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Appendix
Topographic Map Symbols
The U.S. Geological Survey uses the following symbols to mark human-made
and natural features on all of the topographic maps the USGS produces.
APPENDIX
Source: U.S. Geological Survey
Appendix 825
Divisions of Geologic Time
The geologic time scale is divided into eons, eras, periods, epochs
(ehp-uhks), and ages. Unlike divisions of time such as days or minutes, the divisions of the geologic time scale have no exact fixed
lengths. Instead, they are based on changes or events recorded in
rocks and fossils.
Eon The largest unit of time is an eon. Earth’s 4.6-billion-year history
is divided into four eons.
The Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic eons together are called
Precambrian time and make up almost 90 percent of Earth’s history.
Geologic Time Scale
This geologic time scale shows the longest divisions of Earth’s history: eons, eras,
and periods.
Hadean eon
Archean eon
Precambrian time – 4.6 bya to 544 mya
4.6 bya*
*bya
†mya
4 bya
3.5 bya
= billion years ago
= million years ago
3 bya
Carboniferous
period
Phanerozoic eon
Paleozoic era
Cambrian period
544
mya
490
mya
Ordovician
period
Silurian
period
443
mya
Devonian period
417
mya
354
mya
Paleozoic Era at 544 Million Years Ago
For nearly 4 billion years, during most of
Precambrian time, no plants or animals existed.
At the beginning of the Paleozoic era, all life lived
in the oceans.
APPENDIX
Precambrian Time at 3.6 Billion Years Ago
826 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
The fossil record for Precambrian time consists mostly of tiny organisms
that cannot be seen without a microscope. Other early forms of life
had soft bodies that rarely formed into fossils.
The Phanerozoic eon stretches from the end of Precambrian time
to the present. Because so many more changes are recorded in the
fossil record of this eon, it is further divided into smaller units of time
called eras, periods, epochs, and ages.
The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: the Paleozoic, the
Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic. Each era is subdivided into a number of
periods. The periods of the Cenozoic, the most recent era, are further
divided into epochs, which are in turn further divided into ages. The
smaller time divisions relate to how long certain conditions and life
forms on Earth lasted and how quickly they changed or became extinct.
Proterozoic eon
Phanerozoic eon
Precambrian time – 4.6 bya to 544 mya
Permian period
1.5 bya
500 mya†
1 bya
today
Phanerozoic eon
Mesozoic era
Triassic
period
248
mya
Jurassic period
206
mya
Cenozoic era
144
mya
Quaternary period
Tertiary period
Cretaceous period
65
mya
2
mya
Cenozoic Era at Present Day
During the Mesozoic era, dinosaurs lived along
with the first mammals, birds, and flowering plants.
The first humans appeared in the later part of the
Cenozoic era, which continues today.
APPENDIX
Mesozoic Era at 195 to 65 Million Years Ago
Appendix 827
Fossils in Rocks
If an organism is covered by or buried in sediment, it may become a
fossil as the sediments become rock. Many rock fossils are actual body
parts, such as bones or teeth, that were buried in sediment and then
replaced by minerals and turned to stone. Fossils in rock include molds
and casts, petrified wood, carbon films, and trace fossils.
1
Some fossils that form in sedimentary rock are mold
fossils. A mold is a visible shape that was left after an animal or
plant was buried in sediment and then decayed away. In some cases,
a hollow mold later becomes filled with minerals, producing a cast
fossil. The cast fossil is a solid model in the shape of the organism. If
you think of the mold as a shoeprint, the cast would be what would
result if sand filled the print and hardened into stone.
Molds and Casts
Fossils in Rocks
Rock fossils show shapes and
traces of past life.
1
Molds and Casts
APPENDIX
An organism dies and
falls into soft sediment.
Over time, the sediment
becomes rock and the
organism decays,
leaving a mold.
828 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
Minerals fill the mold
and make a cast of the
organism.
2
The stone fossil of a tree
is called petrified wood. In certain
conditions, a fallen tree can become
covered with sediments. Over time,
water passes through the sediments
and into the tree’s cells. Minerals that
are carried in the water take the place
of the cells, producing a stone likeness
of the tree.
Petrified Wood
In this close-up, you can see the minerals that
replaced the wood, forming petrified wood.
3
Carbon Films Carbon is an element
that is found in every living thing.
