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The Georgia Department of Natural Resources
WILDLIFE RESOURCES DIVISION
Bobwhite Quail Fact Sheet
Introduction
The Northern Bobwhite Quail (Colinus virginianus)
occurs throughout all or parts of 38 states and is a
particularly prominent game bird in the South. In
Georgia, bobwhites are present from the mountains to
the coast and occupy a special place in the state’s
wildlife heritage, having been designated as the State
Game Bird in 1970. However, due to large-scale
changes in land use, quail populations have been
declining since the early 1900’s. The quail decline has
primarily resulted from the loss of adequate nesting
cover, brood range and escape thickets. In Georgia
and across the South major efforts are underway to
restore and maintain bobwhite habitat and
populations.
Life History
Wildlife biologists classify bobwhites as a grasslandforb-shrub habitat dependent species. In the Southeast
this type of habitat is often referred to as early
succession. To prosper, bobwhites need large
expanses of clumped native warm season grasses
mixed with annual weeds, legumes, briars and other
woody thickets that are thick above but open
underneath. The average annual home range size is
around 40 acres, but depending on habitat quality,
home range size can vary from 10 acres to more than
200 acres.
Bobwhites are relatively small ground dwelling
gallinaceous (chicken-like) birds. Adults stand six to
seven inches in height and typically weigh about six
ounces. The male can be most easily identified by a
prominent white stripe above the eye, whereas hens
(females) have cream or buff colored head stripes.
The bobwhite nesting season extends from March
through October with the peak occurring during May
through August. Bobwhites nest on the ground using
the previous year’s dead vegetation, with both hens
and cocks (males) collecting materials for nest
construction. The average clutch size is 12 eggs with
an incubation period of 23 days. Chicks are precocial,
meaning they leave the nest with the adult shortly
after hatching.
During the early fall bobwhite adults and broods form
into social groupings called coveys, with an average
covey size of 12 birds. Coveys roost or spend the
night on the ground, in a circle with their heads
pointed outward, which allows them to conserve heat
and more easily escape nocturnal predators. As
mortality occurs throughout the winter and covey size
decreases, the remaining birds often join with other
coveys for the remainder of the winter. Quail remain
in coveys until the “spring breakup” at which time
they disperse to begin the mating season. Males then
begin to make the familiar “bob-bob-white” call to
attract hens for breeding.
Bobwhites are what ecologists refer to as an r-selected
species, which means they are subject to high annual
mortality rates but are able to offset this mortality
with high reproductive rates. Annual mortality rates
may reach 70 to 80 percent depending on habitat
quality, weather, predator densities, hunting pressure
and other variables. Providing high quality habitat at
all seasons of the year best controls predation on
bobwhites.
Reasons for the Quail Decline
Intensification of agriculture and forestry coupled
with increased urbanization are the primary factors
responsible for the decline in bobwhite quail and a
number of other early successional wildlife species.
Restoration Efforts
At present, efforts are underway to improve habitat
for bobwhites and other declining early successional
wildlife. Georgia’s Bobwhite Quail Initiative and a
number of federal programs promote habitat
restoration practices, including establishing early
successional habitat around and across agricultural
fields and pine forests.
Additional WRD Publications:
•
•
•
Bobwhite Quail In Georgia: History, Biology and
Management
Small Game Management In Georgia
Bobwhite Quail Initiative Management Notes
For more information, contact a WRD Game Management Office or call (478) 994-7583.
Created 11/04
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources
Wildlife Resources Division
WOOD DUCK FACT SHEET
The wood duck (Aix sponsa) is the most common duck in
Georgia. It is the only species that traditionally nests here, and it
is one of only a few species of waterfowl that nests in a cavity
rather than on the ground. Considered by many to be the most
beautiful of all North American waterfowl, the wood duck is
certain to enhance any location in which it appears.
BIOLOGY
About half the size of a mallard, the wood duck (woodie) is a
type of dabbling duck, meaning it forages on the water’s surface
for food as opposed to diving for food on the bottom. During
the fall and winter, woodies need foods such as acorns that are
high in fat to carry them through the harsher months and to
prepare them for breeding and laying eggs.
