Download THE IMPERIAL INSPECTION TOURS IN THE MING DYNASTY AND

THE IMPERIAL INSPECTION TOURS
IN THE MING DYNASTY AND ZHENG HE’S VOYAGES
TO THE WESTERN OCEAN (INDIAN OCEAN)
HE PINGLI,
ZHOU CHANGMING
Jin Shu·Li Zhi Xia (Chapter of Rites in The Book of Jin) says, ”There were
no emperors in ancient China who would not embark Xunshou or an
inspection tour of their realms”. The Chinese character Xun means patrol, go
on circuit, cruise and Shou means winter hunting or imperial tour. The
combination of two characters Xunshou is defined as making an inspection tour
of the realm. Xunshou originated from the armed inspection activities
undertaken by tribal chiefs in the primitive societies with military democratic
system in ancient China. Such activities were intended to awe most would-be
enemies into submission and intensify their tribal alliance. Up till pre-Qin
period, the imperial Xunshou was gradually institutionalized, systemized and
ritualized, thus becoming a ruling pattern underlying feudal regalism. It is not
only a demonstration of Confucian ideas about feudalism such as a united
whole under the sun, rule by rites, rule by morals and personal rule and diligent
government by emperors, but also an implementation of the strategy for
safeguarding their countries and pacifying their borders. Therefore, imperial
xunshou is a force-backed activity involving military force, politics, economy,
culture and religion.1
During the periods of the Yong Le Emperor (1360–1424) and the Xuan
De Emperor (1398–1435), Zheng He (1371–1433) was placed as an envoy to
undertake seven voyages to the western ocean. He had traversed more than one
hundred thousand li of immense water spaces and visited over 30 countries in
Asia and Africa. His expeditions have left a laudable chapter in the maritime

HE PINGLI, Professor Emeritus of political science, Dean of College of Political Science
and Law, Shanghai University of Political Science and Law.
 
ZHOU CHANGMING, Professor of English studies, Dean of College of Foreign
Languages, Shanghai University of Political Science and Law.
He Pingli, Zhou Changming
history of both China and the world as well as in the history of Sino-western
cultural exchange. At the same time, Zheng He’s gigantic fleet on his voyages to
the western ocean not only reflected the unrivaled economic strength of the
Ming Dynasty at the high tide of China’s feudal society, but also exhibited the
unique powerful navy fleet in the world at the time. Just as Dr. Joseph Needham
(1900-1995) indicated that the navy of the Ming Dynasty might have been more
powerful than that of any Asian country in history, even more powerful than
that of any other European country of the times. Even if the European
countries were united, their navy was still not powerful enough to be compared
with the Ming Dynasty’s navy force.2 Around the motives or purposes behind
his seven expeditions to the western ocean, there have been different views,
such as looking for Emperor Jianwen (1398–1402), containing Timurid Empire
(1370–1405) pacifying territorial waters and establishing tribute trade. As a
matter of fact, if a research is conducted on the history of imperial inspection
tours of several thousand years, the main motive of Zheng He’s voyages was
self-evident, i.e. to embark imperial inspection tours to overseas tributary
countries or kingdoms on behalf of Emperors of Ming with a view of
establishing and consolidating the tribute system and opening up a grand
scenario in which nations are all the guests of the Ming Dynasty and the world
is at peace. In all, its intention was to particularly demonstrate the feudal politics
of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty, such the concepts as divine right of
emperors, imperial virtue and benevolence, and a united whole under the sun.
*
1. ”Make Manifest Transforming Power of the Imperial Virtue and
Treat Distant People with Kindness”
Zhu Di (1360–1424) was said to usurp the throne to become Emperor
Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty after a coup. His rebelling act was entirely
against the traditional legitimism held by intellectuals and historians in China.
That is why the prominent historian Fang Xiaoru would rather be punished
with the extermination of ten agnates than refuse to write the inaugural address
for his accession. When he was executed, he wrote his last poem at the
execution site:
Everyone knows why there was a nationwide disorder like this,
So presumptuous were treacherous court officials,
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Loyal ministers cried with blood and tears,
And willingly made sacrifice to the Emperor (Jianwen Emperor) for nothing else,
Alas, I take this for no regret in conscience.
