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Memory Chapter 9 The Seven Dwarves In the corner of your notes: name the Seven Dwarves Seven Dwarves Take Two Try Again Seven Dwarves How did it go? It probably depends on several things…. 1. If you like Disney movies? 2. When was the last time you have seen the movie? 3. Are people around you being loud pain-in-the-butts so you cannot concentrate? What is memory The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. Memory Recall Must retrieve the information from your memory Ex. fill-in-the blank or essay tests Recognition Must identify the target from possible targets Ex. multiple-choice tests Memory Model Structure of Memory Memory Process Three Step Processing (Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)) 1. Encode: Getting information into the brain 2. Storage: Retaining information over time 3. Retrieval: Getting information out of the brain Retrieval Sensory Memory Short Term Memory Attentionencoding Long Term Memory Further encoding Step One: Sensory Memory Short term holding spot for all information George Sperling Iconic memory We take pictures of all information and hold it for a split second Echoic Memory Split second recording of all information Ex. “What did I just say?” Step Two: Short Term Memory Information from sensory memory is encoded into short term memory Encoding can be visual, acoustic, or semantic Limited storage capacity and duration Approx 7 characters (+/- 2) Approx 4 chunks Approx 20 seconds Numbers work better than letters Step Three: Long Term Memory Unlimited storage space Explicit (declarative) memories Conscious recollection of fact/info from the outside world Implicit (non-declarative) memories Unconscious memory Ex. Fingers on a keyboard Ex. Reading music Explicit Memories Episodic Memories Long term memory for specific events, situations, experiences Autobiographical Examples?? Semantic Memories Long term memory from things other than personal experience Facts, locations, etc. Examples?? Flashbulb Memories Distinct, vivid, precise memories of personal circumstances surrounding significant events Implicit Memories Procedural Memories Knowledge of certain events and procedures that become automatic through practice Conditioned Memories Trained automatic responses learned through association Skills Procedures, skills, habitats Memory Process How to remember Working Memory Model Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents… Encoding Parallel Processing Different memories are built all at the same time Automatic Processing: processing which requires no effort Space/layout Time/sequence Frequency Effortful processing can become automatic Examples? Encoding Effortful Processing: processing which uses effort and attention. Produces lasting and accessible memories Techniques to boost effortful processing Rehearsal: conscious repetition H. Ebbinghaus: list of three letters nonsense words, practised remembering them. Conclusion-the more the list was repeated on day one, the fewer times it was needed to be repeated on day 2. Amount remembered depends on time spent learning Other Encoding Strategies Next-in-line Effect We struggle to remember what was said just before we have to report. Ex. Circle Name Game Why? Timing of sleep Info presented one hour before sleep=remembered well Info presented right before sleep=remembered poorly Sleep learning doesn’t work, although we do hear what is being played Even More Encoding Strategies Spacing Effect Rehearsal should be distributed overtime for optimal learning Bahrick’s foreign language experiments Cramming… Expanding Breaks between review should get incrementally larger Serial Position Effect (Primacy/Recency Effect) First and last items are remembered best, why? Immediately after input we remember last best, why? Von Restorff Effect New or different things are more easily recalled How can this help us learn new names? The Ways We Encode: Levels of Processing Visual: encoding images or pictures We remember what we see Structural (shallow level) Acoustic: encoding sound especially the sound of words We remember what we hear Slogans? Phonemic (intermediate level) Semantic: encoding meaning We remember what was meant, not necessarily what was literally said or seen Semantic (deepest level) The Ways We Encode Deep encoding works better— semantics>visual or acoustic Craik and Tulving (1975) Primed one type of encoding Flashed a word Tested later Self-Reference Effect Information with personal meaning is remembered best Visual Encoding Earliest memories are mental pictures Elements that can be represented by pictures are easier to remember than elements that cannot. Personal memories are often pictures Best or worst images Rosy Retrospection We recall events more positively than we considered them at the time So what? Ways to Organize Information Chunking It’s easier to memorize things in meaningful chunks Emphasis on meaningful Many mnemonics utilize chunking Hierarchies Broad topics narrowed down to individual facts Assists in efficient retrieval AHHHHH OUTLINES! Mnemonics Mnemonics help encode by supporting the ways we encode particularly visualizing Method of Loci Associate a familiar place to each word and imagine moving from place to place Acoustic Make information into a rhyme or catchy phrase Visual Visually associate “peg-word” to the target http://www.learningassistance.com/2006/january/mnemonics.html Encoding Failures Age affects encoding: older adults are not as good at encoding Decreased recall, but equal recognition Remember: importance is attention! We only encode what is important to us Storage Large and diverse storage capacity Storage is not perfect Forgetting often comes from new information interfering in retrieval and a decay in physical memory trace Some experts doubt decay LTMemories can survive brain black out! But WHERE are memories stored? Synaptic Plasticity: ability of synapses to change their strength How did we get this conclusion Sea snail Aplysia: with conditioning the snail releases more serotonin at certain synapses, which