiltration, or the application of potassium
through the drip, has reduced Mg levels in vines.
Seasonal uptake and partitioning of Mg within the grapevine begins at budburst and from the period of
budburst to bloom, reserve Mg (mainly from roots) contributes 18% toward the requirement of new vine
growth. Leaves and shoots account for the greatest portion of total vine Mg throughout the season. The
greatest amount of absorbed Mg partitioned to the permanent vine structures occurs about 4 weeks after
harvest.
Overall, the absorption pattern for Mg shows a steady accumulation for all measured vine organs (trunk, roots,
shoots, leaves, bunches) from budburst on and accumulation ceases just before the onset of leaf abscission in
the fall. Given that uptake and accumulation increase steadily from budburst on, and if Mg fertilisation is
warranted, Mg applications can be delivered either through drip irrigation or foliar sprays anytime during the
spring.
Calcium
Calcium (Ca) is a component of cell membranes and cell wall structure and for enzymatic processes. It may
influence physiological disorders such as bunch stem necrosis and the skin strength of berries. Calcium is a
cation and is readily adsorbed to negatively charged soil exchange sites. There are no known disorders
associated with excess calcium in grapes.
Ca deficiency is generally not well documented but can occur in strongly acidic soils with soil pH below 4.5. In
addition, Ca may be related to other soil chemistry problems, such as in alkaline soils where high levels of
carbonate are associated with reduced availability of Zn, Fe and Mn and in high Mg soils (Mg:Ca>2:1) where
Mg negatively impacts the availability of Ca.
Uptake of Ca occurs at a rapid rate from 3-4 weeks after budburst up to véraison. After véraison, all newly
absorbed Ca is deposited in leaves and shoots, while bunch content remains flat. No further increase of Ca
into berries is explained because Ca is moved in the xylem (water conducting tissues of plants) only, and
xylem vessels in the berry are disrupted during the ripening period.
Ca foliar fertiliser sprays are commonly promoted to table grape growers for improvement in fruit quality and
firmness, but without documented benefits from replicated field trials. The benefits of these sprays are
questionable given that Ca is immobile and the lack of translocation from leaves to fruit, and limited movement
into fruit either by soil or foliar sprays makes it difficult to raise levels in fruit tissue.
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Sulphur
Sulphur (S) is a required component of amino acids, proteins, enzymes and chlorophyll molecules. Sulphur in
soils exists as either sulphate (SO42-), the form that is taken up by plants or as organic sulphur. In alkaline
soils, sulfate is adsorbed onto calcium carbonates. Deficiency symptoms are similar to N deficiency where
leaves are uniformly yellow in colour. However, S deficiency is generally not considered to be a problem in
table grape vineyards due to the frequent use of sulphur-based fungicides and fertilisers. However, gypsum is
a useful source of sulphate.
Micronutrients
Micronutrients are required in relatively small quantities by plants. For this reason, nutrient foliar
sprays are the most effective way to prevent or correct deficiency problems.
Zinc
Zinc (Zn) is involved in the synthesis of plant hormone, indoleacetic acid (IAA), the formation of chloroplasts
and the process of pollination. Zinc deficiency in grapevines is observed on sandy soils of low Zn content and
calcareous (high lime) soils where the high pH reduces Zn availability. Vines grafted to rootstocks of Vitis
champinii parentage (Ramsey, Dog Ridge) are also prone to Zn deficiency. Zinc deficiency in grapevines,
depending on the severity, may affect both fruit and foliage. Fruit symptoms include reduced fruit set and the
formation of ‘hen and chicken’ bunches. Severe deficiencies are expressed in the foliage, where shoot growth
is stunted, with shortened internodes and many short lateral shoots, with abnormally small leaves. Leaves on
main shoots also appear stunted with open petiolar sinuses and yellowing between veins. There is increasing
evidence that Zn also plays a key role in plant defence mechanisms by protecting cell components from
photooxidative damage. This is evidenced by observation that zinc-deficient leaves are known to be highly
light-sensitive, rapidly becoming chlorotic and necrotic when exposed to high light intensity.
Most Zn deficiencies are corrected with foliar spray applications applied before flowering in order to improve
fruit set and berry development. Studies to determine optimum timing of Zn and its effects on fruit set, berry
size, cluster weight and petiole Zn levels demonstrated that the best timing is from two weeks prior to flowering
to full flowering (100% capfall). In addition, fall sprays were not effective in reducing Zn deficiency symptoms
the following spring.
Boron
Boron (B) is required for the production of growth hormones, movement of sugars, pollen germination and
pollen tube growth and general metabolic processes. It also Influences cane maturation and fruit set. Boron
exists in the soil as the negatively charged anion, borate (BO3-3).
