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12.01.2017
Major Principles of Biological
Theories
Theories of Criminal
Behaviour
The brain is the organ of the mind and the locus
of personality
The basic determinants of human behavior are
constitutionally or genetically based
Observed gender and racial differences in rates
and types of criminality may be at least partially
the result of biological differences between the
sexes and/or between racially distinct groups
Major Principles of Biological
Theories
Biological Roots of Criminal
Behavior
The basic determinants of human behavior may
be passed on from generation to generation
Much of human conduct is fundamentally rooted
in instinctive behavioral responses characteristic
of biological organisms everywhere
The interplay between heredity, biology, and the
social environment provides the nexus for any
realistic consideration of crime causation
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Early Biological Theories
Lombroso in 1876 argued
that the criminal is a
separate species, a
species that is between
modern and primitive
humans.
He argued that the
physical shape of the head
and face determined the
"born criminal".
Early Biological Theories
Lombroso studied and measured the bodies of
executed and deceased offenders as well as
examining living inmates to locate physical
differences or abnormalities
Claimed to have found a variety of bodily features
predictive of criminal behavior
Long arms, large teeth, ears lacking lobes, lots of body hair
Also identified characteristics of particular types of
offenders
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Early Biological Theories
Endomorph, Mesomorph, Ectomorph,
Constitutional Theories
William Sheldon
Used body measurement techniques to
connect body type with personality and
outlined four basic body types and
associated temperaments and
personalities
Body types
1.
2.
3.
people could be classified into three body
shapes, which correspond with three different
personality types.
endomorphic (fat and soft) tend to be sociable
and relaxed.
ectomorphic (thin and fragile) are introverted
and restrained
mesomorphic (muscular and hard) tend to be
aggressive and adventurous.
Sheldon, using a correlational study, found that
many convicts were mesomorphic, and they
were least likely to be ectomorphic
Modern Biological Theories
Biochemical (diet, hypoglycemia,
hormones, environmental exposure)
Neurophysiological (brain dysfunction)
Evolutionary theories
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Modern Biological Theories
Hormones and criminality
Testosterone
Male sex hormone linked to aggression
Research has shown a relationship between high blood
testosterone levels and increase male aggression
Low brain levels of serotonin
Genetics and Crime: XYY Supermale
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes
The last pair determines gender
Males: XY pair
Females: XX pair
A study of Scottish prisoners found that a small number had an
XYY chromosome.These were identified as potentially violent and
labeled “supermale”
Criminal Families
criminal families appeared to show criminal tendencies
through several generations
Modern Biological Theories
Weather and Crime
Temperature is the only weather variable consistently
and reliably related to crime
Psychological
approach to the study
of crime
Psychological
Perspectives
on Criminality
Positive correlation between temperature and violent crime
Moderated by factors such as time of day, day of week and
season. Cohn and Rotton have found temperature to be related
to crimes such as assault, property offenses, domestic violence
and disorderly conduct
Chemical and environmental precursors of crime
(nutrition, eating habits, and environmental
contaminants related to violent and/or disruptive
behavior)
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Psychoanalytic Theory
Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): One can
understand human behavior best by
examining early childhood experiences.
Criminality is linked to guilt feelings
(unresolved oedipal and Electra
complexes).
Freudian Explanations of Delinquency
Human nature is inherently antisocial
Id: infants start life with antisocial drives
Superego: forms from experience
Ego: helps to negotiate demands for
instant gratification with acceptable behavior
Freudian Elements of Personality
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Human behaviour is
governed by primitive
urges (eros and
thanatos) of the ID.
ID requires repression
which results in
formation of Ego and
Superego.
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Psychoanalytic interpretations
3 Main principles of psychodynamic theory when
applied to delinquent + criminal behaviour are
that delinquent behavior can be traced to faulty
relationships in the family during the first years
of life
These faulty relationships result in inadequate
ego and superego development
These inadequacies in turn make it impossible
for the child to control later delinquent impulses
Erik Erikson (1902-84)
Stage theorist.
During adolescence
identity vs. role
confusion stage may
result in identity crisis.
Out-of-control behaviours
(e.g. drug
experimentation) reflect
identity crisis.
Freudian Approach
•John Bowlby (1946) studied 44 juvenile
delinquents and compared them with non-criminal
disturbed juveniles.
Behavioural Theories
•39% of the delinquents had experienced
complete separation from their mothers for sixmonths or more during the first five years of their
lives compared with 5% of the control group.
• early maternal deprivation was causally related
to delinquent behaviour
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Social Learning Theory
Aggression
Is learned, not innate.
Requires personal observation of aggression or
rewards for aggression.
Involves behaviour modelling of family
members, community members and mass media
Three types of learning
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Observational (vicarious) learning
Principles of Learning
Behavioural explanations of
crime
All behaviour is learned - deviant behaviour is
said to be learnt in much the same way as other
behaviour
Direct parental control: theorists tie delinquency
to parents’ failure to effectively condition
their children away from negative behaviors
Glueck and Glueck: inconsistent and harsh
punishment correlates with delinquent children
Patterson: effective parenting (monitoring,
punishing, and reinforcing behavior) correlates
with nondeliquent children
Principles of Learning
Positive reinforcement: increases the
target behavior by rewarding the individual
Negative reinforcement: increases the
target behavior by removing an unpleasant
stimulus
Punishment: reduces the odds of the
target behavior being repeated
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Albert Bandura
Violence and aggression are
produced by
An arousal event
(provocation).
