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• un-do-able hopefulness, hopefully *hopenessful, *hopelyful a. b. *carenessless, *carelyless carelessness, carelessly *ism-anti-dis-ment-establish-ar-ian, *dis-anti-establish-ar-ian-ism-ment b. anti-dis-establish-ment-ar(y)-ian-ism antidistestablishmentarianism *do-able-un, *do-un-able, *able-do-un, etc… undoable a. b. a. In the following examples, the (a) forms are complex, they are made up of the morphemes as shown following. The (b) examples are made up of the same morphemes, but they are gibberish. Why? Order and Structure DERIVATION Adjective Noun 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 17 Adjective Suffix /{j&uaq/ big N INUKTITUT -rjuaq attaches to attaches to adjectives nouns Noun attaches to nouns category position attaches to verbs un- selectional restrictions -less /´r/ /lEs/ /√n/ one who without N not Adj “Vs” Suffix Suffix Prefix -er Morphemes (affixes) care about what they attach to / combine with. (cf. our lexical entries, from Unit 1, p.6) phonology: meaning: Label Intuition: Observation: The order of morphemes in complex words is important. Our notions ‘prefix’ and ‘suffix’ (Unit 1) get us part way to explaining the ungrammaticality of the (b) examples, but they do not, for example, explain (3b). Why not ? (3) (2) (1) 2.1 UNIT 2 104-440A - FALL 2002 Prof. Jonathan David Bobaljik MORPHOLOGY I [ [ hope ]Noun -less ]Adj [ [ soft ]Adj –ly ]Adv [ [ [ hope ]Noun -less ]Adj –ly ]Adv *hope-ly -ly has attached to the noun hope but this violates its attachment properties: -ly doesn’t attach to nouns: *[ [ [ hope ]Noun -ly ]Adv –less ]Adj *care-ness -ness has attached to the noun care but this violates its attachment properties: -ness doesn’t attach to nouns: * [ [ [ care ]Noun -ness ]Noun –less ]Adj -ness attaches to the adjective careless, making the noun carelessness -ly attaches to the adjective hopeless, making the noun hopelessly [ [ [ care ]Noun -less ]Adj –ness ]Noun -ness attaches to adjectives and makes nouns -ly attaches to adjectives and makes adverbs [ [ soft ]Adj –ness ]Noun -less attaches to nouns and makes adjectives, meaning roughly ‘lacking N’ [ [ care ]Noun -less ]Adj -rjuaq 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 18 A root has a subcategorization frame: [ __ ] • i.e., it is alone in its constituent The underline shows the position of the morpheme in its immediate constituent (prefix or suffix), the category of the sister is also indicated. [N __ ] INUKTITUT • [ __ A ] un- these are called subcategorization frames. [N __ ] -less • [V __ ] -er We will collapse “position” and “attaches to X...” into the following notation: selectional restrictions Label [ [ hope ]Noun -ful ]Adj -ful attaches to nouns and makes adjectives, meaning (roughly) ‘full of N’ [ [ care ]Noun -ful ]Adj 2.1.1 Some Formalism: (9) (8) (7) (6) (5) (4) (16) (15) (14) (13) (12) joy - *joyment face - *facement (cf. defacement) joy en-joy en-joy-ment noun verb noun 3 1 joy *joy-ment en-joy-ment joy Noun ment in Adj decipher able Verb Adj (cf. syntactic trees) ment [ V __ ] Important: 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 19 the terminal elements in the trees are the morphemes recall that a morpheme is a lexical entry, not just the phonology Like labelled brackets, Word Structure Trees express more information about a word than just the linear order of the morphemes. They express constituent structure i.e., the intermediate units within larger units. This is also hierarchical structure, in essence: the degree of closeness to the root. en Verb Noun Word Structure Trees en [ __ N ] [ [ en Noun[ joy ]Noun ] Verb -ment ]Noun Selectional Restrictions met by outermost constituent: joy