In fact, the popular belief that Zhu Di usurped the throne from Jianwen
Emperor shadowed his whole life. Such an opinion was not only prevalent in
the Ming Dynasty, but also even in the Qing Dynasty. So, in order to ‘get rid of
the old and creating the new’ in terms of ideology and belief and to establish
himself as the legitimate successor of the Hongwu Emperor (1328 –1398), he
spared no efforts to create a grand scenario, i.e. nations came to pay tribute to
him and the whole empire was ordered and united under the Heaven. He
intended to let people know that such a scenario could only be established by
the true son of the Heaven who had imperial virtue and benevolence. Instead
of launching any religious and superstitious campaign to do so, Cheng Zu of
the Ming Dynasty was determined to build up a united and prosperous empire
to justify that he was chosen by the Heaven as the legitimate successor. In
general, he is considered the greatest emperor of the Ming Dynasty, and to be
among the greatest Chinese emperors in the Chinese history of over 2000 years.
That is why Ming Shi (the History of Ming) said, ‘Cheng Zu used force to pacify
the land and the sea, awe nations into submission and dispatch envoys all over
to establish friendly relations with foreign countries…to go as far as to the
most northern of the northern countries and to the most southern of the
southern seas, to the place where the sun rises and the place where the sun sets,
to the place where a wagon or ship can go.’ In one word, he wanted to build a
great Ming Dynasty which would be bigger than the three previous dynasties. In
order to fulfill his ambitions, Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty led his army to
fight against the Mongol forces up to the north and consolidated his rule at
home without a stop. Because of this, the risk-taking xunshou to tributary
nations beyond the horizon and from the ends of the earth was left to his
favorite eunuch or court officials. So, Zheng He’s voyages to the western ocean
were the actual embodiment of the will of the Ming government to inspect or
patrol countries overseas. His mission and activity pattern were similar to those
of emperors in ancient China who undertook xunshou to their realms. On the
whole, Zheng’s voyages to the western ocean did not go beyond the traditional
implications and the category of concepts of xunshou.
In an edict descended by Ming Tai Zu (the Hongwu Emperor,
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1328 –1398), he said, ‘Since ancient times when an emperor came to throne, he
would impose his imperial control over barbarians within his land and force
barbarians outside his land into submission.’3 So, to emphasize the legitimacy
of his accession, Cheng Zu of the Ming dynasty acted on the imperial
traditions of the Ming Dynasty and gave his edict to foreign nations or
kingdoms upon the departure of Zheng He’s voyages by stating as follows:
‘I, upon the order of the Heaven, rule the realm. My will is just like the will of the
Heaven that spreads morals and benevolence. I hope that as far as the sun and the moon shine
and the frost and dew immerse, my subjects, old and young, can settle down for a living and
have their own shelters. I order Zheng He to take my edict to you. You should follow the will
of the Heaven, abide by my words, discipline yourselves and avoid breaking laws; Do not
bully the widows and do not humiliate the weak; I hope that all of you enjoy a happy and
peaceful life. If you would like to visit my dynasty sincerely, all of you will be awarded. This
edict will represent my presence by my envoy.’4
In the 14th of Yong Le (the year 1416), Nanjing Tianfei Palace Stele which
was erected in Nanjing after the return of their first western voyage, in 1407,
also recorded the purpose of Zheng He’s voyages by stating as follows:
When His Majesty Taizu (Emperor Hongwu) began to rule the four seas (the whole
world), his realm was as vast as what the Heaven can cover and as far as the Earth can
extend. Every subject at home and abroad is grateful to His kindness. People know their
responsibility and do what they should. Everything was in good order. I, the sovereign,
succeeded his grand Dynasty, kept in mind the will of the ancestors, dared not to be lethargy
and constantly follow the changing situations home and broad. So I send my envoy to spread
my imperial virtue and benevolence to overseas countries, guiding them with rites and
persuading them to change their barbarian customs.5
In order to impetrate and thank the bless of Tianfei (the Celestial
Spouse), Zheng He and his colleagues founded Stele of Record of Tianfei
Showing Her Presence and Power before their 7th western voyage in Fujian
province. The stele also revealed the purpose of Zheng He’s expeditions as
follows, “to ascend more than one hundred large ships to go and confer
presents on them in order to make manifest the transforming power of the
(imperial) virtue and to treat distant people with kindness.”
So, from the mentioned above, you can see, one of the important
objectives of Zheng He’s voyages is to “moralize” the barbarians and aliens
overseas. This is exactly the same as the objectives of Xunshou sponsored by
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The imperial inspection tours in the Ming Dynasty…
ancient emperors, i.e. to propagate rituals and impart moralities across the four
seas.
As indicated in Li Ji· Zhong Yong (Chapter about Doctrine of the Mean
in the Book of Rites), ‘Every country under the Heaven has nine scriptures’ which
guide the relationship between the central dynasty and its tributary countries.
