Download I. Imperialism of Righteousness

I. Imperialism of Righteousness
*Background: Many Americans believed that the crisis of 1893-7 had been due to basic structural
problems: overbuild economy and an insufficient market for goods; although the profits from total sales had
grown, the output increased more rapidly (the # of millionaires increased to +4000 in 1892, but the majority
of working people lacked enough income to buy a significant portion of what they produced
*Term Coined by Social Gospeler Josiah Strong who advocated a “imperialism of righteousness”
conducted by white Americans who, with their “genius for colonizing” were best suited to “Christianizing”
and “civilizing” everyone else
*By the end of the century, Populist and Progressive efforts had failed and there was instead a rise in the
national governing class + the bureaucratic state
A. The White Man’s Burden: Celebration of America’s industrial brilliance which simultaneously
separated the Anglo-Saxons from people of color, i.e civilization from savagery; globalization and
materialization of American racism + showcased need for commercial expansion abroad
1) The Columbian Exposition (May Day 1893): Commemorated the 400th anniversary of
Columbus’s landing in Chicago- example of a “timekeeper of progress” (President McKinley)
2) The Agriculture Hall: Showcased the production of crops w/symbolism of worldwide markets for
American products; included displays for tourists attracted to luxury
3) The World’s Fair: Displayed representatives of the people who populated foreign lands and served as “a
grand opportunity to see…the material advantages which civilization brings to mankind.”(Frederick Ward
Putnam, head of Harvard’s Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology)
a. World Congress of Beauty: “40 Ladies from 40 Nations”
B. Foreign Missions: The Push for overseas expansion coincided w/a wave of religious evangelism
-Early in the 19th century, Protestant missionaries focused on converting North America (In the West
or cities) Began traveling abroad
-Number of Methodist Churches increased, mostly led by women in Asia
-By 1915, +3 million women had enrolled in 40 denominational missionary societies, surpassing all
other women’s organizations in the United States!
-College Activity: A w/missionary – The Student Volunteers for Foreign Missions spread under the
slogan “The Evangelicization of the World in This Generation”
-What did they do?: Taught schools, provided rudimentary medical care, offered vocational training programs
and encouraged young men/women to pursue college education
-YMCA and YWCA: Set up nondenominational missions for the working poor in American cities +
embarked on worldwide crusades to reach non-Christians (After the foreign branches multiplied in the next decade, an
observer ironically suggested that the US had 3 great occupying forces: the army, the navy, and the “Y”)
C. An Overseas Empire: Business and political leaders set their sights also on distant lands; unlike the
European imperialists, Americans believed in selective colonization and economic domination
1) William Henry Seward: Secretary of State who had predicted that foreign trade would play an
increasingly important part in the American economy (exports tripled to $1.5 billion) who was responsible
for advancing many of the imperialist principles during the end of the 19th century
2) Alaska “Seward’s Icebox” (1867): Trade negotiated w/Russia and acquired for $7.2 mill
3) James G. Blaine’s Good Neighbor policy: Wanted the markets of the southern neighbors to
provide increase in demand, dominations of local economies, importation of raw materials at low price;
sometimes, American investors simply took over the principal industries of the small nations, undercutting
national business classes
*Depended on the peace and order of Latin American States
Warned Europeans powers not
to meddle…
a. Sea Power (1883-): Huge navy grew w/steel fighting ships
- The Influence of Sea Power upon American History, 1660-1873 (1890): Captain Alfred Thayer
Manhan explained that international strength rested on open markets AND the control of colonies thus
annexation was necessary; defined foreign policy at the time
4) Hawaii (July 7th, 1898): American Missionaries had already bought huge parcels of land, also
encouraging American businesses to buy into sugar plantations (by 1875, USA dominated sugar trade); new
treaty emerged in 1887 allowing the US to build a naval base at Pearl Harbor American planters organized
the overthrow of King Kalakau and secured a gov’t allied to their economic interests (Queen Liliuokalani)
The Queen responded by issuing a new constitution which granted her more discretionary power In
1893, under the pretext of ‘protecting America’s prosperity’, military forces deposed the queen’s regime and
proclaimed an American protectorate
-President McKinley approved annexation in 1900l Hawaiians were not told
-Considered stepping stone in Asian markets
5) Chinese Open Door Policy: Americans feared that the Manchu dynasty would fall to
European/Russian/Japanese colonial powers thus prohibiting trade w/the US Secretary of State John Hay