Sometimes when a dead plant or
animal decays, its carbon is left behind
as a visible layer. This image is called
a carbon film. Carbon films can show
details of soft parts of animals and
plants that are rarely seen in other
fossils.
This carbon film of a moth is about 10 million years
old. Carbon films are especially useful because they
can show details of the soft parts of organisms.
4
Do you want to know how
fast a dinosaur could run? Trace fossils
might be able to tell you. These are not
parts of an animal or impressions of it,
but rather evidence of an animal’s
presence in a given location. Trace
fossils include preserved footprints,
trails, animal holes, and even feces. By
comparing these clues with what is
known about modern animals, scientists
can learn how prehistoric animals may
have lived, what they ate, and how
they behaved.
Trace Fossils
APPENDIX
A trace fossil, such as this footprint of a dinosaur in
rock, can provide important information about
where an animal lived and how it walked and ran.
Appendix 829
Half-Life
Over time, a radioactive element
breaks down at a constant rate into
another form.
Half-Life
% of original
unstable element
The rate of change of a radioactive
element is measured in half-lives. A
half-life is the length of time it takes
for half of the atoms in a sample of a
radioactive element to change from
an unstable form into another form.
Different elements have different
half-lives, ranging from fractions of
a second to billions of years.
100%
50%
% of element
that has changed
75%
87.5%
93.75%
50%
25%
12.5%
0 half-life
1 half-life
2 half-lives
3 half-lives
6.25%
4 half-lives
Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating works best with igneous rocks. Sedimentary
rocks are formed from material that came from other rocks. For
this reason, any measurements would show when the original
rocks were formed, not when the sedimentary rock itself formed.
Elements with half-lives of millions to billions of years are used to
date rocks.
Radioactive Breakdown and Dating Rock Layers
Igneous rocks contain radioactive elements that break down over
time. This breakdown can be used to tell the ages of the rocks.
1
1408 Million Years Ago
lava
APPENDIX
lava
magma
magma
830 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
0 half-life
1 half-life 2 half-lives
When magma first hardens into
rock, it contains some uranium
235 and no lead 207.
Uranium 235, an unstable element found in some igneous rocks, has
a half-life of 704 million years. Over time, uranium 235 breaks down
into lead 207.
2
704 Million Years Ago
Over time, the rock formed by
the volcano wore away and new
sedimentary rock layers formed.
0 half-life
After 704 million years, or one
half-life, half of the uranium 235
in the igneous rock has broken
down into lead 207.
igneous rock
3
1 half-life 2 half-lives
Today
Radiometric dating shows that this igneous
rock is about 1408 million years old.
These layers formed before the
magma cut through, so they must
be older than 1408 million years.
The layers that formed
on top of the igneous
rock must be younger
than 1408 million years.
0 half-life
1 half-life 2 half-lives
After 1408 million years, or
2 half-lives, only one-fourth of
the uranium 235 in the igneous
rock remains.
APPENDIX
Just as uranium 235 can be used to date igneous rocks, carbon 14 can
be used to find the ages of the remains of some things that were
once alive. Carbon 14 is an unstable form of carbon, an element
found in all living things. Carbon 14 has a half-life of 5730 years.
It is useful for dating objects between about 100 and 70,000 years
old, such as the wood from an ancient tool or the remains of an
animal from the Ice Age.
Appendix 831
Seasonal Star Maps
Your view of the night sky changes as Earth orbits the Sun. Some
constellations appear throughout the year, but others can be seen
only during certain seasons. And over the course of one night, the
constellations appear to move across the sky as Earth rotates.
When you go outside to view stars, give your eyes time to adjust to
the darkness. Avoid looking at bright lights. If you need to look
toward a bright light, preserve your night vision in one eye by
keeping it closed.
The star maps on pages 763–766 show parts of the night sky in
different seasons. If you are using a flashlight to view the maps, you
should attach a piece of red balloon over the lens. The balloon will
dim the light and also give it a red color, which affects night vision
less than other colors. The following steps will help you use the maps:
Stand facing north. To find this direction, use a compass or turn
clockwise 90° from the location where the Sun set.
2
The top map for each season shows some constellations that
appear over the northern horizon at 10 P.M. During the night,
the constellations rotate in a circle around Polaris, the North Star.