The eighth scripture is to conciliate dukes or princes under an emperor, i.e. to
eliminate rebellions and remove crisis, promote as scheduled and award as
stipulated and give more and get less. The nineth scripture is to mollify the
people in the distant place, i.e. to visit and receive guests. As a matter of fact,
this is a policy of conciliation to princedoms, tributary states and ethnic groups
by the central dynasty. The central idea of the traditional relationship between
China and barbarian states in ancient times is to establish the tributary relations
and Zong Fan relations (the Central Kingdom and its frontier ethnic groups) in
terms of politics, promote the exchange of tribute and grant in terms of
economy, to moralize and change barbarian states or ethnic groups with
Confucian concepts and moralities in terms of culture instead of using force to
expand and plunder economically. So, the main mission to be fulfilled by Zheng
He’s western voyages is ‘to declare the Ming’s imperial calendars, propagate its
culture and education, benefit the people under the Heaven and make no
exception wherever he and his fleet arrive.’6 The Selected Papers on Zheng He’s
Voyages to West compiled by Zheng Hesheng and Zheng Yijun has abundant
records of imperial calendars, official hats and attire, imperial examination
system, books, music instruments and weights and measures granted as gifts to
foreign countries overseas in the early period of the Ming Dynasty during
Zheng He’s western voyages. His voyages in the name of the Ming Emperor
can be seen as part of xunshou, exhibiting the moralization and change of
barbarian states and ethnic groups beyond the horizon.
In China’s ancient political and religious systems, the utmost activity was to
promulgate the new emperor’s calendar and change the color of official attire
which was not only the most important procedure concerning the fate of
monarchs and orthodox thoughts, but also the aspects related to ceremony and
propriety. The History of Ming said: ‘To change the imperial calendar means to
clarify the Heavenly laws and make the people assured…’. The Book Yi Tong
Gua Yan (The Comprehensive Examination of the Hexagrams) indicated that
‘as an emperor, he will certainly change the imperial calendar when he mounts
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the throne and alters the color of official attire so as to satisfy the three airs and
three colors of the Heaven and the Earth’.7 To promulgate Zhong Hua Zheng
Shuo (the Imperial Calendar of the Central China) means promulgating the
central kingdom imperial calendar of the Ming Dynasty, recognizing the
orthodoxy of Cheng Zu of the Ming and accepting the ceremonious culture of
China. during the reigns of the Hong Wu Emperor and the Xuan De Emperor,
the tributary states Ryukyus and Champa were granted the imperial calendar
and ten civilian calendars. These two calendars have their explanatory notes for
62 events to follow. The imperial calendar has designated 30 auspicious
activities, i.e. offer sacrifice to gods or ancestors and prayer, bestow favors and
promotion, submit a memorial to the emperor, descend imperial edict, recruit
elites, be of age, embark inspection tour, hold banquet, dispatch troops, send
envoy, betroth, marry, recruit servants, have a bath, make a face-lifting, have a
hair-cut, shape baby fingernails and foot nails, treat a disease, enter a school, put
bed in place, tailor clothes, build/ repair and install house column and roof
beam, renovate city walls, open up a channel and drill a well, clean up house and
move in, plant, raise cattle, go fishing and hunting. The civilian calendar has laid
down 32 auspicious events, i.e. offer sacrifice to gods or ancestors and prayer,
submit a memorial to the emperor, go to one’s posts, betroth, marry, be of age,
visit relatives and friends, go for an outing, enter a school, recruit servants, put
bed in place, tailor clothes, collect money, transact business, open the market,
spin and weave, have a bath, have a haircut, treat a disease, open up a channel
and drill a well, open up a channel and drill a well, build, repair and install house
column and roof beam, break ground and bury, clean up house, move in, install
rice grind, plant, raise cattle, go fishing and hunting, level out roads and
dismantle house and walls.8 As you can see, the activities listed in the imperial
calendar and civilian calendar are all regulated. Such rites and ceremonies will
certainly change the customs and habits of barbarian states or ethnic groups.
Furthermore, the color of attire is also an important part of social rites and
regulations. As indicated in the historical records:
The color of people’s attire can tell what people have achieved and what social status
they have attained. Therefore, people should wear what they deserve to and should not go
beyond that. These are the rites for attire. If people do not wear attire as required, everything
will be in disorder. Rules will be required of both the people at the high social status and the
low social status. Those who have fewer moralities should have a simple attire and those who
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have more moralities should wear a complicated attire. That is why a wise man is in the
position of the son of the Heaven, wearing attire decorated with the jade, flowers, sun, moon,
dragon, gold, silver and palace, etc. While those who are able to support the wise man will be
conferred with land and people, wearing attire decorated with black and white patterns, less
fierce dragon and smaller wagons. Then, this will show their benevolence and capability.9
As you can see, the hats and attire in China’s feudal society are the
symbols of differing people in terms of social status whether noble or humble.