proclaimed through his policy that the US enjoyed the right to advance its commercial interest anywhere in
the world
a. Boxer Rebellion: President McKinley sent 5,000 troops w/out congressional approval to
put down the anti-foreign secret society the Harmonious Righteous Fists rioting repeatedly in Beijing and
surrounding foreign embassies; dramatized the Manchu regime’s inability to control subjects Second series
of Open Door Notes
II. The Spanish American War
*As president, McKinley reached out for markets and too his country into a war, while proclaiming its
humanitarian and democratic goals- the most popular was since the War for Independence; short-lived,
claimed few lives, cheap BUT by the end, American had joined Europe and Japan in quest for empire as a
world power
-Alternative to Edward Bellamy’s commonwealth
A. A “Splendid Little War” in Cuba:
1) American Background: Southerners had always hoped to acquire Cuba for the expansion of
slavery, but settled for the status quo after several unsuccessful propositions During the 19th century, the
U.S resolved to protect Spain’s sovereignty over Cuba against the encroachment of other powers
2) Cuban Background: Movement for independence began in the mid-1860s when Spain began imposing
taxes on the island
insurgents ran under the nationalist leadership of José Martí Spanish troops killed
and created him a martyr, spurring further rebellion (1895) Declared Cuba a republic
4) American Involvement: Some invoked the legacy of their own war for independence and thus supported
the movement for Cuba Libre, inspired by stories of Spain’s treatments In 1896, both parties adopted
planks supporting Cuba’s freedom but not directly aiding revolutionaries
a. USS Maine: Battleship stationed in Havana harbor to rescue American citizens exploded in 1898
newspapers charged Spanish conspiracy and called for revenge “Remember the Maine! To Hell with Spain!”
Declaration of War was eventually issued, but only w/inclusion of amendment that specified no intention
to exercise sovereignty ought to be present
● More Southern troops volunteered, which symbolically united North and South in patriotism
● Many African Americans
5) Outcome: Publicized and inspired the formation of relief societies; Fewer than 400 Americans died in
battle, disease
-Wanted to make Cuba a protectorate
6) Platt Amendment: Sponsored by Republican senator Orville H. Platt of Connecticut, requiring
Cuba to pay for the land provided for American bases, devote national revenues to pay back debt, sign no
treaty detrimental to American interests, and acknowledge the right of the US to intervene at any time
-Later incorporated into the Cuban-American Treaty (1903)
B. War in the Philippines: Made the US a global colonial power, but people began wondering whether
the US could become an empire w/out sacrificing its democratic spirit i.e were the subjugated people really
so fortunate to be under American rule?
1) During Spanish American War: Especially attractive prospect as a natural way station to the markets of
mainland Asia; Shortly after Congress declared war on Spain, President McKinley dispatched 5,000 troops
under the leadership of George Dewey to “start offensive action.” McKinley refused to sign armistice
unless Spain relinquished all claims to Pacific islands; the plan for colonial administration was “to educate
Filipinos, to uplift and civilize and Christianize them.”
*The majority of islanders were already Christian and eager to create their own nation…
2) Rebellion: Conflict in the form of modern guerrilla warfare between Cuban Rebels (led by Emilio
Aguinaldo) vs. the Americans; 4,300 American lives had been lost in 1902, and 1/5 Filipinos was dead BUT
the US refused to pull out William Howard Taft headed a commission that established a special apparatus
to rule the Philippines in 1905 + Americans bought up the best land and invested in sugar economy
a. Why?: The Filipino Rebels 1st welcomed the Americans, but turned against them when they realized
that the American troops were not preparing to leave; abused the Filipino civilians to no end
3) Conquest: Evoked for its defenders he vision of empire and incentive for the US to advance interests in
the Caribbean (Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, St. John, St. Croix, Pacific Territories *)
4) Expansion (1900) Josiah Strong: Defended American overseas involvement by carefully distinguishing
between freedom and independence- people could achieve freedom only under the rule of the law, and white
Americans had proven themselves already in the realm of gov’t. Ideal of national independence should be set
aside for a period of enforced guidance
C. Critics of Empire: Although no mass movement formed to stop US expansion, distinguished
figured voiced their opposition strongly; the dissent either followed that a) Democratic- The US stood for
the right of national self-determination and consent of the governed i.e hypocritical b) Racist- The “savages”
were unworthy of American citizenship ; HOWEVER most Americans put aside their doubts and welcomed
the new era of imperialism, delighting in the idea that “No triumph of peace is quite so great as the supreme
triumphs of war.”