Learned aggressive skills.
Expected success and
rewards.
Pro-violence values.
Bandura
Observational learning is thought to take place
primarily in three contexts:
1. In the family
2. In the prevalent sub culture
3. Through cultural symbols such as television
and books.
-
-
Observational learning:
This is where viewers learn behaviours from watching others
and may imitate them; many behaviours are learned from
the media
- Models:
A model is a person who is observed and/or imitated.
Bobo doll experiments
show preschoolers a short film
of a person beating up a bobo
doll.
They were shown the short
film twice, but there were three
different endings watched by
three different groups of
children.
First photo shown is the
demonstrated short film with a
person beating up a bobo doll.
The second photo shown is
what the preschoolers did after
they watched the short film.
Media and Crime
Does media (TV and movies) influence
aggression, violence, and criminal
behavior?
Conducive to role modeling:
Perpetrators not punished
Targets of violence show little pain
Few long-term negative consequences
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Media and Violence
Media provides aggressive
scripts.
Violence is copied.
TV violence increases arousal
level.
TV violence promotes attitude
change, suspicious feelings.
TV violence promotes
justification for violence.
Media violence may disinhibit
aggressive behaviour.
Policy Implications of Behaviorism
Criminals can learn pro-social
behaviors to replace criminal actions
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Psychology
Humans’ ability to engage in complex
thoughts influences behavior
Cognitions (like behaviors) can be
learned
Focus on
Cognitive structure (how people think)
Cognitive content (what people think)
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Cognitive Structure
Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning: humans
advance through predictable stages of moral
reasoning
delinquency is not synonymous with immoral
behaviour
the reasoning of higher moral stages is less likely
to fit in with a criminal lifestyle
justification for violating the law can be found at
all stages
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development (1 of 2)
Stage 1
Right is blindly obeying those with power and
authority.
Emphasis is on avoiding punishment.
Interests of others are not considered.
Stage 2
Right is furthering one’s own interests.
Interests of others are important only as a way to
satisfy self-interests.
Stage 3
Moral reasoning is motivated by loyalties to others and
a desire to live up to other’s standards.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development (2 of 2)
Stage 4
Right is following the rules of society and maintaining
important social institutions (e.g., family, community).
Stage 5
Moral decisions are made by weighing individual rights
against legal principles and the common good.
Stage 6
Moral decisions are based on universal principles (e.g.,
human dignity, desire for justice).
Principles are considered across different contexts and
are independent of the law.
Moral Development
Research shows that
Criminals tend to be in stages 1 and 2.
Non-criminals are in higher stages.
People in lower stages fear punishment.
People in middle stages fear reaction of family
and friends.
People in highest stages believe in duty to
others, universal rights.
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Cognitive Content
Rationalizations or denials that support criminal
behavior
For example, a criminal thinks, “I’m not really
hurting anyone.”
Criminals are more likely to express such
thoughts, but the relationship (causation or
correlation) to crime is unclear.
Extremely common for sex offenders
Policy Implications of Cognitive
Psychology
Cognitive theory translates easily into practice.
Cognitive skills programs teach offenders
cognitive skills like moral reasoning, anger
management, or self-control.
Cognitive restructuring attempts to change the
content of an individual’s thoughts.
Combination cognitive-behavioral programs have
had significant success.
Personality traits theory
Eysenck’s Theory of Personality
Argued against sociological theories.
Criminal behavior resulted from an
interaction of environment and biology.
Based on biology.
Personality = Temperament (inborn/genetic)
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Neurotic
Choleric
Melancholic
Central NS
Intoverted
Extraverted
Ambiverts
definitions
stable extraverts (sanguine qualities such as outgoing, talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively,
carefree, leadership)
unstable extraverts (choleric qualities such as - touchy,
restless, excitable, changeable, impulsive, irresponsible)
stable introverts (phlegmatic qualities such as - calm,
even-tempered, reliable, controlled, peaceful, thoughtful,
careful, passive)
unstable introverts (melancholic qualities such as quiet, reserved, pessimistic, sober, rigid, anxious,
moody).
Peripheral NS
Sanguine
Stable
Phlegmatic
Eysenck’s Personality Theory
Suggests that high
levels of
introvertism and
extrovertism can be
related to crime.
Also introduced a P
scale
(psychoticism) to
predict criminal
behaviour.
Extraversion - Introversion
Reflects “need for stimulation”.
Extraverts like excitement, become bored more
easily, welcome the unconventional
Criminals are more likely to be extraverts
Impulsive
Thrill-seeking
Willing to take chances
May be less able to internalize society’s rules – i.e.,
less ‘conditionable’.
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Neurotic -Stable and Crime
Conclusion
Criminals are more likely to be neurotic:
Emotionality acts as a drive to habitual ways
of responding.
When under stress – do what you know best.
Impacts criminality only if the individual
has developed anti-social ‘habits’.
More important factor as one ages (habits
become more engrained)
The common emphasis of all psychological
theories is on the individual.
Each theory must be evaluated on its ability to
account for criminality.
Not all theories are well supported by evidence.
Many psychological theories translate well into
treatment programs.
Psychoticism
Is not the same as “psychosis”
No established physiological mechanism
but testosterone, monoamine oxidase and
serotonin may be involved.
Similar to Primary Psychopathy
Cold cruelty, social insensitivity, dislike of
others, attraction to the ‘unusual.
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