is a noun en-joy is a verb en-joy-ment is formed by adding –ment to enjoy, not to joy. 1 2 3 Linear order is not sufficient: There is a hierarchical or derivational order: noun !!! noun *in-decipher *in-cure (cf. incurable) but in (10b), in- immediately precedes decipher (a verb) in- does not attach to verbs: but in (10a), -ment immediately follows joy (a noun) -ment does not typically attach to nouns: en-joy-ment in-decipher-able (11) enjoyment indecipherable a. b. What problem might the following examples pose for the idea that morphemes care about what they are next to? (10) • (20) (19) (18) (17) joy Noun ful joy ful joy-ful is an Adjective en- attaches to Nouns en Adj Noun Verb un button able 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 20 This problem set is so hard it’s practically undoable. This mistake is easily undoable, hit +Z. or c. d. able Verb This straightjacket is no good, it’s too easily unbuttonable. I can’t close my coat, since it’s so ripped up that it’s unbuttonable. button Verb Adjective a. b. un Adj Verb Adj undoable un-do-able unbuttonable un-button-able untieable un-tie-able What information can Word-Structure Trees express about the following words ? en-joy is a Verb, -ful attaches to Nouns en Verb Adj *enjoyful cf. enjoy, joyful *dethroneless cf. dethrone, throneless Word Structure Trees allow us to express why the following are not legitimate English words: we can use the phonology/orthography/label as a shorthand, for now. • Linguistics teacher • or Linguistics teacher • A teacher of English Linguistics English • joy Noun ment care Noun Adj less Noun ness something with a lexical entry: a morpheme The affix derives the features of the whole word = derivation. lexical category: Intuitive content: The features of a node are provided by the lexical category it immediately dominates. NODE LABELLING CONVENTION (NLC) How do we know what labels to give to the nodes in a Word Structure Tree? Nodes and Percolation care is a Noun, it is also the Root less is a Suffix, it has attached to a Noun and made an Adjective ness is a Suffix, it has attached to an Adjective and made a Noun joy is a Noun, it is also the Root en is a Prefix, it has attached to a Noun and made a Verb ment is a Suffix, it has attached to a Verb and made a Noun en Verb Noun In addition to allowing us to encode hierarchical relations (i.e., the order of attachment) and thus to disambiguate a complex word, Word-Structure Trees encode the information in the bottom rows of the lexical entries: position, selectional properties and syntactic category of result: A teacher of Linguistics who is English English • Structural Ambiguity (Syntax) 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 21 Note: To make this work, we need to label the Root first. Do you see how this is done in each of the examples above? (22) 2.2 • (21) en Verb joy Noun Noun ment Word Structure Tree cf. (10) above en [_N] makes V NLC Noun NLC en-: ☺ !! joy: -er: work: to labour/toil to have N, to cause to be in/on N (cf. enthrone, ensnare, entrap …) someone who does ____ . • (24) non Noun fiction Noun non-invasive non-smoker non-trivial non-fiction non Adj trivia Noun Adj al non-essential non-proliferation 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 22 Remember, we can read the lexical entry off the word structure tree. What is the lexical entry for non-? a. b. Consider now the following words: the head of the VP is the V — the head determines the features of the constituent it heads note that this same convention as headedness or percolation in syntax: enjoy work+er Typically (though not always) the meaning of an affix is a function of the meaning of the root, but the meaning of the root