They are classified as different categories which can tell the social status of the
people whether wealthy or poor. 10
Zheng’s western voyages displaying the transforming power of imperial
virtues and morality to the overseas barbarian states shows the relationship
between the Central Kingdom and its frontier ethnic groups since the ancient
times and discloses the political implications of Xunshou. Fei Xin, attendant on
Zheng commended, ‘we can not fail to live up to the expectation of His Majesty.
What we do is to bestow official seals, books, rites and money notes and coins
with benevolence and morality, to influence the barbarians and let them
acknowledge allegiance to His Majesty, and share their contributions with His
Majesty.’11
*
2. ”Awe Would-be Enemies into Submission by Force”
Since the times when xunshou was carried out, the policy of combination
of kindness and threat, hardness and softness, and diplomacy and force, in
another word, a carrot and stick policy was adopted. That was why Zheng He
would lead an army of approximately 30,000 soldiers and over a hundred huge
treasure ships with him. Its purpose was to show off the Ming Dynasty’s
military muscles and national strength. Zheng’s western voyages were different
from the diplomatic mission of general sense just because he represented the
emperor of the Ming Dynasty. The Book of Zheng He in the History of Ming
recorded his mission as follows:
As scheduled, Zheng He visited all the tributary states. When he arrived, he would
declare the imperial edict to extend the imperial authority and virtues and bestow kings and
ministers largesse. For those who did not yield to acknowledge allegiance, he would use force to
awe them into submission. The states or ethnic groups who were scared by his mighty army or
were greedy for Chinese gifts and goods would surrender without a struggle and offer great
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hospitality to Zheng He. Even though some frontier ethnic groups or states did not yield before,
yet, due to Zheng’s expeditions, they all yielded to pay tributes to China.
Therefore, in order to boost the imperial prestige of the Ming Dynasty
and reassure the flourishing scenario when all barbarian states or frontier ethnic
groups acknowledge allegiance to and pay a visit to the Ming Dynasty, Zheng’s
expeditions were to clean up the seaways, punish rebellions and establish a
stable, orderly, tribute-pay and peaceful environment. So, when he arrived in an
alien state whose ruler did resist and failed to show relevant respect to him,
Zheng He would capture him. If the soldiers of the state were robbers or
pirates, Zheng He would order his soldiers to annihilate them. As a result, the
sea routes are clear and safe and the people in the tributary state live in peace.12
Just as Fei Xin said in his book Description of the Starry Raft: ”If those small
barbarian states in the distant place resisted imperial moralization or
transformation, forces would be sent to suppress them. Zheng never failed to
make military preparation so as to consolidate the territory and open up the
grand cause.”
During the Zheng’s western voyages, a pirate named Chen Zu-yi who
resided in and ruled Palembang used to plague and plunder the trade vessels
along the seaways. The piracy gave a lot of troubles to the envoys who were on
the tributary mission to the Ming from time to time and nearly hindered the
envoys mission and trade exchange. The tributary states or kingdoms almost
temporarily lost the connection with the Ming Dynasty.13 Zheng He led his
army to capture Chen and cleaned up the tributary seaways. Then he set up an
oversea office in charge of military affairs in Palembang. On his third voyage
down to the western Ocean, King Alagonakkara in Ceylon often disturbed the
neighboring countries and plagued the envoys between them. The countries all
suffered a lot from his hostility.14 Zheng He and his troops took him by
strategy and brought him to Nanjing. Siam and Java often bullied and invaded
their neighboring kingdoms, Zheng led his troops to crack down and force
them not to do so. When there was a civil disturbance in Sumatra, Zheng sent
his army to assist the local king to quell the unrest.15 In addition, Zheng and his
fleet took responsibility to escort the visiting kings, envoys and commercial
freight traveling along the seaways. As recorded in the Book Ying-yai Sheng-lan
(The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores) by Ma Huan, the kings and envoys
from Malacca, Ceylon, Cochin, Salalah and Hormuz all followed Zheng’s
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The imperial inspection tours in the Ming Dynasty…
treasure ships to pay respects to the Ming Emperor. In the winter time of Yong
Le Emperor’s 14th year, 19 envoys from the states such as Malacca and Calicut
were ready to return home after winding up their tribute-pay visits, the
Emperor ordered Zheng He to go together with them with gifts in return.16 In
the Yong Le Emperor’s 19th year, when 16 envoys from the states such as
Hormuz completed their visits to the Ming Dynasty and were ready to return
home, the Emperor bestowed gifts in return to them and ordered Zheng He to
escort them with the gifts such as brocade, damask, gauze, foulard and silk.17 In
fact, Zheng He’s voyages in the name of the Ming Emperor to inspect the
overseas states and kingdoms not only stabilized the domestic situations in the
countries along the western ocean, but also created grand occasions for the
Central Kingdom (the Ming) and the tributary states to meet and celebrate.