3
Now turn so that you stand facing south. The bottom map for
the season shows some constellations that appear over the
southern horizon at 10 P.M.
APPENDIX
1
832 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
WINTER SKY to the NORTH, January 15
Cassiopeia
Polaris
Ursa Major
Dubhe
Cepheus
Ursa Minor
Kochab
Alioth
Lacerta
Mizar
Draco
Alkaid
Canes Venatici
Deneb
Cygnus
Eltanin
NW
N
NE
WINTER SKY to the SOUTH, January 15
Bellatrix
Betelgeuse
Canis Minor
Orion
Procyon
Alnilam
Alnitak
Cetus
Rigel
Monoceros
Eridanus
Sirius
Canis Major
Adhara
Lepus
Columba
Fornax
Caelum
APPENDIX
Puppis
Pyxis
SE
S
SW
Appendix 833
Seasonal Star Maps
continued
SPRING SKY to the NORTH, April 15
Lynx
Kochab
Ursa Minor
Auriga
Camelopardalis
Polaris
Capella
Draco
Cepheus
Mirfak
Cassiopeia
Perseus
Vega
Algol
Lyra
Cygnus
Deneb
Triangulum
Lacerta
Andromeda
NW
NE
N
SPRING SKY to the SOUTH, April 15
Regulus
Sextans
Alphard
Virgo
Crater
Spica
Corvus
Hydra
APPENDIX
Antlia
Pyxis
Menkent
Centaurus
SE
834 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
Vela
S
Suhail
Puppis
Naos
SW
SUMMER SKY to the NORTH, July 15
Ursa Minor
Alioth
Cepheus
Lacerta
Polaris
Dubhe
Ursa Major
Cassiopeia
Camelopardalis
Andromeda
Lynx
Mirfak
Menkalinan
Auriga
NW
Perseus
Capella
Algol
Triangulum
N
NE
SUMMER SKY to the SOUTH, July 15
Serpens Caput
Altair
Serpens Cauda
Aquila
Ophiuchus
Scutum
Libra
Nunki
Antares
Sagittarius
Shaula
Scorpius
Sargas
SE
S
Lupus
Menkent
SW
Appendix 835
APPENDIX
Corona Australis
Seasonal Star Maps
continued
AUTUMN SKY to the NORTH, October 15
Mirfak
Draco
Polaris
Camelopardalis
Capella
Ursa Minor
Auriga
Dubhe
Alioth
Lynx
Alkaid
Ursa Major
Castor
Bootes
Canes Venatici
Pollux
NW
NE
N
AUTUMN SKY to the SOUTH, October 15
Pisces
Pegasus
Delphinus
Equuleus
Sadal Suud
Aquarius
Cetus
Deneb Algiedi
Deneb Kaitos
Capricornus
Fomalhaut
Sculptor
APPENDIX
Piscis Austrinus
Fornax
Microscopium
Ankaa
Phoenix
SE
836 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
ß Gruis
S
Grus
Alnair
Sagittarius
SW
The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram is a graph that shows stars
plotted according to brightness and surface temperature. Most stars
fall within a diagonal band called the main sequence. In the mainsequence stage of a star’s life cycle, brightness is closely related to
surface temperature. Red giant and red supergiant stars appear
above the main sequence on the diagram. These stars are bright in
relation to their surface temperatures because their huge surface
areas give off a lot of light. Dim white dwarfs appear below the
main sequence.
HIGHEST
THE H-R DIAGRAM
BLUE SUPERGIANTS
Rigel
Betelgeuse
Spica
RED
SUPERGIANTS
Polaris
<MA
IN S
EQU
ENC
E>
Arcturus
LUMINOSITY
RED GIANTS
Aldebaran
Sirius
Sun
RED
DWARFS
WHITE
DWARFS
LOWEST
Proxima Centauri
TEMPERATURE
APPENDIX
HOTTEST
COOLEST
Appendix 837
Time Zones
Because Earth rotates, noon can occur in one location at the same
moment that the Sun is setting in another location. To avoid confusion in transportation and communication, officials have divided
Earth into 24 time zones. Within a time zone, clocks are set to the
same time of day.
Time zones are centered on lines of longitude, but instead of running
straight, their boundaries often follow political boundaries. The starting point for the times zones is centered on the prime meridian (0°).