Early season B deficiency is observed as severely stunted growth after budburst with shortened internodes,
and a zig-zag pattern often ending with the death of the shoot-tip. Leaves appear small, misshaped, cupped
and wrinkled. Shoots may look similar to Zn deficiency, but the interveinal chlorosis (yellowing) occurs on older
leaves and the yellowed tissue becomes necrotic. With severe deficiency, bunch and tendril abortion can
occur along with poor fruit set, which results in ‘hen and chicken’ bunches. In comparison to Zn deficiency,
small (shot) berries are uniform in size, flattened at the base and ripen uniformly along with the normal berries
in the bunch.
Boron deficiency is sporadic in occurrence, depending on rainfall, parent soil material and its presence in
irrigation water. B deficiency is generally regarded as a drought-induced deficiency, as B is less available in
dry soils and may also occur in alkaline soils where pH is 8.0 to 8.7, due to low solubility of borate. Symptom
development is easily corrected with B applications to the soil in the previous year or foliar sprays in the
preceding season. However, deficiency should be confirmed by tissue analysis before applying B fertilisers
because it is toxic at fairly low concentrations.
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Toxicity symptoms appear on young shoots as cupped leaves. On older leaves, B toxicity appears as brown
speckles on the leaf margin, the brown spots spread through to the centre of the leaf as the condition worsens.
Iron
Iron (Fe) is required for chlorophyll synthesis and photosynthetic and respiratory processes. Iron exists in the
soil as Fe3+, and Fe2+, however plants can only take up the latter form and must be converted from Fe3+, and
Fe2+ before uptake.
Deficiency is observed as stunted growth and diffuse yellowing of young leaves and shoot tips. In severe
cases the whole leaf becomes pale yellow (bleached appearance), whereas leaf veins remain green with mild
deficiency. This is commonly referred to as iron chlorosis or lime-induced chlorosis. It is most commonly found
in alkaline soils, because its availability is restricted by bicarbonate (lime) and can also be induced by cold, wet
soils in the spring, where symptoms are temporary.
Rootstocks vary in their susceptibility to iron chlorosis, especially in alkaline soils. For this reason, rootstock
selection (1103-Paulsen and Ramsey) can be used as a permanent solution. To date, iron toxicity is not
known to occur in vineyards.
Manganese
Manganese (Mn) plays an important role in the synthesis of chlorophyll and nitrogen metabolism. Mn exists as
three different states (Mn2+, Mn3+, and Mn4+) as well as in a chelated form, but is taken up in the ionic form
Mn2+.
Manganese deficiency is expressed as mosaic patterned, yellowing between the veins of older, and mid-shoot
leaves and may be mistaken for Zn or Fe deficiency. Leaf symptoms will only appear in younger leaves if the
condition persists. These symptoms may be found in vines on sandy, calcareous soils or in areas of high
rainfall. Toxicity of manganese is rare, and only likely to occur in waterlogged acidic soil conditions, but can be
seen as black spots on the leaves, shoots and bunch stems.
Copper
Copper (Cu) is a component of enzymes involved in oxidation and also chlorophyll synthesis. It exists in soils
as the cation Cu2+ and under normal conditions, its availability is less dependent on soil pH compared to Fe
and Zn. Deficiency symptoms are uncommon, probably due to the use of copper-based fungicidal sprays but
may be expressed as low vigour and poor production. In areas of persistent copper fungicide use overseas, a
build-up of toxic Cu concentrations in the soil has been reported and results in decreased levels of other
essential elements (P, Fe and Zn) in plant tissue.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum (Mo) is involved in nitrogen metabolism and influences fruit set. Mo is found in soils as the
molybdite anion (MoO42-). Deficiency symptoms include stunted growth. Poor fruit set in Merlot has been linked
to molybdenum deficiency and foliar Mo sprays have been use in southern Australia to successfully improve
Merlot productivity, however deficiency has not been observed on table grape cultivars.
Assessing vine nutrient status with tissue analysis
Plant tissue analysis is more effective and reliable than soil analysis because it gives an accurate indication of
the nutrient status of the vine. Sampling procedures depend on the desired objective:



survey for general nutrient status
follow-up sampling
diagnosing deficiency/toxicity.
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Grapevine mineral nutrition and fertiliser management
General nutrient standard ranges for interpretation of analysis of grapevine petioles sampled at bloom are
given in Table 2. Results are often reported on a dry weigh basis -- macronutrients given as a percentage (%)
of dry weight of the tissue sampled, while micronutrients are reported as mg/kg or parts per million (ppm) in the
dry tissue. Standards should be used as a guide only.
Table 2. Interpretive guild for grape petiole analysis sampled at bloom.
Nutrient
Deficient
Marginal
Adequate
High
0.8-1.10
>1.2
Nitrogen (%)
<0.7
Nitrate-nitrogen (mg/kg)
<340
340-499
500-1500
1500-2500
Phosphorus (%)
<0.15
0.15-0.24
0.25-0.50
>0.50
Potassium (%)
<1.0
1.0-1.7
1.8-3.0
>3.0
Calcium (%)
Magnesium (%)
Toxic
>8000
1.2-2.5
<0.3
0.3-0.39
>0.4
Sodium (%)
>0.5
Chloride (%)
>1.0-1.5
Iron (mg/kg)
7
70
Copper (mg/kg)
<3
3-6
>6
Zinc (mg/kg)
<15
16-25
>26
Manganese (mg/kg)
<20
20-29
30-60
Boron (mg/kg)
<25
26-34
35-70
>500
71-100
>100
Adapted from Robinson et al. (1997) and Goldspink and Howes (2000).