Spring
requirements shift towards higher protein foods like insects to
promote growth. Wood ducks begin courtship rituals several
months before the nesting season, which usually begins in
February and lasts through June. Pair bonds normally last
through the brood-rearing season. A hen will lay one egg each
day until she reaches an average clutch size of 10-15 eggs. If
something happens to the nest, hens will renest in an effort to
hatch a successful brood. Incubation begins after the last egg is
laid, and hatching occurs about 30 days later. About 24 hours
after hatching, the hen begins calling the chicks out of the nest
to explore their new world on water. By the time the chicks are
5 weeks of age, they are quite independent from the hen. As
maturity progresses, ducks will begin the courtship ritual and
breed at one year of age.
HABITAT
Wood ducks are closely associated with forested wetland
habitats throughout North America. Woodies seldom venture
far from woodlands and associated water areas. Their
distribution is essentially confined to riparian corridors and other
areas of lowland forest interspersed with freshwater ponds,
lakes, marshes, and swamps. Beaver ponds form some of the
finest wood duck habitat around. Flooded emergent vegetation
that protrudes above the surface of the water provides good
brood-rearing cover. Buttonbush, alder, or other shrubs that
grow out of the water provide protection from aerial predators.
Other emergent vegetation such as sedges and rushes also
provide places for young ducklings to hide.
NEST BOX MANAGEMENT
Erecting wood duck nest boxes can help raise local populations
in your area. For maximum benefit, proper placement of wood
duck boxes is extremely important. Farm ponds may not be a
good place for duck boxes as most have steep sides, deep edges
and no emergent vegetation. Without emergent vegetation, the
ducklings have no place to hide, and rapidly fall prey to various
predators, such as snapping turtles and largemouth bass.
NEST BOX CONSTRUCTION
There are several different designs for wood duck nest boxes,
however all boxes should be between 20-27” in height and 1012” square. The preferred lumber for building wood duck nest
boxes is rough-cut 1” thick cypress, however cedar or yellow
pine is acceptable. DO NOT use treated lumber. The box
should be held together with 1 ½” zinc coated or galvanized
wood screws. To allow ducklings to climb up and escape, ½”
wire mesh should be mounted to the inside of the box under the
front hole. See the reverse side for instructions on building a
wood duck box and predator guard.
GUIDELINES FOR MOUNTING NEST BOXES
1. Boxes should be placed so there is a 40’ flight line in
front of the box that is free from obstructions such as
tree limbs or bushes.
2. Wooden 4”x4”or 2” diameter metal posts can be used
to mount boxes. Post should be 10-12’ long. No box
should be mounted without a predator guard around
the post.
3. Position the box as nearly vertical as possible, with a
very slight tilt forward. The tilt will enable ducklings
to climb out more easily.
4. Boxes should be placed one per acre of suitable broodrearing habitat.
5. Boxes should be placed so that the bottom of the box is
at least 4’ above the high water mark.
6. Do not place more than one box per post, as this may
increase the possibility of “dump nesting.”
7. When attaching the box to the post, use 3-5” lag bolts
instead of nails. Bolts make it easier to remove boxes
in the future for replacement or repair as necessary.
8. Wasps can be kept out of the boxes using a small piece
of no-pest strip stapled or tacked inside the box.
9. Once erected, boxes should be lined with about 4” of
wood shavings, not sawdust. Cedar shavings are
acceptable to use.
10. Boxes should be checked and cleaned annually during
December or January, prior to the nesting season.
For more information, contact a WRD Game Management Office or call (770) 918-6416.
Revised 03/02
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources
Wildlife Resources Division
EASTERN WILD TURKEY FACT SHEET
HISTORY
The eastern wild turkey, Meleagris gallopavo, is the largest
gallinaceous bird in North America. However, due to unregulated
hunting and habitat loss caused by forest clearing, wild turkeys
were almost extirpated from Georgia by the early 1900s. As
forests regenerated after the great depression, available wild
turkey habitat increased. Implementation of conservation laws,
advances in wildlife science and funding for wildlife restoration
programs all played a role in the come back of the eastern wild
turkey.
