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The Silk Road
Trade, Religion and Cultural Diffusion
Camel Caravans
along the Silk Road
Crossed the
Northern and
Southern
Routes around
the Tarim Basin
and Taklamakan
Desert
The Silk Road
• Connected East and West
Phase One: 150 BCE to 907 CE
Phase Two: 13th – 17th Century CE
• Cultural Diffusion & Blending
Monks Spread Buddhism
Nomadic Traders Spread Islam
Christian Pilgrims built Monasteries
Eastern Chinese traded their ample supplies of:
Silk, Jade, Spices, Glass, Porcelan, Pearls, Perfumes
Western Kingdoms traded
high demand goods like:
Gold, Cotton,
Grain, Furs, Salt
Horses, Camels,
Wool and Carpets
SUSA
The Tomb and Shrines
the Prophet Daniel
• Hebrew & Islamic tradition states that
Daniel was buried in river near the
location of the tomb and shrine
• Syrian writer Al-Baladhuri described the
burial of Daniel’s coffin in 638 CE
• Arab chronicler Ibn Hawgal wrote about
the location during the 10th Century CE
• Jewish traveler Benjamin of Tudela visited
shrine between 1160 – 1163 CE
MOSUL
St. Elijah’s Monastery
(Dair Mar Elias)
• Nestorian Christian Monastery
founded around 595 CE
• Was the regional center of the
Nestorian Christian community
for centuries
• Records indicate that monastery
was still active in 824 CE and
1028 CE
• Persian leaders ordered its
destruction in 1713 CE
• Christian Pilgrims continued to
cared for the ruins, reservoir and
natural springs for centuries
MERV
Ruins of the Nestorian Monastery
• Merv served as the center of Nestorianism in
Central Asia during the 6th and 7th Centuries CE
• Monastery was the home of the Bishop of Merv
between 642 – 651 CE
Sanjar’s Mausoleum
• Abbasids established Islamic rule
in Merv by 748 CE
• Mausoleum contained a Mosque
constructed about 1095 CE
• Sultan Sanjar constructed fortified
citadel at Merv in the 12th Century
BUKHARA
• Located on the main Silk Road
• Center for Trade, Scholarship,
Culture & Religion for Centuries
• Highly multi-cultural and religiously
tolerant until the Islamic Conquests
• Remains of the Tarfir Gate date
back to the 5th Century CE
• The City Fortress (or Ark) was
also constructed and occupied
in the 5th Century CE
• Bukhara served as a center for
Zoroastrianism, Buddhism,
Nestorianism, and Islam
BUKHARA
Makh or Maghak Mosque
• Zoroastrian temple (5th Century CE)
• Buddhist temple (6th Century CE)
• Earliest Mosque built shortly after
Arab invasion in early 8th Century)
Namazgah Mosque
• Originally constructed in 1119 CE
• Expanded during the 13th Century
during the Mongol Il-Kahnid period
• Additional ornate tiles and decorative
designs added in the 15th Century
during the rule of Timur the Lame
SAMARKAND
• Located on the main Silk Road
• Major Center for Trade, Religion,
Culture and Learning
• City had an established Jewish Quarter
as early as the 2nd Century CE
• Excavations indicate importance
of Zoroastrianism (2nd to 7th Century CE)
• Chinese missionary Xuanzang visited city
in 631 CE and mentioned seeing both
Buddhist monks and Zoroastrian priests
• Nestorian Bishopric was located in the city
by the 6th Century CE
• Arab invasion occurred in 8th Century CE
• Ruhabad Mausoleum and Mosque built by
Timurid Empire by 1380 CE
SAMARKAND
Shrine of Ibn Ismail al-Bukhari
• Islamic Imam who collected and
recorded traditional sayings of
Muhammad (circa 9th Century CE)
• Compiled the Hadith in a book
titled Al-Jami al-sahih.
• Book considered second only to the
Quran (Koran)
• Tomb built upon his death in 870 CE
• Celebrated place of pilgrimage for
Muslims throughout Central Asia
KASHGAR
Tashkurgan “Stone City”
• Located at the junction of the
Middle and Southern Silk Roads
• Established during the Han
Dynasty (circa 200 BCE – 200 CE)
• Abandoned during the Qing
Dynasty (circa 17th Century CE)
• Ruins of Buddhist Temple, Walls,
Watch Towers & Tang period coins
Id Kah Mosque
• Built by Saqsiz Mirza circa 1442 CE
• Incorporated the structure or an older Mosque
dating back to 996 CE
• Largest Mosque in China (16,800 sq meters)
• Accommodates up to 20,000 worshippers
KASHGAR
Tash Rabat
• Oldest archeological evidence
dates back to 10th Century CE
• Historical evidence suggests
it has been both a Buddhist
and Nestorian Monastery
• Located along the main the Silk Road
• By the 15th Century it served as a resting
place for traders, pilgrims, and travelers
• Vaults and passages indicate that it was
once used as a place of worship
KHOTAN
Rawak Buddhist Stupa
• Built in the third or fourth century C.E.
• Kingdom of Khotan was a leading
center of Trade & Buddhist learning.
• Decreased trade along the Silk Road
between Han & Tang Dynasties
• Abandoned (4th to 7th Century CE)
Mazar-tagh Fort
• Deep in the Taklamakan Desert
• Located on a bluff overlooking Khotan.
• Was a strategic site for controlling the
north-south trade along the Silk Road.
Tomb & Mosque of Imam Hashim
• Believed to have been one of the first Islamic
missionaries in the region around 1,000 CE.
• Shrine site includes the reputed tomb of the
Imam, a mosque, and several related tombs.
• Mazar or shrine is an Islamic pilgrimage site.