General surveys are useful for developing reference point information about the nutritional status of the
vineyard and evaluating fertiliser practices and needs over time. A sample of petioles (leaf stalks) taken at 50100% bloom is the most commonly used method to determine nutrient status. The timing assures that the
tissue is at the same physiological stage regardless of location and seasonal differences. Petioles are taken
opposite the most basal bunch of minimally shaded shoots and from each side of the vine. Collect different
samples from different blocks of vines, varieties/rootstock combinations, and vine appearance. Approximately
100 petioles is sufficient per sample and the tissue should be free of dust and chemicals. Do not sample after
a nutrient spray unless you are:



not sampling for nutrients contained in the spray;
have thoroughly wash the samples (consult lab for proper washing method); and
are sampling uncontaminated tissue later in the season.
Place samples in a labelled, clean paper bag and immediately dispatch to an analytical lab. Refrigeration is
necessary to maintain sample freshness if there is a delay in getting samples to the lab.
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Follow-up sampling is used when results indicate nutrient levels are in the marginal range at bloom. Repeat
samples can be taken at véraison (when 50% of berries have softened). Select petioles from recently matured
leaves, which are generally the second fully-expanded leaf (6th-7th from the shoot tip), on an actively growing
shoot. Leaf blades may also be taken, and 25-35 is a sufficient sample size.
Diagnosing visual symptoms of deficiency and/or toxicity most commonly occurs during mid-summer or
harvest time, when symptoms are present (Table 3). In these instances, sample the affected leaves regardless
of location and at any time when symptoms are present. It is also good practice to take a sample where no
‘symptoms’ are present for comparison.
Table 3. General Grapevine Nutrient Deficiency Symptom Expression.
Nutrient
Seasonal Appearance
Shoot Position
Boron (B)
Early
Apical
Zinc (Zn)
Early
Apical-Mid
Iron (Fe)
Early
Apical-Entire
Manganese (Mn)
Mid
Basal
Phosphorus (P)
Mid
Basal
Potassium (K)
Mid-Late
Mid
Late
Basal
Magnesium (Mg)
Nitrogen (N)
Not Diagnostic
Varietal and rootstock effects on mineral nutrition
Varietal and rootstock selection can have a strong influence on grapevine mineral nutrition. For example, when
comparing the results of tissue analysis for N (NO3-N) levels of different own-root table grape cultivars, it is
consistently observed that healthy ‘Flame Seedless’ will tend to have relatively low (100-200 ppm) NO3-N
levels, while ‘Thompson Seedless’ grown on the same soils in the same location will have substantially higher
levels (1,000-1,200ppm NO3-N). In addition, it is known that vines grafted to vigorous, nematode-resistant
rootstocks have larger, more explorative root systems compared to ungrafted vines, and as a result have
higher N and K status and therefore, lower fertiliser requirements. Table 4 illustrates the influence a rootstock
can have on grapevine nutrient status.
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Table 4. Own root and grafted ‘Flame Seedless’ petiole analysis sampled at bloom.
Rootstock
Total N
No3-N
K
P
Zn
Na
Cl
(ppm)
(%)
(%)
(ppm)
(ppm)
(%)
Own root – Flame Seedless
0.83
167
1.03
0.49
53
1847
0.61
Freedom
1.59
4704
4.24
0.56
30
383
0.39
Harmony
1.06
1515
2.95
0.40
34
687
0.23
Ramsey
1.58
2506
2.06
0.55
44
301
0.20
1103P
1.28
2105
1.76
0.61
37
246
0.13
0.8-1.1
500
1.5
0.15
26
2500
3.0
Guide (adequate above)
Guideline (excessive above)
1.0
Source: D. Luvisi (2000).
Conclusion
Determining the nutrition requirement for table grape vineyards must take into account the following factors:
soil type and chemistry, characteristics of the variety and rootstock, vine vigour and canopy management
strategies, soil pests, fertiliser history, knowledge of nutrient inputs (other than synthetic fertilisers) and results
of tissue analysis. Timing of fertiliser applications should be made when demand is high and uptake is rapid,
while minimising losses from the soil through leaching.
Additional reading and references
Christensen, LP. 1980. Timing of zinc foliar sprays. I. Effects of application intervals preceding and during the
bloom and fruit-set stages. II. Effects of day vs. night applications. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 31(1): 53-59.
Christensen, LP. 2005. Foliar fertilization in vine mineral nutrient management programs. In Proceedings of
the Soil Environment and Vine Mineral Nutrition Symposium, San Diego, California, 29-30 June, 2004.
L.P. Christensen and D.R. Smart (Eds.), pp. 83-90. American Society of Enology and Viticulture, Davis,
California.
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