In 1973, Georgia’s estimated wild turkey population was
17,000 birds but that year marked the start of the Georgia’s wild
turkey restoration program. Since that time with the help of its
conservation partners, Wildlife Resources Division associates and
volunteers have trapped and relocated more than 4,800 wild
turkeys to over 300 suitable sites across the state. The wild turkey
restoration program ended in 1996 and since then, with adequate
protection and biologically sound hunting seasons, wild turkey
populations in Georgia have increased to over 400,000 birds.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS & REPRODUCTION
Wild turkeys breed in the spring. After spending the winter
in bachelor flocks, adult males, known as toms or gobblers, will
disband and begin to strut and gobble in an effort to attract hens
for mating. Adult males weigh between 17-21 pounds and have
black-tipped breast feathers. The tom’s featherless head is whitecrowned with varying amounts of blue and red. Male gobblers
have beards that grow to about 3-5 inches per year. Males also
have spurs on their heals, which can be over 2 inches long.
Gobbling usually begins in March but can start in lateFebruary or early April. A gobbler will mate with as many hens
as possible and hens will mate with a gobbler more than once.
Juvenile males, known as jakes, will also strut and gobble but are
less successful at courting hens than older males. Jakes can be
distinguished from the adult male gobblers by the 4-6 central
feathers on the jakes tail fan. These feathers will be longer than
the other tail feathers forming an uneven edge to the tail. Jakes
also have smaller beards and spurs than adult gobblers.
Most hens will breed and nest during their first spring. Hens
are smaller than toms and weigh 8-11 pounds and have bufftipped breast feathers giving them a brown or tan coloration. The
head of the female is a dull gray-blue with feathers extending up
the back of the head. Although some hens can have beards most
hens do not have beards or spurs. Hens are capable of retaining
viable sperm for about two months. Therefore, all the eggs for
and entire clutch and renesting attempt can be fertilized from one
mating episode.
As the breeding season comes to an end, usually in April,
hens nest in shallow depressions formed by scratching, squatting
and laying eggs. Nests are often at the base of trees or against
fallen logs and are usually located near open areas. The nest is
usually in dense enough vegetation to conceal the nest but allow
the hen to view her surroundings from ground level.
Hens lay about one egg each day until the clutch, usually
10-12 eggs, is complete. Hens incubate the nest for about 28
days. After the poults hatch, they are ready to leave the nest in
about 12-24 hours. The poults can walk and feed on insects when
they are a day old. The hen will brood the chicks when they are
cold or hot. The poults can take short flights when they are 8days old and when they are about 2 weeks old; they begin to roost
in trees at night with the hen. Most broods stay together 4-5
months and female poults may remain with the hen until the start
of the next breeding season.
DIET
Almost 80% of the poult’s diet in their first week of life is
insects such as grasshoppers, beetles, and true bugs. Insects are
high in protein, which is important for the fast-growing poults. As
the poults age, they include more plant material in their diet.
Quality wild turkey habitat is important to the poult’s survival and
consists of weedy or grassy openings with knee-high vegetation
and scattered trees or shrubs that cover approximately 50 percent
of the ground.
Plant material makes up most of the adult turkey’s diet.
Adult turkeys eat a variety of nuts, berries, plants and insects.
Examples of foods eaten by wild turkeys include: acorns,
beechnuts, pecans, pine seeds, blackberries, wild grapes,
blueberries, poison ivy berries, grass seeds, snails and
grasshoppers. Turkeys have also been known to eat small frogs,
lizards and crayfish.
HABITAT
Wild turkeys need a mixture of forests and open areas to
meet their seasonal habitat requirements. Quality turkey habitat is
comprised of mature woodlands with open understories and welldeveloped midstories, interspersed with grassy or weedy
openings.
By early autumn pecking orders have been established
within flocks and by late autumn, males and females have usually
formed separate flocks and moved into their winter range. This
shift is normally from field to forest habitat. As the growing
season ends, seeds and insects in the fields become less available
and hard & soft mast in the forest become preferred foods.
Throughout the winter turkeys congregate into large flocks in
areas that offer shelter from the elements and reliable food
sources. The following spring as the weather warms and the days
become longer the flocks break up and the breeding cycle starts
again.
For more information, contact a WRD Game Management Section Office or call (770) 918-6416.