*Military leaders and imperialists did not distinguish between racist and nonracist antiimperialists,
calling all dissenters “unhung traitors” and demanding their arrest
1) Anti-Imperialist League: Founded by a small group of prominent Bostonians, it most supported American
economic expansion, but advocated free trade instead of political domination thus strongly opposed
annexation of new territory; brought together like-minded societies from across the country, encouraged
mass meetings, published tons
- A mass meeting was held in June 1898 to protest the “insane and wicked ambition which is driving the
nation to ruin” Huge increase in #s, almost ½ million
-Charles Francis Adams, Mark Twain, E.L Godkin (Nation editor), W.E.B Du Bois, and Thomas Wentworth
Higginson (Civil War veteran)
2) Notable Examples:
a. John Peter Altgeld: Former Illinois governor who toasted Filipino rebels as heros
b. Morrison Swift: Leader of Coxey’s Army formed a Filipino Liberation Society and sent antiwar
materials to American troops
c. Samuel Gompers: League vice-president who felt NO sympathy for conquered peoples, but simply
wanted to prevent colonized nonwhites from immigrating into the US and taking away labor
III. Progressive Diplomacy
*Commercial expansion under Presidents Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson
was backed by a growing military presence in the Caribbean, Asia, and Mexico
*Reflected a view of world affairs that stressed moralism, order, and a God-given role for the United States
A. Roosevelt’s Big Stick Policy: Roosevelt believed in the ‘natural superiority’ of Protestant AngloAmerican culture and the goal of spreading its values/influence; inspired by the West African proverb “Speak
softly and carry a big stick, you will go far.”
1) Panama Canal: Since the 1880s there had been talk among companied of building a canal
across the Isthmus of Panama to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans; the Colombian Senate rejected a
final American offer in 1903 Roosevelt encouraged the revolt against Colombia (keeping in touch with
Philippe Bunau-Varilla)
The US immediately recognized the new Republic of Panama and a treaty was
signed granting the US full sovereignty over the canal zone, for which America would pay +$25 million
a. Engineering: Complete triumph- took 8 years and cost hundreds of underpaid workers
their lives and gave the US a strategic and commercial advantage in the W/ Hemisphere
* “The inevitable effect of our building the Canal must be to require us to police the surrounding
premises.” Secretary of State Elihu Root (1905)
2) Roosevelt Corollary: Roosevelt’s policy asserting US authority to intervene in the affairs of
Latin American nations
-Used entirely to justify US intervention in the region (D.R, Cuba, Haiti, Nicaragua, Mexico)
3) Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Roosevelt worried about the future of the Open Door
policy in Asia (a total victory by Japan/Russia could upset balance of power and threaten American
enterprise there) Mediated a settlement at Portsmouth New Hampshire (for which he was awarded Nobel
Peace Prize) in which Japan won recognition of its dominant position in Korea and consolidated economic
control over Manchuria
a. Open Door: American Policy of seeking equal trade and investment opportunities in
foreign nations of regions
b. Domestic American-Japanese Relations: Extremely strained due to nativist fears of
a “yellow peril”, which led to increased racism and segregation
-Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907): Japan agreed not to issue passports to Japanese male
laborers and Roosevelt promised to fight anti-Japanese discrimination (ex. San Fransisco school board
persuaded to exempt Japanese students from segregation ordinance); Roosevelt did not want conciliatory
moves to be interpreted as weakness…
c. Navy: American naval strength was build up immensely in pacific; in 1908, sent
battleships to visit Japan in a display of sea power
d. Root-Takahira Agreement (1908): Reconciliation between the 2 powers in which
the “existing status quo” in Asia was affirmed, mutual respect was given for territorial possessions in the
Pacific + Open Door policy in China.
World War I (1914-1920)
I. The Great War
*Took an enormous human toll on an entire generation of Europeans and transformed the old power
relations/political map of Europe
*The United States entered the war reluctantly, and American forces played a supportive, rather than central,
role in the military outcome; YET, the wartime experience sharply impacted the nation’s economy
A. The Guns of August: The Triple Alliance (Central Powers- Germany, Austria, Hungary, Italy) vs.
the Triple Entente (Allies- Great Britain, France, Russia); the alliance system had become too entangled, and
conflict was sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo, Bosnia by a Serbian
nationalist
B. American Neutrality: Outbreak of war in Europe shocked Americans and the powerful cultural,
political, and economic factors made the urged impartiality impossible for citizens.