• Khotan was a Buddhist holy site for centuries
before the coming of Islam.
KHOTAN
TURFAN
Nestorian Monastery &
Library at Shui-pang
• Located along Northern Silk
Road and Taklamakan Desert
• Discovered in 1905
• Established c. 6th Century CE
• Fragments of manuscript
containing segments of
the Book of Psalms
found within the ruins
• Recorded circa 6th or 7th
Centuries using Pahlavi
writing (Middle Persian)
TURFAN
Bezeklik Caves or Grottoes
• Located along the Taklamakan
• 77 Rock-cut caves in the area
of the “Flaming Mountains”
• Buddhist Shrines dating from
the 5th – 9th Centuries CE
• Each shrine has Rounded arch ceilings
• Walls contain painted murals and
Frescoes of Buddha of varying quality
• Other figures depicted include pilgrims
from China, India, Persia and Europe
• A Diasporic community of the Uyghur
TURFAN
Gaochang City (Ruins)
• Located on Northern rim of the
Taklamakan Desert in Xianjing
Province
• Busy political center and trade
location along the Northern Silk
Road
• Active between the Han and
Ming Dynasties (2nd Century BCE
to 16th Century CE)
• Visited by the Chinese traveler
Xuanzang in 628 CE
• Ruins of Buddhist Stupa and
Nestorian Monastery have
been uncovered since 1900.
TURFAN
Village & Caves of Toyuk
• Located along the Taklamakan
• Buddhist caves and monastic
complexes carved out of hill
(circa 6th – 12th Centuries CE)
• Muslim expansion into area
occurred by 12th Century CE
• Islamic Mosque and Mosoleum
erected (circa 14th Century CE)
• Known as “Little Mecca”
• Favorite site of pilgrimage by Muslims
of Central Asia
• Half-Hadji (Half as sacred as a Hadji)
Magao Caves or Grottoes
• Located in an Oasis within the Gobi
Desert along the Silk Road
• System of caves and temples dug out of
limestone rock between 366 – 1002 CE
• Includes 492 Buddhist temples with
elaborate sculptures and artwork
• A sealed cave containing thousands of
manuscripts discovered in early 1900’s
• Manuscripts included Buddhist, Confucian,
Taoist, Nestorian & government writings
DUNHUANG
MONGOLIA
Khara-Khoto “Black City”
• Located in Inner-Mongolia along
the Gobi Desert
• Thriving trade center along the
Silk Road
• Founded by the Tangut Empire
in 1032 CE
• Walled fortress taken by
Genghis Khan in 1226
• Visited by Marco Polo
circa 1272-1274 CE
• Abandoned circa 1372
• Buddhist Stupa and
Islamic Mosque found
• 2,000 Books, scrolls and
manuscripts uncovered
MONGOLIA
Ruins of a Nestorian City
in Inner-Mongolia
• Discovered in 1932
• Along Northern Caravan Route
• Visited by Marco Polo and
Friar John of Monte-Corvino
in the 13th Century CE
• Ruins showed evidence of
large public buildings
• Established 7th Century CE
• Yisun Sume-in Tor or “Ruins of the Nine Temples”
• Several stones containing distinct Nestorian crosses
were uncovered (possibly pieces of a church entrance)
• Other stone carvings in Chinese were also present
Chang’an
Daqin Pagoda
“The Roman Tower”
• Earliest surviving Christian Church in
China
• A Church and Monastery were built in
640 CE by Nestorian missionaries
• Mentioned on the Nestorian Stele
(stone monument) erected in 781 CE
• Persecution of Christians in China led
to it being abandoned in 845 CE
• Occupied as a Buddhist temple in 1300
• Abandoned due to earthquake in 1556
• Underground chambers of complex no
longer reachable due to earthquakes
Chang’an
Nestorian Stele (Stone Monument)
• Is a Chinese Stele erected during the Tang Dynasty
in 781 CE
• It is a 279 cm tall limestone block with both Chinese
and Syriac (Syrian style) text inscribed on it
• It reveals the development of a Nestorian
community by the Christian missionary Alopen in
635 CE
• It was buried during the campaigns to rid China of
all foreign influences in 845 CE
• It was unearthed and restored during the Ming
Dynasty (c. 1623 – 1625 CE)
The Nestorian Stele, on its turtle pedestal, and without the brick
cladding/pavilion seen in earlier pictures, photographed by Frits Holm in
1907, shortly before it was moved to the Beilin Museum
Chang’an
Great Mosque of Xi’an
• Founded in 742 CE
• Completely Chinese in Architectural style
(neither domes nor minarets allowed)
• Arabic lettering and decorations adorn
the interior of the structure
• Restored and renovated during the
Ming Dynsasty by Emperor Hongwu
KAIFENG
Jewish Synagogue
• First Jews came to Keifeng along
the Silk Road during the early Jin
Dynasty (circa 3rd Century CE)
• Hebrew letters identify Jewish
traders in China during the Tang
Dynasty (circa 8th Century CE)
• A Jewish community of 10,000
people established during the
Sung Dynasty (960-1127 CE)
• Synagogue was constructed in
1164 CE under the Qing Dynasty
ZHONGDU (Beijing)
Tianning Pagoda Temple
• Buddhist temple built during the Liao
Dynasty (circa 1100 – 1120 CE)
• Completely Chinese in Architecture with
Thirteen stories and Buddhist Scupltures
Niujie Mosque
• First built in 996 CE during Liao Dynasty
• Completely Chinese in Architecture
• Arabic Calligraphy allowed inside & outside
• Renovated in 1442 CE by Ming Dynasty
The Silk Road
Cultural Diffusion by Land and Sea