In the early Ming Dynasty, any tributary state who recognized the Ming
Dynasty as their suzerain were required to submit the maps of their countries
showing “the mountains, valleys and rivers” so that the administrative posts
were assigned to them. This is an important symbol for their allegiance. For
example, during the reign of the Hong Wu Emperor, an imperial edict was
issued to all tributary states to submit their geographic map, records of steles
and tablet and books when their envoys came to the Ming Dynasty.18 When
Zheng He was on his voyages to the western ocean, he, on behalf of His
Majesty, conferred a title of Zhenguo Mountain (a mount safeguarding the
country) to some overseas tributary states. As chronicled in the History of
Ming:
In the 6th year of the Yong Le Emperor, Cheng Zu of the Ming conferred a mountain
in Brunei as the Zhenguo Mountain.19
In the 7th of the Yong Le Emperor, Zheng He, by an imperial order, bestowed silver
seals and official attire and hats on Parmesvara as King of Malacca and conferred the title of
the Zhenguo Mountain to a mountain in the country by erecting a stele inscribed with the
imperial edict on it.20
In the 10th of the Yong Le Emperor, Zheng He paid another visit to Cochin,
conferring a seal to its king and a title of the Zhenguo Mountain to a mountain by inscribing
the imperial edict into the rocks.21
In the 14th of the Yong Le Emperor, Zheng He was dispatched by His Majesty to
bring gifts of brocade, damask, gauze, and colorful silk to the kings of tributary states.22
The conferment of the title of the Zhenguo Mountain shows the
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authority of the Ming Dynasty over its tributary states and embodying the
traditional ideology of establishing its united realm. In the third year of the
Yong Le, Cheng Zu of the Ming bestowed the imperial stele of the Zhenguo
Mountain to the kingdom of Malacca and said to his court minister that the
previous emperors of the Ming Dynasty were to establish a united realm by
conferring mountains and rivers and granting treasures and jades to tributary
states by showing our kindness with no exception. The stele says,
”Conferring mountains, establishing territories, bestowing treasure and
granting titles, treating all countries with kindness and descending edicts and
orders, this means that every country is treated equally.”23
In order to obtain the military protection of the Ming, the small states or
kingdoms were often willing to have such conferment. For example, the
kingdom of Malacca was often invaded by Siam, so its king was willing to be a
prefecture of the Ming, to pay tributes every year and make a request for
conferring the title of the Zhenguo Mountain to its mountain within its
kingdom.24 Another example is that the kingdom of Brunei asked the Ming to
confer the title of the Zhenguo Mountain to the mountain in its kingdom so
that the kingdom of Java did not dare to force Brunei to pay tributes to it
anymore because the Ming accordingly took action to against Java .25 Cheng Zu
of the Ming wrote the inscription for the Zhenguo Mountain in Brunei by
saying that his duty was to safeguard the imperial territory, to observe the
traditional ceremonies and rites, to respect and awe, to treat everyone equally
and with no exception and hope for peace everywhere…the strong will be
warned not to bully the weak and the majority will be warned not to humiliate
the minority because everything under the Heaven is bestowed by Him.26 In his
inscription to the stele of the Zhenguo Mountain in Cochin, Cheng Zu of the
Ming said that he as the ruler of the empire treated the subjects in the Central
Kingdom and tributary kingdoms equal and inseparable.27 So, the conferment
of mountains and rivers has given Zheng He’s voyages a good reason, i.e. he
represented the son of the Heaven to inspect and patrol the territory by
conferring mountains and rivers and defending towns and villages. Such
inspection or patrol carries the important implications of Xunshou systems and
rites since pre-Qin period.