is complete, it stands on its own. joy ment [N] [V_] Root makes N NLC Verb Noun Labelled Word Structure Tree aside: Why do we label the Root first? Related question: How do we identify the Root? (23) non-: of result syntactic category phonological shape: meaning: selection [ __ A ] Adjective Noun Like constituent negation in syntax, Non- adds meaning, but does not change category. Unlike the affixes above, non- allows the node dominating it to inherit the feature/category of the lower node (in apparent violation of the NLC) BACKUP PERCOLATION CONVENTION (BPC), or just PC for short 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 23 If the lexical category immediately dominated by a node has no features, (i.e. – if the NLC. does not apply) then the node may acquire the features of a lower node. not X N [ __ ] Adj Ø / nn / (27) category phonological shape: meaning: selection non: (26) Ø is not a category or feature. It is a sign we use to indicate the absence of a feature non is ‘unmarked’ [we write “Ø”] for “syntactic category” IMPLEMENTATION: (This is like adjunction in syntax, including adverbial modification) Non- is a modifier. It belongs to the class of element that preserve the category (type) of the constituent to which they attach. INTUITION: OBSERVATION: not X /nn/ [ __ N ] We seem to be missing a generalization: (25) fiction N Noun PC NLC non Ø NLC Adj trivia N Noun Adjective syntactic category (of result) Adjective [ Verb __ ] al Adj Verb [ __ N ] en[n] ~Cause s.th. to have/be (in) X Adj P.C. NLC Noun [ __ ] joy [doj] ☺ » 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 24 It is sufficient to speak of “syntactic category” for both roots and affixes. The NLC will take care of the rest. What happens when we delete the word makes from (23) ? Hypothesis: Affixes have the same kinds of lexical entries including category features as roots do. We haven’t talked much about the bottom part of the lexical entries. We see now, though, why we have called the last row “syntactic category of result” for affixes. It is a property of the suffix -ness that the result of attaching this suffix to an adjective will be a noun. For roots, though, the term “of result” is somewhat awkward. Really, we mean syntactic category of the morpheme itself. Can we unite roots and affixes? selection -ful [fl] The degree to which s.th. is XADJ [ Adj __ ] “label” phon. / allom. meaning -able [bl] able to be X-ed Lexical Entries Revisited: Syntactic Category of Result non Ø Noun Applying the Conventions: Consider some lexical entries: 2.3 (28) meaning selection category & gender “label” phon. / allom. -(n)ka [nka] / V___ [ka] / C ___ s.o. from N [ N __ ] Noun [Fem] ‘Leningrader’ [Fem] ‘Vietnamese’ [Fem] ‘American’ [Fem] ‘Italian’ [Fem] ‘Mexican’ [Fem] ‘Moroccan’ [Fem] -(n)ec [nec] / V___ [ec] / C ___ someone from N [ N __ ] Noun [Masc] leningradka vjetnamka amerikanka italjanka meksikanka marokkanka -(n)ka [nka] / V___ [ka] / C ___ s.o. from N [ N __ ] Noun [Fem] ‘Leningrader’ [Masc] ‘Vietnamese’[Masc] ‘American’ [Masc] ‘Italian’ [Masc] ‘Mexican’ [Masc] ‘Moroccan’ [Masc] -(n)ec [nec] / V___ [ec] / C ___ someone from N [ N __ ] Noun [Masc] Lexical Entries: leningradec vjetnamec amerikanec italjanec meksikanec marokkanec b. ‘Leningrad’ [Masc] ‘Vietnam’ [Masc] ‘America’ [Fem] ‘Italy’ [Fem] ‘Morocco’ [Neut] ‘Mexico’ [Neut] 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 25 /o/ -> /a/ in the stem, before these suffixes cf. English: Mexico -> Mexcican; Morocco -> Moroccan Allomorphy: -nec,-nka / V___ -ec, -ka / C___ Aside: Stem Change (we’ll learn more about this later): There are two ways of writing lexical entries. The columns on the right are abbreviations for the corresponding