-US population included many ethnic groups w/close emotional ties to the Old World (1/3rd of the 92
million people in 1914 were “hyphenated”)- Germans/Irish shared the historical hatred of English rule, but
many Americans were at least mildly pro-Allies due to cultural and language bonds with Great Britain +
traditional friendship w/France
1) Propaganda from Europe: Difficult to measure the impact of war propaganda on American
public opinion, but it did highlight the human costs of the war and strengthened the convictions that
Americans should stay out of it
a. British: Exploited the language and heritage bonds while also publishing all the German
atrocities
b. Germans: Blamed the war on Russian expansionism and France’s desire to avenge its
defeat by Germany during the Franco-Prussian war
2) Trade: Early in the war, Britain imposed a blockade on all shipping to Germany; although the
US could have insisted on the right of nonbelligerents to trade w/both sides, Wilson really all but ended
trade w/Germany while trade w/the Allies increased dramatically (value of American trade w/Allies went
from $824 million- $3.2 billion by 1916; loans to Allies exceeded $2.5 billion vs. loans to the Central Powers
of $27 million)
*The great economic boom due to economic ties between the US and the Allies made it so that
the US was neutral in name only
C. Preparedness and Peace:
1) Tensions Flaring: In 1915, Germany declared the waters around the British Isles war zones i.e
enforcing unrestricted submarine warfare; The US issued a sharp protests to the policy and warning that
neutral ships were also at risk
a. Lusitania (May 7th, 1915): German U-boat sank the British liner off the coast of Ireland,
on which 128 American citizens were traveling (along with hidden war materials, which the passengers had
been warned could cause attack but w.e)
Wilson denounced the sinking as illegal/inhuman, and the
American press condemned the act as barbaric
-Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan resigns in protest against too-warlike policies
b. Sussex (March 1916): German U-Boat torpedoed the unarmed French passanger ship,
also injuring 4 Americans
-Wilson threatened to break off all diplomatic relationships w/Germany won temporary
victory, since Germany said they would check ships before blowing them up lol
2) Preparedness: Military buildup in preparation for possible US Participation in WWI
-The National Security League helped push for a larger army and navy + **a system of
universal military training (!!!)
-National Defense Act (June 1916): Doubled the size of the regular army and integrated the
state National Guards under federal control
-Spending increased for new battleships, cruisers, and destroyers
3) No, Peace!: Antiwar feeling was esp. strong in the S. and Midwest
-Woman’s Peace Parade: Thousands of women clad in black marched down 5th Avenue
-The American Union against Militarism: Lobbied against preparedness campaign + against
intervention in Mexico
-A group of 50 House Democrats, led by Claude Kitchin D. Wald and many of whom were
progressive reformers spoke out for peace
4) 1916 Election: Wilson recognized the active opposition to involvement in the war so adopted
the winning slogan “He Kept Us Out of War”, appealing mostly to progressives through his support of the 8 hr.
workday and pro farmer efforts; defeated Republican Charles Evan Hughes in a very close election
D. America Enters the War: Germany’s declaration of unlimited submarine warfare (for the purpose of
breaking British blockade and hopefully destroying the ability of Allies before the US could mobilize) made it
impossible for Wilson to keep neutrality and freedom of the sea
1) Zimmerman Note (March 1st, 1917): British cryptographers deciphered a telegram from
German Foreign Minister Arthur Zimmermann to the German Minister to Mexico, von Eckhardt, proposing
an alliance between Germany and Mexico offering United States territory to Mexico in return for joining the
German cause
“It is a fearful thing to lead this great peaceful people into war, into the most terrible and disastrous of all wars, civilization itself
seeming to be in the balance. But the right is more precious than peace, and we shall fight for the things which we have always
carried nearest to our hearts- for democracy, for the right of those who submit to authority to have a voice in their own gov’t, for
the rights and liberties of all small nations, for a universal dominion of right by such a concert of free people as shall bring peace
and safety to all nations and make the world itself at last free.” President Wilson
II. American Mobilization
*The overall public response to Wilson’s war message was enthusiastic yet the Wilson administration was
not certain about the Americans’ willingness to fight in Europe took immediate steps to win over public
support for the war effort
A. Selling the War:
1) Committee on Public Information (CPI): Gov’t agency during WWI that sought to shape
public opinion in support of the war effort through newspapers, pamphlets, speeches, films, ect. Led by
George Creel
-Aggressive campaign against all things German + a sophisticated agency for promoting the war
B. Fading Opposition: By defining the call to war as a great moral crusade, President Wilson was able
to win over many Americans esp. those liberals and progressives who were attracted to the possibility of war
as a positive force for social change
1) Randolph Bourne: Important voice of dissent who wrote a series of antiwar essays warning of
the disastrous consequences for reform movements of all kinds (sharp infringements on political and
intellectual freedoms to come!)