causes these pathways to change and become more efficient at transmitting signals Fun Fact: in mammals synaptic plasticity is a product of increased dopamine Long Term Potentiation (Lynch, 2002) Stimulation of memory connectionsincreased neural sensitivity Increase in receptor sites and increase in sensitivity of existing receptor sites Drugs to Enhance Memory Focus: Alzheimer's, mild cognitive impairment CREB (protein) Drug goal: increase CREB CREB switches genes on and off Genes can produce synapse strengthening proteins Glutamate Drug Goal: increase glutamate Enhances LTP Concerns Side Effects Too much memory Affects of Stress on Storage Arousal Increased glucose and amygdala activation Moments of arousal make it difficult to recall old memories Stronger emotional experiences=stronger and more reliable memories Affect of rehearsal and reliving Reduction of stress hormones=less recall Lasting stress corrodes neural connections and shrinks hippocampus makes it difficult to create new memories Memory Storage Locations Explicit Memories (declarative): conscious recall Includes facts and personally experienced events Processed in hippocampus and certain parts of the frontal lobes Stored in the hippocampus Damage to right hippocampus=difficulty recalling visual designs and locations Damage to left hippocampus=difficulty recalling verbal information Hippocampus Regions Associating names with faces Spatial mnemonics Rear area: Spatial memory (and this part has actually been observed to grow!) In time (approx. 1 month), memory moves to other areas such as the temporal and frontal lobes Emotional associations to memory come from amygdala Memory Storage Locations Implicit Memories (procedural): without conscious recall Processed by cerebellum Includes motor and cognitive skills and classical and operant conditioning Require fewer connections among cortical storage areas How does this set up relate to childhood learning? Verbal development Hippocampus development Retrieval Memories are encoded with tags aka retrieval cues More cues the better Types of cues Words Images Tastes Smells Sights Places Process begins with priming Priming is often unconscioussubliminal messaging Importance of Context Memories made in one place are best remembered in the same place Mood Congruent Memories Good or bad events become associated with corresponding emotions We tag memories with our mood Our moods influence the encoding and retrieval of memories (good mood=more positive memories) Feed forward cycle State Dependent Memories We recall best in the same state (situation, mood, level of consciousness) Retrieval Failures Interference Proactive Interference: prior learning disrupts recall of new info A cluttered mind phenomenon Retroactive Interference: new information makes it harder to recall prior info Learning names of new students replaces names of old students Solution: add spacing (e.g. sleep) between interfering events Opposite of interference: positive transfer Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Remember but can’t recall Motivated Forgetting Revise our own histories Repression: Freud’s psychoanalytical theory of unconsciously forgetting Forgetting And other memory difficulties Seven Sins of Memory Forgetting Absent-mindness: inattention to details produces encoding failure Transience: storage decay over time of unused info Blocking: inaccessibility of stored information Distortion Misattribution: confusing the source of information Suggestibility: incorporating suggested information into ones memory Bias: recollections affected by beliefs Intrusion Persistence: unwanted memories Manipulating Memories Memories are sensitive Car Accident Example How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other versus when they hit each other Misinformation Effect: Incorporation of incorrect or misleading info into your memories Effect on eyewitness testimony Gaps are filled in with assumptions and guesses Imagination Inflation: imagined events become real memories Amnesia Source Amnesia: forgetting source of information Source is one of the most fragile parts of a memory Retrograde Amnesia: difficulty remembering old information and events Usually accompanies anterograde amnesia or other problems Anterograde Amnesia: difficulty remembering new information and events Alzheimer’s Disease: severe progressive general amnesia Starts with anterograde amnesia True Versus False Memories Interpretations influence memory Memory persistence does not indicate reality Detailed memories indicate reality Gist memories last longer and are easier to recall Collectively, people often remember incorrectly Ex. Did the man have brown hair? Ex. It was love at first sight or it never really worked Ex. Recall political views more similar to our current views Child Abuse Check out pages 386-390 Be able to apply the principles of memory processing and memory errors to recalling child abuse. Keep in mind children (and old people) are affected by suggestive memory How often is it actual recall versus memory errors Improving Memory Study Repeatedly: Overlearn, remember Ebbinghaus: we want that curve to level out high! (and time those breaks appropriately) Rehearse: Exercise strengthens new memories, emphasis should be on critical reflection not speed reading Make Info Personal: Put information in your own words! Use the Ask Yourself questions and create personal examples. Build on what you already know or understand and form as many different associations as possible Improving Memory Mnemonics: use peg words, chunk information into acronyms, create a story with graphic images associated to concepts Activate Retrieval Cues: Mentally re-create the mood and situation of learning Practice Recall Before Misinformation: Record memories before you have influence from outside sources Minimize Interference: Do not study one hour before bed, don’t schedule study sessions back to back of similar material Test yourself: Avoid overconfidence, by answer the objectives, outlining sections as a test, vocab flashcards, take practice tests!
