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Chapter 1
Scientific Method,
Theoretical Perspectives,
and Research Designs
The Sociological
Perspective
Continuing Tension:
Comparing Basic and Applied Sociology
The American Sociological Association (ASA) is attempting
to promote a middle ground between basic and applied
sociology in the form of public sociology.
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Tradition v.s. Science
Common sense: The ability to act on the
obvious.
Scientific method: The use of objective,
systematic observations to test theories.
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Emile Durkheim: The Scientific
Breakthrough
Durkheim achieved a scientific breakthrough in his 1897
study entitled Suicide. Showed that an act considered the
most personal of all was influenced by social integration–
the degree to which people are tied to their group.
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Durkheim (Cont.)
1). Egoistic Suicide: Occurs when individual has low sense of
group solidarity and lack of involvement with others. Loneliness
and commitment to own personal beliefs rather than group values
can lead to suicide.
2). Altruistic Suicide: Occurs as a result of high group
involvement with others. Individual so tied to set of goals willing
to die for the group under certain conditions.
3). Anomic Suicide: Results from individual feeling disconnected
from society's values. Occurs when individual knows the goals to
strive for but can't achieve them, is uncertain about them, or
doesn’t know what goals to pursue. Most prevalent in times of
rapid social change or economic crisis.
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Theory
General statement about how some parts of
world fit together. Explanation of how two or
more facts are related to one another.
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Theoretical Perspectives
Symbolic interactionism
Symbols, things to which we attach meaning, are
the key to understanding how we view the world
and communicate with one another.
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Theoretical Perspectives
Symbols: Anything that meaningfully
represents something else. Through them
can define relationships and coordinate
actions with others.
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Theoretical Perspectives
Functional Analysis (Functionalism or
Structural-Functionalism)
Society is a whole unit, made up of
interrelated parts that work together.
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Theoretical Perspectives
Functional Analysis
Must look at structure (how the parts of
society fit together), and function (how each
part contributes to the maintenance of society
as a whole).
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Theoretical Perspectives
Functional Analysis
Robert Merton: Used function to refer to the
beneficial consequences of people’s actions to keep
a group in balance, and dysfunction to refer to
consequences that undermined stability. Functions
can either be manifest (actions that are intended) or
latent (unintended consequences).
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Theoretical Perspectives
Conflict Theory
A theoretical framework in which society is
viewed as composed of groups competing for
scarce resources.
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Theoretical Perspectives
Karl Marx: focused on struggle between the bourgeoisie
(the capitalists who own the means of production) and the
proletariat (the masses of workers exploited by the
capitalists).
Contemporary conflict theorists (e.g. Lewis Croser and Ralf
Darendhorf) have expanded this perspective to include
struggles in all relations of power and authority.
Many feminists stress a similar conflict between males and
females in terms of social, political, and economic relations.
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Three Major Sociological Theoretical Pespectives
Theoretical Perspective
Level of Analysis
Focus of Analysis
Key Terms
Main Questions
Functional Analysis
(Also called Structural
Functionalism)
Macroscoiological:
examines large scale
patterns of society
Relationships among the
parts of society. How
these parts have beneficial
consequences (functions)
or negative consequences
(dysfunctions)
Structure
Functions (manifest, latent)
Dysfunctions
Equilibrium
What are the
consequences of a social
pattern? What
contributions do they
make for individuals and
society as a whole?
Conflict Theory
(Marxism and Feminism
variants)
Macroscoiological:
examines large scale
patterns of society
The struggle for control
over scarce resources by
groups in society, and how
dominant groups use
power to control weaker
groups.
Inequality
Competition
Exploitation
Resources (power, wealth,
prestige)
Ideology
False consciousness
Class consciousness
Who benefits from a
social arrangement?
Change and struggle
considered norm for
society.
Interactionist Theory
(Schools of thought include
Symbolic Interactionism and
Social Construction of
Reality)
Microsociological:
examines small-scale
patterns of social
interaction
Face-to-face interaction;
how people use symbols
to create social reality.
Symbols
Interaction (communication)
Meanings
Definition of situation
Societies consist of many
small theaters where
people act out the social
drama. Shared meanings
and understandings basis
for understanding society.
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Doing Research
Eight steps for ensuring objectivity of findings:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Selecting a topic to research
Defining the problem
Reviewing the literature
Formulating a hypothesis
Choosing a research method or design
Collecting the data
Analyzing the results
Sharing the results
Doing Research
Variables: Factors that vary from one
person or situation to the next.
Doing Research
Hypothesis: Prediction derived from theory.
Predicts a relationship between two or more
variables:
• Independent variable: Something
that influences or causes a change in
another variable.
• Dependent variable: A variable
that might change in a study.
Doing Research
Hypothesis (cont.)
• Operational Definition: Precise
ways of measuring variables.
• Validity: Operational definition
measures what it claims.
• Reliability: Other researchers using
same definitions will come up similar
findings.
Doing Research
Population: Target group interested in
studying.
• Sample: Representative subset
taken from population.
• Random sample: Technique that
gives every member of population the
same opportunity to be included in
sample.
Research Methods or Designs
The means whereby data is collected.
Research Designs
These seven designs are commonly employed by
sociologists:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Surveys
Participant Observation
Experiments
Case studies
Secondary analysis
Documents or existing
sources
7. Unobtrusive measures
Research Designs: Surveys
An instrument that asks individuals a series of
questions. They take two forms: questionaires and
interviews.
•Questionnaires: A series of questions that
respondents answer on their own.
•Interviews: A series of questions that the surveyor
asks the respondent and then records.
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Research Designs: Surveys
Type of Questions:
•Open-ended questions: Enable respondents
to answer in their own words.
•Close-ended questions: Questions followed
by a list of possible answers for respondents to
choose from.
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Types of questions: Closed- and Open-ended
Taken from page 25 of Henslin’s Essentials of Sociology.
Research Designs: Experiments
A set of investigative procedures useful
for determining cause and effect.
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Taken from page 29 of Henslin’s Essentials of Sociology.
Research Designs: Participant Observation
Also called fieldwork, it occurs when researchers
participate in a research setting while observing
what is actually occurring in that setting.
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Research Designs: Case Studies
Focus on a single event, situation, or
person. Seek to understand dynamics of
relationships and power.
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Research Designs: Secondary Analysis
Researchers analyze data collected
by others.
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Research Designs: Documents or
Existing Sources
Includes written sources such as books, newspapers,
bank records, and government archives or statistical
abstracts. Use is being made of previously collected
and publicly accessible information and data.
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Research Designs: Unobtrusive
Measures
Subjects are unaware they are being
observed. Common sources include
graffiti, digital media, and human accretion
or middens (refuse or garbage).
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Research Designs: Quantitative and
Qualitative
The seven research designs fall into two
basic categories:
█
█
Quantitative research: Collect and
report data primarily in numeric
form.
Qualitative research: Rely on what
is seen out in field and naturalistic
settings; focus is on small groups
and communities.
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Sociological Research Ethics
Research ethics require honesty, truth, and
openness. Sociologists forbidden to falsify
results, or to plagiarize.
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Values in Sociological Research
Sociologists oftentimes face a dual dilemma. No one
can escape values entirely. Objectivity is a goal.
First dilemma– Making sure research is not
distorted by sociologist’s values.
Second dilemma– Should research seek only to
analyze human behavior, or have the goal of
reforming harmful social arrangements.
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