2) National American Woman Suffrage Association: Woman’s Peace Party (1915) founded by
feminists opposed to the preparedness campaign died; most women threw themselves into volunteer war
work, w/ Carrie Chapman Catt as their leader who believed that supporting the war might help women win
the vote- encouraged suffragists to mobilize women for war service of various kinds
*War work proved very popular among middle-class women b/c it gave them a leading role in
their communities
C. Racism in the Military: African Americans who served found severe limitations- organized into
totally segregated units which normally were assigned to lesser chores (1/5 actually saw combat); black
soldiers constantly endured humiliating/violent treatment esp. from southern white soldiers+civilians
1) Houston, Texas (August 1917): Black infantrymen armed themselves and killed 17 civilians→
The army executed 30 black soldiers and imprisoned 41 others
2) Distinction: The French gov’t awarded the Croix de Guerre to the all-black 369th US Infantry
regiment; 171 officers/enlisted men were cited for exceptional bravery; enjoyed extremely friendly reception
from French
D. Americans in Battle: General Pershing insisted that the AEF (American Expeditionary Force)
maintain its own identity + did not want to send Americans in unless they had had at least 6 months worth
of training; believed that the object of war should be the total destruction of the enemy’s military power.
1) Action: AEF forces helped the French stop the Germans and eventually took over the S.part
of a 200-mile front where they used more ammunition than the entire Union army had during 4 years of the
civil war
2) Legacy: Although most Americans managed to avoid witnessing 1st hand the horrors of
trench warfare, the war experience was a mixture of fear, exhaustion, and fatigue; +52,000 died in battle +
60,000 died form influenza/pneumonia
III. Over Here
*WWI represents the ultimate progressive crusade as the federal gov’t played an ever increasing role in
regulating the economy
A. Organizing the Economy: More control
1) War Industries Board (1917): The federal agency that reorganized industry for maximum
efficiency and productivity during WWI led by Bernard Baruch, who converted industrial plants into
manufacturing plants of wartime needs/materials
-Eventually handled 3000 contracts worth $14.5 billion
-Standardization of goods resulted in +savings and faster production
-ex. U.S Steel blah blah u kno
2) Food and Fuel Act (1917): Authorized the president to regulate the production and
distribution of the food and fuel necessary for war effort under the Food Administration, led by Herbert
Hoover (imposed price control on agricultural commodities, no rationing, raised prices of grain)
3) Methods: Persuasion through motivating propaganda encouraging local committees to
distribute info urging people to save, recycle, ect. + appeals for “Wheatless Mondays, Meatless Tuesdays,
Porkless Thrusdays- basically go back to simple living
4) Tax Structure: Shifted DRAMATICALLY b/c of the unprecedentedly large expenditures for
the federal gov’t ($33 billion)- income (min. income for tax lowered to $1,000) and profit taxes replaced
excise and customs levies as major source of revenue; rates were as high at %70 in some rates
5) Liberty Bonds: Interest-bearing certificates sold by the US gov’t under highly organized
patriotic campaigns that ultimately raised $23 bill
-Used w/the expansion of the $ supply → Federal debt went was $20 billion in 1920
B. The Business: The war meant expansion and high profits- total capital expenditure in US
expenditure went from $600 mill-$2.5 bill (1918); corporate profits tripled during the length of war
*Most important economic legacy of the war was the organizational shift towards corporatism in
American Business: Wartime need for efficiency in management/manufacturing/distribution was met only
by a larger reliance on the power of large corporations. Never had the business and federal gov’t cooperated
so closely + war agencies used public and private power = Genesis of the modern bureaucratic state
C. Labor and the War: Organized labor’s power/prestige grew during the war
1) Background: Expansion of the economy + wartime mobilization + decline in immigration=
labor shortage= intensified demand for workers; thus, the gov’t was force to recognize that labor was a
commodity that had to be protected → Higher wages, standard of living
2) Samuel Gompers: President of the American Federation of Labor who stressed
the “business unionism”- concrete gains through collective bargaining → 2 million members by 1914, most
of who were skilled white males
a. War: Pledged patriotic support for the war→ appointed to National War Labor Board