Zheng He’s voyages of displaying the military power of the Ming Dynasty
to the tributary states or kingdoms and threatening by force if there is any
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resistance was actually the part of the traditional Xunshou strategies adopted by
the earlier emperors or kings in China to maintain the relationship between the
ruler and the ruled and between the suzerain and tributary states. So, to
maintain a unified territory, the Ming had no choice but send its strong armada
to patrol the western ocean, otherwise, it would be difficult for the Ming to
maintain its imperial authority and control. As historical records indicated as
follows:
In the 10th year of Yong Le, the Emperor found that the states or kingdoms in the
short distance paid their tributes by sea, but those who were far away from the Ming did not
show up. So he ordered Zheng He to visit those states or kingdoms with his sealed edict.28
In the 5th year of Xuan De (reigned 1426–1435), the Emperor found that some
tributary states did not pay tributes for a long time, so he sent Zheng He and Jing Hong-fu to
visit 17 states such as the kingdom of Hormuz29.
When Ren Zong (1378-1425) was on the throne, he was not attentive to the long-term
strategy and when Xuan Zong (1398—1435) succeeded, he seldom sent his envoys to the
states or kingdoms beyond the horizons, as a result, there were fewer and fewer tributes.30
Traditionally, if the Central Kingdom did not send any envoys to its tributary states or
kingdoms, the tributary states or kingdoms would not pay tributes either.31
Therefore, if the Ming Dynasty did not frequently inspect or patrol the
western ocean “to moralize the barbarian states beyond the horizon and present
them with official seals and gifts, these overseas states would not voluntarily
show respects and offer tribute to the Ming by traversing a ten thousands
kilometers with loyalty and sincerity. As regards the phenomenon, the western
scholar John J. Heerens indicated in his book The History of Far East that when
Zheng’s fleet returned from the south China sea, the small states scattering over
the islands and isles immediately fell apart and fought against each other within
themselves as they used to.
*
3. ”Give more and Get less and Award Everyone”
Zheng He’s voyages to the western ocean was intrinsically the continuation,
extension and expansion of such an inspection and patrol tour system and
ceremony since pre-Qin period and was the embodiment of Cheng Zu
Emperor’s desire to maintain the united empire and to pacify the sea territory.
However, his activities like moralizing the barbarian states beyond the horizon
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He Pingli, Zhou Changming
or from the ends of the earth were acting on the traditional feudalistic ruling
thought. Just like Emperor Yang (569 - 618) in Sui Dynasty who made his
inspection tour to northwest China and invited the barbarian states with tribute,
i.e. the strategy of giving more and getting less for maintaining the political
relationship between the suzerain and tributary states and displaying the
traditional spirit of benevolent rule, Cheng Zu Emperor of the Ming also
adopted the strategy. He gave an edict to his Ministry of Rites by stating that as
the court imposed an imperial control over the alien states, the court should let
them feel grateful and thankful to the court. Any tribute payer should be
bestowed in return. Even though he was given more than what he paid as
tribute, it should be regarded as acceptable.32 Therefore, at a place where he
arrived, he would declare the imperial edict and bestow extensively to every
tributary state or kingdom, 33 showing kindness of the Ming Emperor to
everyone and every country in the western ocean.34 In some places, people
from kings, queens and tribe chiefs to villagers were all awarded with gifts.35
However, those tributary states were only allowed to bring local products or
goods as tribute to the Ming Dynasty.36 It was ruled in the Ming that the court
should give more gifts than the tribute and impress the envoys with more
kindness so that the tributary state would have more respect and loyalty to the
court when they went back home.37 Sometimes, the rule was used in an
unbelievable way. For instance, in the 9th year of Yong Le, the visiting king of
kingdom of Malacca was bestowed much more than expected, his gifts
including two suits of samite joss robes, two suits of qilin robes, a lot of golden
and silver utensils, draperies and curtains and lined mats. In addition, his wife,
concubines, nephews and aides were also given gifts such as color silk, gauze
and outer clothes. When the king was leaving, he was presented with a golden,
jade-inlaid belt, two scepters, two horses, some gold, silver, paper money notes
and copper coins, brocade, damask, gauze, and colorful silk. His wife was
conferred with queen robes, silver, brocade and gauze and his aides were also
awarded.38 During the reign of Emperor Xuan Zong, the envoy of Malacca
came to visit the Ming with no tribute. At first, the official of rites refused to
give the envoy gifts. The emperor said that the envoy traveled several thousands
li to show their loyalty, there is no reason not to grant him gifts. Then the envoy
was given gifts such as outer clothes and paper money as usual. Hence, such
award-bestowing relationship was actually to seduce and cajole the tributary
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states with materials and encouraged them to be loyal to the Ming. Apart from
that, the envoys can trade their goods with China and make profits. Just as Tang
Zhou, the noted Ming court official indicated that the tribute envoys came to
the Ming for two purposes: first, to use the imperial authority of the Ming to
deter adjoining states and second, to trade with the Ming for the benefits of
their own states.39
In the periods of Yong Le and Xuan De, Zheng’s voyages to the western
ocean did help create a scenario of tributary states thronging Nanjing to pay
respect and loyalty, but spent too much the dynasty treasury. In the period of
Yong Le, some court officials even complained in front of the Yong Le
Emperor that the barbarian tribute envoys abused our kindness in successive
years and if not stopped, our dynasty would be doomed. Other court officials
said that the dynasty’s wealth was limited and there was no good giving
barbarian states so much.40 As a result, in the late period of the Cheng Zu
Emperor and in the reign of Emperor Ren Zong, the voyages to the western
ocean were even regarded as wasting manpower and money and weakening the
dynasty.41 So, such a voyage was suspended.