The time in this zone is generally called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT),
but it is also called Universal Time (UT) by astronomers and Zulu
Time (Z) by meteorologists. The International Date Line is centered
on 180° longitude. The calendar date to the east of this line is one
day earlier than the date to the west.
In the map below, each column of color represents one time zone.
The color beige shows areas that do not match standard zones. The
labels at the top show the times at noon GMT. Positive and negative
numbers at the bottom show the difference between the local time
in the zone and Greenwich Mean Time.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
A.M.
Monday
Sunday
Midnight
Noon
GREENLAND
Anchorage
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
P.M.
P.M.
P.M.
P.M.
P.M.
P.M.
P.M.
P.M.
P.M.
Stockholm
Edmonton
NORTH
Montreal
New York
Chicago
Madrid
Yekaterinburg
Moscow
Novosibirsk
London
AMERICA
International
Date Line (180º)
1
P.M.
Prime Meridian (0º)
11
P.M.
EUROPE
Paris
A S I A
Rome
Beijing
Los Angeles
Tokyo
Tehran
Cairo
Dakar
Mexico City
Mumbai
(Bombay)
AFRICA
Lagos
Caracas
Bangkok
Nairobi
Lima
SOUTH
AMERICA
AUSTRALIA
Rio de Janeiro
APPENDIX
Auckland
+11 +12–12 –11
Johannesburg
Sydney
Buenos
Aires
–10
–9
–8
–7
838 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
–6
–5
–4
–3
–2
–1
Hours
0
+1
+2
+3
+4
+5
+6
+7
+8
+9
+10
Characteristics of Planets
Some data about the planets and Earth’s satellite, the Moon, are
listed below. Some data, such as the tilt of Mercury and the mass of
Pluto, are not known as well as other data. One astronomical unit
(AU) is Earth’s average distance from the Sun, or 149,597,870 kilometers. For comparison, Earth’s mass is 5.97 1024 kilograms, and Earth’s
diameter is 12,756 kilometers.
Eccentricity is a measure of how flattened an ellipse is. An ellipse
with an eccentricity of 0 is a circle. An ellipse with an eccentricity
of 1 is completely flat.
Venus, Uranus, and Pluto rotate backward compared to Earth. If you
use your left thumb as one of these planets’ north pole, your fingers
curve in the direction the planet turns.
Characteristics of Planets
Characteristic
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto
Mean distance
from Sun (AU)
0.387
0.723
1.00
1.52
5.20
9.55
19.2
30.1
39.5
1.00
1.88
11.9
29.4
83.7
164
248
Period of
revolution
0.241
0.615
(88 Earth (225 Earth
Moon
0.075
(27.3 Earth
days)
(Earth years)
days)
days)
Eccentricity of
orbit
0.206
0.007
0.017
0.093
0.048
0.056
0.046
0.009
0.249
0.055
Diameter
0.382
0.949
1.00
0.532
11.21
9.45
4.01
3.88
0.180
0.272
0.06
0.86
1.00
0.15
1320
760
63
58
0.006
0.02
58.6
243
(Earth = 1)
Volume
(Earth = 1)
Period of
rotation
23.9
24.6
9.93
10.7
17.2
16.1
6.39
27.3
hours
hours
hours
hours
hours
hours
Earth days
Earth days
2.6
23.45
25.19
3.12
26.73
82.14
29.56
60.4
6.67
0.0553
0.815
1.00
0.107
318
95.2
14.5
17.1
0.002
0.0123
5.4
5.2
5.5
3.9
1.3
0.7
1.3
1.6
2
3.3
Earth days Earth days
Tilt of axis (°) (from
0.1
perpendicular to orbit) (approximate)
Mass
(Earth = 1)
Mean density
(g/cm3)
APPENDIX
Appendix 839
The Periodic Table of the Elements
1
1
1
H
Hydrogen
1.008
2
3
2
3
4
5
6
7
Period
4
Li
Be
Lithium
6.941
Beryllium
9.012
11
12
Na
Sodium
Each row of the periodic table is called
a period. As read from left to right,
one proton and one electron are
added from one element to the next.