tables. They express the same information, but use less space. Either way of writing lexical entries is henceforth acceptable. (31) • (30) leningrad vjetnam amerika italija marokko meksiko a. Leningrad Masc Noun,M ka Fem NLC NLC Noun,F Italja Fem Noun,F nka Fem NLC NLC Noun,F nka (Ø) 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 26 / - nica/ " female" suffix attaches to nouns N [Fem] -stvo / - stvo/ " the profession or art of being an X" suffix attaches to nouns N [Neut] ‘to lead’ (verb) ‘leader’ [Masc] ‘leader’ [Fem] ‘leadership’ [Neut] sense: “art/craft of leading” / - el' / " one who Xs" suffix attaches to verbs N [Masc] rukovoditJ rukovoditJelJ rukovoditJelJnica rukovoditJelJstvo c. NLC PC ‘to teach’ (verb) ‘teacher’ [Masc] ‘teacher’ [Fem] ‘the profession of teaching’ [Neut] ‘to be a teacher’ -nica uc&itJ uc&itJelJ uc&itJelJnica uc&itJelJstvo uc&itJelJstvovatJ b. ‘to instruct’ (verb) ‘instructor’ [Masc] ‘instructor’ [Fem] ‘pedagogy’ [Neut] -el prepodavatJ prepodavatJelJ prepodavatJelJnica prepodavatJelJstvo a. Italja Fem Noun,F Noun,F For the word italjanka ‘Italian person (Fem)’ can we tell which tree is correct? It must be the tree on the left. Why? (34) • (33) (29) nec Masc NLC NLC Noun,M Gender and the NLC Amerika Fem (32) Noun,F Gender and the Feature conventions Singular nouns (including place names) in Russian come in three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Consider the following data: c = /ts/; transcription broadly phonemic stress-related vowel alternations NOT indicated palatalization not consistently indicated 2.4 More Terminology Vagueness in Meaning: 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 27 Anything that has variable selection of the form: [ X,Y,Z __ ], Result = X,Y,Z is a modification structure. Anything that “changes” a feature (category, gender) is a head-complement structure. Some hints: The affix is a modifier. It has no features to contribute, and the features of the stem percolate through (by the BPC). Modification Structures The affix is a head. It contributes its features to the whole constituent, via the NLC. Head-Complement Structures ‘killing, murder’ [Noun, Neut] ‘leadership’ [Noun, Neut] ‘richness’ [Noun, Neut] ‘familiarity’ [Noun, Neut] ‘the profession of driving’ [M] ‘farm management’ [Neut] ‘brotherhood’ [Neut] ‘childhood’ [Neut] ‘slavery’ [Neut] / - stvo/ "abstract noun corresponding to X" [ {N,V,Adj} __ ] N [Neut] ubijstvo rukovodstvo ubi-tJ ‘to kill’ <Verb> rkovod-itJ ‘to lead’ <Verb> s&ofJorstvo fermerstvo bratstvo detstvo rabstvo bogatstvo znakomstvo ‘driver’ [M] ‘farmer’ [M] ‘brother’ [M] ‘children’ [PL] ‘slave’ [M] bogat-yj ‘rich’ <Adj> znakom-ij ‘familiar’ <Adj> s&ofJor fermer brat deti rab There are two kinds of affixation: 2.5 (35) (38) (37) (36) (for Practise) ‘stupid’ (fem) ‘stupid’ (masc) good-looking (beautiful) stupid root-gender root-very-gender stupida stupido bellstupidORDER: ‘box’ (fem) ‘shirt’ (fem) ‘book’ (masc) ‘books’ (masc) ‘vase’ (masc) ‘vases’ (masc) feminine; masculine very attaches to adjectives ‘very stupid’ (fem) ‘very stupid’ (masc) ‘very beautiful’ (fem) ‘very good-looking’ (masc) scatoletta camicietta libretto libretti vasetto vasetti ‘little box’ (fem) ‘little shirt’ (fem) ‘little book’ (masc) ‘little books’ (masc) ‘little vase’ (masc) ‘little vases’ (masc) *bellaissim, *stupid-o-issim -a -o -issim- stupidissima stupidissimo bellissima bellissimo scatol Fem Noun,F ett (Ø) PC NLC Noun,F Noun,F a libr Masc ett (Ø) PC Noun,M NLC Noun,M Noun,M 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 28 PC PC o Ignore the exact nature of the final vowels here. The gender of the noun is inherent and every noun has a specific gender – the vowel merely shows what