Download Communication Strategies Tarone (1977), further elaborated by

Communication Strategies
Tarone (1977), further elaborated by Tarone (1983), classified communication
strategies as follows:
1. Paraphrase
a. Approximation … use of a single target language vocabulary item or structure,
which the learner knows is not correct, but which shares enough semantic features in
common with the desired item to satisfy the speaker (e.g. pipe for water pipe )
b. Word coinage … the learner makes up a new word in order to communicate a
desired concept (e.g. “airball” for balloon )
c. Circumlocution … the learner describes the characteristics or elements of the
objects or action instead of using the appropriate target language item or
structure (e.g. She is smoking something. I don’t know what’s its name. )
2. Borrowing
a. Literal translation … the learner translates word for word from the native language
b. Language switch … the learner uses the native language term without bothering to
translate
c. Appeal for assistance … the learner asks for the correct term (e.g. What is
this? What called? )
d. Mime … the learner uses non-verbal strategies in place of a lexical item or action
3. Avoidance
a. Topic avoidance … the learner simply tries not to talk about concepts for which the
target language item or structure is not known
b. Message abandonment … the learner begins to talk about a concept but is unable to
continue and stops in mid-utterance
As indicated by Tarone’s use of the term, “the learner,” these strategies are
used when second-language learners attempt to communicate with speakers of
the target language. In conversation, speakers and listeners have to work
together to exchange a message. Tarone (1983:65) explains as follows:
I would like to broaden the definition of communication strategies; therefore, to make it
clear that the term relates to a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a
meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared.
(Meaning structures here would include both linguistic structures and sociolinguistic rule
structure) Communication strategies, viewed from this perspective, may be seen as
attempts to bridge interlocutor in real communication situations. Approximation, mime,
and circumlocution may be used to bridge this gap. Message abandonment and avoidance
may be used where the gap is perceived as unbridgeable.
As Tarone mentions above, there are strategies speakers use in order to convey
their message and strategies speakers use to abandon the topic. Avoidance
strategies, however, are not necessarily negative as speakers use them to
change the topic and pick up another line of conversation in which they are
more interested.
Tarone’s categories of communication strategies explained above are not,
however, enough. I would like to add some other categories from Celce-Murcia,
et al (1995:28). They suggest components of strategic competence as follows:
1. Avoidance or Reduction Strategies
message replacement,
topic avoidance,
message abandonment
2. Achievement or Compensatory Strategies
circumlocution (e.g. the thing you open bottles with for corkscrew)
approximation (e.g. fish for carp)
all-purpose words (e.g. things, thingamajig)
non-linguistic means (mime, pointing, gestures, drawing
pictures)
restructuring (e.g. The bus was very… there were a lot of people
on it.)
word-coinage (e.g. vegetarianist)
literal translation from L1
code switching to L1 or L3
Retrieval (e.g. bro… bron… bronze)
3. Stalling or Time-gaining Strategies
fillers, hesitation devices and gambits, (e.g. well, actually…, where was I…?)
self and other-repetition
4. Self-monitoring Strategies
self-initiated repair (e.g. I mean …)
self-rephrasing (over-elaboration) (e.g. This is for students…
pupils… when you’re at school…)
5. Interactional Strategies
appeal for help
direct (e.g. What do you call…?)
indirect (e.g. I don’t know the word in English… or puzzled
expression)
meaning negotiation strategies
indicators of non/mis-understanding
requests
repetition requests (e.g. Pardon? Or Could you say that
again, please?)
clarification requests (e.g. What do you mean by…?)
confirmation requests (e.g. Did you say…?)
expressions of non-understanding
verbal (e.g. Sorry, I’m not sure I understand…)
non-verbal (raised eyebrows, blank look)
interpretive summary (e.g. You mean…? / So what you’re
saying is …?)
responses
repetition, rephrasing, expansion, reduction, confirmation,
rejection, repair
comprehension checks
whether the interlocutor can follow you (e.g. Am I making
sense?)
whether what you said was correct or grammatical (e.g. Can
I/you say that?)
whether the interlocutor is listening (e.g. on the phone: Are
you still there?)
whether the interlocutor can hear you