Download best practices manual for protection of wolf, lynx and brown bear

Robert W. Mysłajek, Sabina Nowak
BEST PRACTICES MANUAL FOR
PROTECTION OF WOLF, LYNX
AND BROWN BEAR
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
1. Descriptions of species
1.1. Wolf (wilk szary)
1.1.1. Appearance, senses, adaptations
Wolf Canis lupus is a mammal, member of the Carnivora order and the Canidae family.
It has a slim profile, straight-back, long and close positioned limbs. It's a digitigrade animal,
its track is large and symmetrical. Tail is bushy and ended with dark hair. Loosely hung, it
reaches to the knuckles of the hind legs. The head is large, with a broad forehead, a long
muzzle, obliquely set eyes and short ears. Amongst the 42 teeth, large fangs and carnassials
stand out. Adult males are larger than females by about 10-20%. Average body length
(excluding the tail) of males is approx. 120 cm, and length of females is approx. 110 cm.
Height at the withers is 70-90 cm for males and 60-80 cm for females. Males' body weight
varies from 35 to 65 kg (average 45 kg) and females' varies from 30 to 50 kg (average 35 kg).
The coat is dominated by grey-red and grey-brown colours. There are also brightly coloured
or very dark wolves, but in Poland there are no uniformly black or white ones. Red hair on the
back of the head and ears is common. Juveniles are darker than adults. Pups are nearly black
in their first month of life, only the upper and back part of the head is lighter, brown (Nowak
and Mysłajek 2000, Jędrzejewski and Sidarowicz 2010).
Wolves have an excellent sense of smell and hearing. Howling allows them to
communicate with the other members of their family group and sometimes effectively deters
intruders (Nowak et al. 2007). Wolf's sight during the day is less sharp than human's, but wolf
is much better in perceiving moving objects. The field of view is wider than in humans,
however the accommodation is weaker for short distances. In contrast, wolves see much
better at night than humans.
1.1.2. The legal status of the species in Poland and the European Union, consequences of
the legal status
The wolf is a strictly protected species throughout Poland since 1998. In the explanatory
memorandum to the draft Regulation on the protection of species it has been stated that ‘wolf
plays an important role in maintaining the ecological balance in the environment and is a
natural regulator of the size and health status of game.’ Wolves were protected few years
earlier in different parts of the country, e.g. in the former Poznańskie Voivodeship
(Województwo Poznańskie) since 1992, and in 46 of the old voivodeships since 1995.
(Bereszyński 1998). The current legal status of the wolf is regulated by the Regulation of the
Minister of Environment dated 12 October 2011 on the protection of species of animals
(Journal of Laws 2011 No. 237, item 1419). According to it, the wolf is a strictly protected
species throughout Poland and requires active protection. A protection zone can be establish
for the wolves, ranging 500 m from the den in the period from 1 April to 31 August.
According to the Act on Protection of Nature (Journal of Laws 2004 No. 92, item 880) killing
wolves is forbidden. It is also forbidden to maim, capture or to hold wolves and to destroy
their dens and disturb the animals housing them, and to store and sell their skins and other
parts of the dead individuals without proper authorization. In special cases, e.g. for scientific
research, an authorization for killing wolves can be issued by the Chief Inspector of
Environmental Protection (Generalny Dyrektor Ochrony Środowiska ) (for the area of several
voivodeships) or the Regional Director for Environmental Protection (Regionalny Dyrektor
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
Ochrony Środowiska). Not respecting the foregoing is subject to arrest or fine, both under the
Act on Protection of Nature (Art. 127) and the Art. 181 of the Act of 6 June 1997.
The wolf is included in Appendix II on the strictly protected fauna species of the Berne
Convention. International trade and transport of trophies made of wolf are regulated by the
Washington Convention (CITES) on international trade in endangered species. In the Council
Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (i.e.
The Habitats Directive) wolf has been placed in Annex II and IV. The objection reported by
Poland during the negotiations of the Treaty of Accession, resulted in transferring the Polish
population of the wolf into Annex V, that includes species whose taking in the wild and
exploitation are regulated by the orders of the minister responsible for the environment. Wolf,
however, remained in Annex II, amongst the priority species, for which, in order to protect
their habitats, it is necessary to establish Special Areas of Conservation Natura 2000.