(acted as supreme court for labor, arbitrating disputes and working to prevent strikes)
-Accepted 8-hr. workday, right to organize unions, and equal pay for women
3) Wobblies: Unskilled workers who denounced capitalism as an unreformable system based on
exploitation and opposed entry into the war (“capitalist’s war” true)
a. Crackdown (1917): The Wilson administration responded to appeals from Western
business leaders and Justice Dep. leaders arrested more than 300 members + confiscated files→ mass trials/
convictions, which essentially ended America’s radical labor movement
b. Espionage Act: Law whose vague prohibition against obstructing the nation’s war effort
was used ^
*Marked the beginning of powerful political repression (think J. Edgar)
D. Woman’s Suffrage: The presence of so many new woman wageworkers + the highly visible
volunteer work of middle-class women was what secured the vote for women
1) General Volunteer Work: Selling bonds, saving food, organizing benefits, part of the Food
Administration and the Women’s Committee of the Council of National Defense
2) Before WWI: Fighting for woman’s suffrage had been waged in individual states, w/ western
states and territories leading the way, esp. the Rocky Mountain states and Pacific coast states b/c they did not
have the sharp ethnocultural divisions between Catholics and Protestants that hindered suffrage efforts in the
east (ex. the close i.d in the East between suffrage and prohibition movements lef many Catholics to oppose
the vote)
-Wyoming 1860 -Colorado 1893
-Utah 1870
-Idaho 1896
3)WWI: Provided a unique opportunity for suffrage groups to shift their strategy to national
campaign for a constitutional amendment
a. National American Woman Suffrage Association: (see above) Pursued moderate policy of lobbying
Congress for amendment and calling for state referendums
b. National Woman’s Party: Militant organization formed by Alice Paul and other Western
women who borrowed tactics from English suffragists i.e practicing aggressive and dramatic strategy of
agitation
-Burned the President’s speeches
-Chained themselves to the White house
-Hunger strikes
***Made the NAWS seem more acceptable to Wilson and generated a great deal of
publicity/sympathy from the public
4) Outcome: Carrie Chapman Catt argued that the fight for democracy must begin at home, and
that the passage of the woman suffrage was nothing more than a “war measure” Won Wilson’s support,
who in 1917 urged congress to pass the amendment as “vital to winning the war” Approved by Congress
in 1918 and Senate in 1919 In August, 1920, Tennessee gave the final vote needed to ratify the 19th
Amendment
E. Prohibition: The movement had attracted many Americans since before the Civil War, and by the
early 20th century the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union had become the single largest women’s
organization in American history
- The war fervor was a crucial boost the cause, as man people refused to drink in breweries with
German names + outlawing beer and whiskey could help conserve precious grain
-1917: A coalition of progressives and rural fundamentalists in Congress pushed through a
constitutional amendment proving for a national ban on alcoholic drinks; the 18th Amendment was ratified by
states in 1919 and became law in 1920
F. Public Health: Wartime mobilization brought deeper gov’t involvement w/public health (sex
hygiene, child welfare, disease prevention)
1) Venereal Diseases: Rates as high at 6% in some states among draftees presented a manpower
problem for the army; In April 1917, the War Department mounted a vigorous campaign which attracted the
energies of progressive-era sex reformers to educate troops on the dangers of contracting these diseases
(syphilis and gonorrhea) + distributed condoms
-Under direction of Raymond Fosdick and Commission on Training Camp Actvities
-Venereal Diseases declined by +300% during the war
-The Division of Venereal Diseases was created in 1918 as a branch of the U.S Public Health
Service to establish clinics that offered free medical treatment to infected persons
2) Children: The Children’s Bureau (1912, as a part of the Labor Department) focused on issues
like the increase in employment of married women, day care, growth of child labor and delinquency
-“Children’s Year” organized by Julia C. Lathrop in 1918 was a campaign designed to promote
public protection of expectant mothers and infants + enforce child labor laws
-Maternity and Infancy Act (1921): Plan to institutionalize federal aid to the states for protection
of mothers and children, appropriating over $1 million a year to be administered to Children’s Bureau
Clinics for prenatal and obstetrical care greatly reduced the rate of infant and maternal mortality and disease