gender the noun has. / - ett - / diminutive [ N __ ] [Ø] scatola camicia libro libri vaso vasi Italian nouns and diminutives: ‘beautiful’ (fem) ‘good-looking’ (masc) bella bello Italian adjectives and nouns end in a vowel which marks their number (singular vs. plural) and gender (masculine vs feminine). Italian Order Matters: hope-ful-ness, hope-ful-ly 2.6.1 (39) vs. *hope—ness—ful, *hope—ly—ful *en-joy-ful c. but OK: en-joy / joy-ful but *joy-ment but * in-decipher Hierarchical Structures (representations of the order of affixation) • the non-professionality of the Olympics. • the non-professionality of the athlete. non-professionality: 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 29 • the degree to which s.th. is non-permeable • lacking in permeability non-permeability: b. [caveat: this might be lexical ambiguity, un- 1/2] un-button-able a. Having hierarchical structure predicts, in principle, the possibility of structural ambiguity in morphology, just like in syntax. This prediction appears to be correct, if subtle. (41) • I. To account for these, any theory needs TWO components: en-joy-ment indecipherable a. b. Linear order alone is insufficient: (40) • A part of an affix's lexical entry is that affix's SELECTIONAL RESTRICTIONS. In order to explain this, we need to be able to express formally the fact that affixes care about what they attach to. The suffix -ful attaches to nouns, and the suffix -ness attaches to adjectives. Taking Stock 2.6 N joy Noun ment [ V __ ] N Selection cares about Sisterhood Node Labels must come from somewhere. Since we don’t store little trees in our heads, the node labels must be predictable from the information in the lexical entries. Node Labels Note: crucial example is * enjoyful en [ __ N ] V Verb Noun Attachment properties must be satisfied at the sister node, in other words: an affix cannot look down into the word it is attaching to. A sisterhood condition: (44) [ A __ ] V [ N __ ] V [ A __ ] Adv [ N __ ] A [ V __ ] A [joy]N [rage]N [large]ADJ [en-joy]V [en-rage]V [en-large]V [readable]ADJ [breakable]ADJ [solvable]ADJ [careless]ADJ [hopeless]ADJ [quickly]ADV [hopelessly]ADV 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 30 [read]V [break]V [solve]V [care]N [hope]N [quick]ADJ [hopeless]ADJ Observation: the affix generally determines the properties of the word / node immediately above it: (43) • • 2.6.2 (42) II. Formalization: the Node Labelling Convention (22) large Adj enVerb-maker black Adj ness (makes a) Noun Adj Verb Adj Noun Affixes and Category » • non-trivial non-fiction non-essential non-proliferation Remember: scatol-a camici-a libr-o vas-o / - ett - / diminutive [ N __ ] [Ø] scatol-ett-a camici-ett-a libr-ett-o vas-ett-o at this stage, we are using the final vowel only as an indicator of the gender of the word, we will take this up again later. ‘box’ (fem) ‘shirt’ (fem) ‘book’ (masc) ‘vase’ (masc) Italian nouns and diminutives: ‘little box’ (fem) ‘little shirt’ (fem) ‘little book’ (masc) ‘little vase’ (masc) enjoy, encourage, enamour … enthrone, ensnare, entrap, enrol, encamp, enchain … en + N = V en + Adj = V enlarge, enable, ensure [not productive] en- which makes verbs from nouns (and sometimes adjectives) Contrast: 440A / 2002 / Unit 2… 31 The (backup) Percolation Convention (27) When an affix has not category features of its own then the properties of the next node down percolate through. (47) non-invasive non-smoker non- does not change the category of the item to which it attaches a. b. The NLC formalizes the observation that the affix determines the properties of the word. Sometimes, though, the affix fails to do this: (46) • 2.6.3 Modifiers: Morphemes without feature specifications • (45)