1.2.3. Basic information about the biology and ecology of the species
Wolves are social animals, living in family groups, commonly known as packs. Lonely
individuals are those seeking breeding partners and free territory, or older ones, who have left
their pack (Adams et al. 2008). The family group consists of one pair of parents and their
offspring from the last two or three seasons (Mech and Boitani 2003). In Poland, the size of
the family group is on average 4-6 individuals, but can vary from 2 to 12 wolves
(Jędrzejewski et al. 2002b). Wolf family groups are territorial. The territories in lowlands
cover about 162-350 km² (Okarma et al. 1998, Jędrzejewski et al. 2007), and in the mountains
it's approx. 150 km² (Śmietana and Wajda 1997, Nowak et al. 2008). Territories of the
adjacent groups overlap slightly (Okarma et al. 1998, Jędrzejewski et al. 2007). Wolves mark
their territory with urine, faeces and scratching the ground, usually in the centre of the
territory, but also near its borders (Zub et al. 2003). Family group uses the territory unequally.
Wolves spend most of the time (75%) in the centre of their territory, the most distant from
human settlements and roads, covering 20-30% of the area controlled by the group. That's
where the dens are. These predators travel each day for about 23 km, but they can run more
than 60 km per day (Musiani et al. 1998, Jędrzejewski et al. 2001). Wolves of one pack can
hunt individually or in smaller hunting subgroups (Jędrzejewski et al. 2001 Theuerkauf et al.
2003c). They begin their oestrus in February, and pups are born in late April and early May
(Nowak et al. 2008). Females usually give birth in dens, but also under windthrows, and even
in sheltered lairs on the ground (Jędrzejewska et al. 1996, Nowak et al. 2008). Pups are born
blind, deaf and very clumsy. For the first three weeks they remain in the den, fed with milk of
the mother. After this period, they start to come out of the burrow more and more often and
begin to eat meat, brought in the stomachs of other members of a family group and then
regurgitated. During one season, wolves may use several dens, moving from time to time with
their pups (Theuerkauf et al. 2003b, Schmidt et al. 2008). Usually there are 5-6 pups born, but
mortality is high and during the first months it reaches up to 50%. By the winter there are 2 or
3 pups left on average (Jędrzejewska et al. 1996, Nowak et al. 2008). Juveniles usually leave
their family group in the second year of life. The range of dispersion varies from a few to
more than a thousand kilometres. While wandering, predators can pass a mosaic of fields and
forests, agricultural areas, busy roads, major rivers, and even urban areas (Jędrzejewski et al.
2001 Theuerkauf et al. 2003a, 2003c).
Basic source of food of wolves in Poland are wild ungulates (average 87% of the
biomass of consumed food). In eastern Poland and the Carpathians (Karpaty) the most
common prey is the deer (jeleń) (Jędrzejewski et al. 1992, 2000, Nowak et al. 2005, Okarma
1995, Śmietana and Klimek 1993). However, in the lowland commercial forests wolves often
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hunt roe deer (sarna) (Nowak et al. 2011, Jędrzejewski et al. 2012). Wild boars (dzik),
especially piglets are also often killed by wolves. Complementary food are smaller mammals,
especially beavers in areas where they are abundant (Jędrzejewski et al. 2012). Also foxes
(lis), badgers (borsuk) and dogs or cats wandering in forests can be wolves' prey. Wolves also
kill livestock, but its share in the diet of Polish wolves is small (Nowak et al. 2011,
Jędrzejewski et al. 2012). In the Białowieża Forest (Puszcza Białowieska) and the
Carpathians, the most common kills amongst deer were calves, then adult females and the
least likely prey were bulls (Jędrzejewski et al. 1992, 2000, Nowak et al. 2005, Śmietana and
Klimek 1993). In Bieszczady Mountains, amongst bulls, very young or very old individuals
were killed most often (Okarma 1984, 1991). In case of roe deer, wolves also most often
chose females and fawns (Jędrzejewski et al. 1992, 2000, Nowak et al. 2005). Amongst the
wild boars, the largest share were juveniles (Jędrzejewski et al. 2005, Śmietana and Klimek
1993). In the Białowieża Forest, each pack kills 2 or 3 wild ungulates weekly. Local packs,
preying mainly on deer, annually remove approx. 12% of individuals from the population of
this herbivore, 6% of wild boars and approx. 3% of roe deer, compared to the highest springsummer populations of these species (Jędrzejewski et al. 2002a). These proportions are,
however, different in commercial forests, where the share of roe deer and wild boar in the
wolves' diet is much higher than in the Białowieża Forest.