What caused Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty and the Xuan De Emperor
to sponsor a series of voyages to the western ocean? In fact, the Ying-yai
Sheng-lan disclosed the answer.
The two emperors actually did not intend to spend too much of their treasury to cajole
the far-off tributary states. Their reputation of generosity and kindness was already spread
as far as to the northernmost ethnic groups. What they intended to do was to let every subject
under the Heaven be aware of their virtues and kindness.
The marvelous expeditions of Zheng He to the western ocean came a few
decades before the famous European voyage of discovery made by Columbus
in 1492. Zheng He's fleets were incomparably larger than that of Columbus’ in
terms of ship tonnage, number of ships and number of crew members. Due to
the traditional patterns and thinking modes for xunshou over several thousand
years and the personal determination and desires of individual emperors as well
as their sudden and weak political motivation, the motive of Zheng’s voyages
can not equal to the time spirit of voyages of geographic discoveries in west
Europe. Their navigational activities have brought different historical periods to
the societies. Because Zheng’s voyages did not represent the time spirit of
newly arising commercial economy flourishing overseas, such voyages were only
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He Pingli, Zhou Changming
a flash-in-the-pan in history just like many famous inspection and patrol tours
conducted by ancient Chinese emperors. The objectives of Zheng’s voyages
were still bound to such a united order and faith as Celestial Empire, Central
Kingdom and Barbarian Tribes, failed to break through the limits of destiny,
morals, rites and benevolent rule and were unable to go beyond the united
thinking logic and traditional ideology of “Every place under the Sun belongs
to me”. Unfortunately, such grand and spectacular political and military
activities were even unable to open a window on the outside world for the
Chinese feudalistic rulers in the Ming and Qing Dynasties who instead gave an
order of Hai Jin (sea ban, i.e. a ban on maritime activities). When it came to the
periods of the Qian Long Emperor (1711–1799), the Jia Qing Emperor
(1760–1820) and the Dao Guang Emperor (1782–1850) in Qing Dynasty, the
rulers had no idea at all of what was happening outside the world. When the
western colonizers began to knock on the door of Qing Dynasty, they still
ridiculously and proudly declared, ”our Celestial Empire asks for nothing from
overseas”. Liang Qichao, a Chinese scholar, journalist, philosopher and reformist
during the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), meaningfully indicated that:
Just like those people who embarked an inspection tour to the territories beyond the
realm of our country. The nature of their hope for such tours was nothing but the ambitions
of powerful emperors who just wanted to enjoy themselves by extending their imperial virtue
and kindness to all nations who in turn came to acknowledge allegiance. So, the people who
completed their voyages were also just satisfied with what they hoped for, what else can be
expected! The nature of their tours is the same. Zheng He’s heroic undertakings in Cheng Zu
of the Ming Dynasty can be beheld in glory or triumph. However, there are countless number
of many followers who later on did the same as what Zheng He did, yet, the nature of their
tours or voyages is the same, too. Alas! 42
Columbus’s navigational activities of discovery conforming to the
historical trend of the times were inspired by the strong and continuing social
and economic development, resulting in the ‘blood and fire’ original capital
accumulation and the commercial and price revolution in Europe. It was his
exploration that was the day breaking of capitalist times in the world and an
epoch-making event in history.43
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The imperial inspection tours in the Ming Dynasty…
Notes
He Pingli, Xunshou and Fengshan—the Culture Implications of Feudalism, China Qi Lu Publishing
House, 2003.
2 Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, Translated in Chinese, China Science
Publishing House, 2005, p.479.
3 Ming Tai Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Tai Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.26.
4 Yong Le’s Seventh Year, Zheng He’s Pedigree Chart·Chi Yu Hai Wai Zhu Fan Tiao (Imperial Edicts to
Overseas Tributary States).