The Georgia Department of Natural Resources
Wildlife Resources Division (WRD)
WHITE-TAILED DEER FACT SHEET
Introduction
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) once were nearly
eliminated in the state of Georgia, but through diligent wildlife
management efforts deer were successfully restored throughout
the state. In fact, the current deer population exceeds 1.2 million.
Deer are a valuable natural, recreational, and economic resource in
Georgia, bringing in more than $800 million per year in hunting
license fees, sporting equipment sales, food and land leases.
However, deer densities in some localized areas have the potential
to inflict significant damage to forestry, agricultural or
horticultural crops, home gardens, and shrubbery. But because
deer are important both biologically and economically,
management of their numbers requires consideration on
numerous levels.
Biology
Scientific studies of white-tailed deer in recent years have
provided much knowledge of deer biology and behavior. For
example, adult deer in Georgia range from 70 to 250 pounds with
bucks (males) typically weighing more than does (females).
Breeding season (called “the rut”) extends from October to
January and peaks in November. Gestation period is 200 days.
Newborns, called fawns, are spotted and range from 4-8 lbs.
Most are born between May and August with a peak in June. For
the first month or so, does spend very little time with fawns,
hiding them for hours at a time and returning to nurse them only 4
or 5 times per day. This tactic helps keep scent levels very low so
predators are not attracted to newborns. Young deer begin
foraging on plants within a month and are completely weaned in
three months.
Deer home range sizes in Georgia vary from 150 acres to more
than 1,200 acres with does having smaller ranges than bucks.
Smaller ranges also are found in higher deer populations in better
deer habitat such as that found in the Georgia Piedmont and
Upper Coastal Plain. Deer are most active around dawn and dusk.
This is called a crepuscular activity pattern.
Although most hunters think in terms of bucks, it is the doe
segment of the herd that determines most of the differences found
in deer populations. For example, depending on the food supply
and the total deer population, does can produce twins, singles, or
not bear any fawns at all. If births exceed the total death rate from
hunting and other causes in any particular year, then the
population increases. Eventually, the population reaches a size
where it exceeds the available food supply (“carrying capacity” of
the land) resulting in lower birth rates, poor antler development,
lower body weights and eventually a lower population as the
remaining food supply is permanently damaged.
The deer herd is the result of a complex interaction of food supply,
population size, births, deaths, movements, weather, and past
history. Hunting is the one tried and true method for managing
deer populations in order to reach desired deer herd objectives.
Deer Antlers
Antler development is important to many hunters and deer
observers. Buck antler development is controlled by age, nutrition,
and genetics. However, in Georgia genetics do not appear to be
an important factor. For most deer in this state, age is the single
most limiting factor for antler development, followed by nutrition.
Under heavy hunting pressure, bucks simply do not live long
enough to produce large antlers. In parts of the Lower Coastal
Plain and Mountains, bucks live much longer but nutrition levels
often are poor which limits antler development. Likewise, poor
nutrition also occurs in the Piedmont when deer herds get so large
that their food supply is reduced in quality or quantity resulting in
poor antler growth.
Food Habits
Deer are the only native animals that routinely browse plants 4 to
5 feet above the ground. They eat about five pounds per day (dry
weight) of hundreds of species of both native and non-native
plants but have definite preferences for certain plants, fruits and
nuts. Some of their favorites include Japanese honeysuckle,
acorns, grapes, apples, persimmons, greenbrier, blackberry,
maple, blackgum, grasses, corn, clover, summer weeds, and
sumac.
Habitat
Deer are known as generalists because of their ability to thrive in a
wide variety of habitats including forests, woodlots, suburbs, golf
courses, extensive agriculture, swamps and coastal marshes. High
deer numbers are a serious concern because they can destroy their
own habitat and that of dozens of other species, even causing
extirpation of plant species. The best deer habitat contains mixed
ages of pine and hardwood forests interspersed with openings and
agriculture. This provides the optimum combination of food,
cover, and water that are the essential components of any habitat.
Additional WRD Publications
•
•
Deer Herd Management for Georgia Hunters
Controlling Deer Damage in Georgia
For more information, contact a WRD Game Management Office or call (770) 918-6416.
Revised 04/04