Mg
22.990
Magnesium
24.305
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
K
Ca
Calcium
40.078
Scandium
44.956
Titanium
47.87
Vanadium
50.942
Chromium
51.996
Manganese
54.938
Mn
Fe
Co
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
Potassium
39.098
Rb
Sr
Sc
Y
Ti
V
Yttrium
88.906
Zirconium
91.224
Zr
Nb
Niobium
92.906
Molybdenum
95.94
Technetium
(98)
Ruthenium
101.07
Rhodium
102.906
55
56
57
72
73
74
75
76
77
Cs
Ba
Hf
Ta
W
Tc
Re
Ru
Cobalt
58.933
Strontium
87.62
La
Mo
Iron
55.845
Rubidium
85.468
Os
Rh
Ir
Cesium
132.905
Barium
137.327
Lanthanum
138.906
Hafnium
178.49
Tantalum
180.95
Tungsten
183.84
Rhenium
186.207
Osmium
190.23
Iridium
192.217
87
88
89
104
105
106
107
108
109
Fr
Ra
Rf
Db
Francium
(223)
Radium
(226)
Ac
Actinium
(227)
Rutherfordium
(261)
Each column of the table is called a
group. Elements in a group share
similar properties. Groups are read
from top to bottom.
840 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7
Metalloid
Bh
Hs
Mt
Seaborgium
(266)
Bohrium
(264)
Hassium
(269)
Meitnerium
(268)
58
59
60
61
62
Pr
Nd
Pm Sm
Cerium
140.116
Praseodymium
140.908
Neodymium
144.24
Promethium
(145)
Samarium
150.36
90
91
92
93
94
Th
Thorium
232.038
Metal
Sg
Dubnium
(262)
Ce
Group
APPENDIX
Cr
Nonmetal
Pa
Protactinium
231.036
U
Uranium
238.029
Np
Neptunium
(237)
Pu
Plutonium
(244)
Fe Solid Hg Liquid O Gas
18
2
Metals and Nonmetals
This zigzag line separates
metals from nonmetals.
He
13
14
15
16
17
Helium
4.003
5
6
7
8
9
10
Boron
10.811
B
Carbon
12.011
Nitrogen
14.007
Oxygen
15.999
Fluorine
18.998
F
Ne
13
14
15
16
17
18
Al
C
Si
N
P
O
S
Neon
20.180
Silicon
28.086
Phosphorus
30.974
Sulfur
32.066
Chlorine
35.453
Cl
Ar
32
33
34
35
36
10
11
12
Aluminum
26.982
28
29
30
31
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Gallium
69.723
Germanium
72.61
Ge
As
Arsenic
74.922
Selenium
78.96
Bromine
79.904
Krypton
83.80
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
Pd
Ag
Silver
107.868
Cadmium
112.4
Indium
114.818
In
Sn
Tin
118.710
Antimony
121.760
Tellurium
127.60
Iodine
126.904
I
Xe
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
At
Rn
110
111
112
Nickel
58.69
Palladium
106.42
Platinum
195.078
Copper
63.546
Gold
196.967
Zinc
65.39
Cd
Mercury
200.59
Thallium
204.383
Lead
207.2
Sb
Bi
Bismuth
208.980
Ds Uuu Uub
Darmstadtium
(269)
Unununium
(272)
Ununbium
(277)
63
64
65
Eu
Gd
Te
Po
Polonium
(209)
Br
Astatine
(210)
Kr
Xenon
131.29
Radon
(222)
Lanthanides & Actinides
The lanthanide series (elements 58–71) and
actinide series (elements 90–103) are usually
set apart from the rest of the periodic table.
66
67
70
Dysprosium
162.50
Holmium
164.930
Erbium
167.26
Er
Tm
Thulium
168.934
Ytterbium
173.04
Lutetium
174.967
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
Bk
Berkelium
(247)
Name
1
H
Hydrogen
1.008
Es
Einsteinium
(252)
Fm Md
Fermium
(257)
Mendelevium
(258)
No
Nobelium
(259)
Lu
Lr
Lawrencium
(262)
APPENDIX
Atomic Number
number of protons
in the nucleus of
the element
Cf
Californium
(251)
Yb
71
Terbium
158.925
Curium
(247)
Ho
69
Gadolinium
157.25
Americium
(243)
Dy
68
Europium
151.964
Am Cm
Tb
Se
Argon
39.948
Symbol
Each element has a symbol.
The symbol's color represents the
element's state at room temperature.
Atomic Mass
average mass of isotopes of this element
Appendix 841
842 McDougal Littell Science Grade 7