5 Zheng Hesheng, Zheng Yijun, The Selected Papers on Zheng He’s Voyages to West, Part II, Qi Lu
Publishing House, 1983, p.856.
6 Ming Shi Gao· Zheng He Zhuan (Book of Zheng He, Manuscripts of the History of Ming).
7 Song Shi, Li Zhi Yi ( History of Song, Chapter of Rites Part I).
8 Qin Tian Jian, vol. 223, Daming Huidian (Bureau of Astronomy, vol.223, Collected Codes of
Ming).
9 Hou Hanshu·Yu Fu Zhi Shang ( Chapter of Wagon and Attire, Book of the Later Han).
10 Jia Yi, Xin Shu·Fu Yi (Notes on Attire, New Book).
11 Fei Xin, Xing Cha Sheng Lan ·Xu ( Preface, Description of the Starry Raft).
12 Stele of Tongfan Deed (deed of foreign connection and exchange, The stele is erected in the
Tianfeigong in Taicang where Zheng He starts his journey in the sixth year of the Xuan De
Emperor).
13 Ming Shi ·Jiu Gang (Book of Palembang, History of Ming).
14 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.77.
15 Zheng Yijun, Chapter 6 in ‘ Zheng Ge’s Voyages to West’, China Hai Yang Publishing House,
1985.
16 Ming Shi· Zheng He Zhuan (Book of Zheng He, History of Ming).
17 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.110.
18 Ming Tai Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Tai Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.48.
19 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.60..
20 Zui Wei Lu or the Book of Ming, vol. 36.
21 Ming Shi·Ke Zhi (Book of Cochin, History of Ming).
22 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.183.
23 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.47.
24 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.47.
25 Ming Shi·Bo Ni (Book of Brunei, History of Ming).
26 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.60.
27 Ming Shi·Ke Zhi (Book of Cochin, History of Ming).
28 Ming Shi·Hu Lu Mo Si (Book of Hormuz, History of Ming).
29 Ming Xuan Zong Shi Lu (Annals of Xuan Zong of the Ming Dynasty), vol.18.
30 Ming Xuan Zong Shi Lu (Annals of Xuan Zong of the Ming Dynasty), vol.19.
31 Ming Shi·Adan (Book of Aden, History of Ming).
32 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.119.
33 Gu Zhen, Xi Yang Fan Guo Zhi·Zi Xu ( Preface, Records of Western Tributary Countries)
34 Huang Shengzeng, Xi Yang Chao Gong Dian Lu·Zi Xu (Preface, Notes of Tribute by
Western Countries).
35 Fei Xin, Xing Cha Sheng Lan ·Zhao Wa (Java, Description of the Starry Raft).
36 According to Foreign Countries Part I, the 15th Volume of Ming Huiyao (Collected Proceedings of
1
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He Pingli, Zhou Changming
Ming), in the 12th year of the Hongwu Emperor, State of Korea paid a hundred jin of gold and
ten thousand liang of silver as tribute to the Ming, yet the tribute was declined because it was
more than agreed upon. In the period of the Xuan De Emperor, the State of Korea was
advised again that products such as gold and jade are not local ones in Korea, so they are not
proper tribute. Local products as tribute are good enough as token of loyalty..
37 Ming Tai Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Tai Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.154.
38 Shen Mao Shang, Hai Guo Guang Ji·Man Ci Jia ( Chapter of Malacca, Records of Overseas
Countries).
39 Ming Shi·Tang Zhou Zhuan (Book of Tang Zhou, History of Ming).
40 Ming Cheng Zu Shi Lu (Annals of Cheng Zu of the Ming Dynasty), vol.120.
41 Ming Shi ·Wai Guo (Book of Foreign Countries, History of Ming).
42 Liang Qichao, Zheng He, Great Navigator of China, Collected Works of Yinbingshi, vol.3.
43 Daily Telegrap (UK), the Staites Times (Singapore,) Mar. 4, 2002 and Xin Min Evening, Mar.5, 2002,
(As reported, amateur historian Gavin Menzies spent 14 years studying the navigational map of
Zheng He and his fleet, claiming that Zheng He discovered North and South America 72 years
before Columbus and Zheng's fleet explored virtually the entire globe. As a matter of fact, the
nature of Zheng He’s voyages has determined the narrowness of his political motivation. Even
though he had made some “discoveries”, his undertakings after all made some change only in
the record of maritime history and failed to play a role in pushing the history of the world.
Even some publications say that people in Yin Shang and Jin dynasties might have been to
America, yet, such activities are just of a transitory nature in history and can not become a
driving force in the historical development of human society.)
***
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