1.2.4. Species distribution and abundance
Current coverage of the occurrence of a wolf is much smaller than the original, which
covered almost the entire northern hemisphere. Wolf population in Poland is estimated at
approx. 1000 individuals. Population density varies from 1.5 to 4.6 individuals/km²
(Jędrzejewski et al. 1992, 2000, Nowak et al. 2008, Gula 2008). Wolves currently dwell in all
the major forests of the north-eastern and eastern parts of the country, throughout Carpathians
and the Carpathian Foothills (Pogórze Karpackie) and in the major forests of the western
Poland. They also appear in the Sudetes (Sudety). After wolf became a protected species,
systematic increase in the range and strength of its population has been reported in the
country (Nowak and Mysłajek 2011). These predators usually live in areas of high forestation
rate, small density of human settlements and the low density of roads and railway lines
(Jędrzejewski et al. 2004a, 2005a, 2008).
1.2.5. The role and importance of the species in forest ecosystems
The impact of wolves on the ecosystem of the forest is reflected primarily by their
predation on different groups of prey. They remove from a few to several percent of the
populations of deer, roe deer and wild boar from the forest, e.g. in the Białowieża Forest it is
annually: 72 deer, 31 wild boars and 16 roe deer per 100 km² (Jędrzejewski et al. 2002a).
These proportions are, however, different in commercial forests, where the share of a roe deer
and wild boar in the wolves' diet is much bigger than in the Białowieża Forest. Wolves can
reduce the density of deer and roe deer, and slow the rate of population growth of herbivores,
preventing them from achieving maximum densities set by food resources (Jędrzejewska and
Jędrzejewski 2001). Excessive growth of populations of large herbivores undoubtedly has a
negative impact on biodiversity of forests, causing withdrawal from the forest floor of species
sensitive to the bite (i.e. angiosperms), and the spread of more resistant species (e.g. grasses).
Natural succession and growth of many species of trees is inhibited, the number and diversity
of insects, small mammals and birds is reduced, as they are dependent on undergrowth plants
and seeds of trees and the presence of tree species sensitive to the bite and stripping (Côté et
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
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al. 2004). Thus, predation by wolves is an important mechanism for supporting the reduction
of negative effects associated with the growth of the populations of wild ungulates.
The share of cats and dogs in the diet of wolves at the level of 2.5-3.5% of the biomass
of consumed food (Nowak et al. 2005, 2011) indicates, that a predator eats a few dozen cats
and dogs a year. It is estimated that in Poland there are 152 thousand dogs wandering in
forests, which bite and kill at least 35 thousand wild game (CSO [GUS], Forestry 2012).
Forests are also penetrated by nearly 109 thousand cats (CSO, Forestry 2012), which kill
many small wild animals and are a serious threat to populations of protected species (Loss et
al. 2013). Additionally, dogs and cats can pass diseases and parasites on the wild animals,
which increases danger for the populations of rare species (Hughes and Macdonald 2013).
Remains of the wolves' kills provide the food for many animals belonging to both the
rare species: bear (niedźwiedź), lynx (ryś), wildcat (żbik), white-tailed eagle (orzeł bielik),
golden eagle (orzeł przedni) lesser spotted eagle (orlik krzykliwy), woodpecker (dzięcioł) and
more common: badger (borsuk), pine and domestic marten (kuna leśna i domowa), weasel
(łasica), stoat (gronostaj), fox, (lis) crow (kruk), jay (sójka), tit (sikorka), and these remains
help many of them to survive the period of the shortage of food (Selva et al. 2005). Wolves
feeding on the dead large herbivores (e.g. European bison [żubr], wild boar) allow other,
smaller scavengers to access their tissues (Selva et al. 2003).
1.2.6. The impact of predation on human activity
Wolves, through their predation, have an impact on commercial forestry, agriculture,
hunting and reduction of risks arising from the large numbers of large herbivores populations
and on the activity of other species. An increase in the number of large herbivorous mammals
in Europe, observed in recent years, not only causes severe damages to forests and
agricultural crops, but also has an impact on human health and the occurrence of large
material losses (Reimoser 2003). In Poland, the costs of forest protection against ungulates
are five times higher than those from insects. In 2010 these costs were 150 million PLN. For
damage made to crops, 57 million PLN was paid to farmers in 2012, of which the State
Forests paid 10 million PLN and the rest was covered by the Polish Hunting Association
(Polski Związek Łowiecki).
Wolves, by reducing populations of ungulates, protect forests and agricultural crops.
These predators also impact the behaviour of the species on which they feed. Deer, in the
areas inhabited by wolves, more frequently change their feeding sites and remain there for
shorter periods of time. They are more alert, move more often and for longer distances, which
makes the utilization of food resources more regular (Garrot et al. 2009). In the Białowieża
Forest, in the centres of packs territories, tree transplants grow faster and are more numerous
than in the peripheries of wolves’ territories (Kuijper et al. 2013). Removal of juveniles and
females contributes to the reconstruction of a more natural age and sex structure in the
populations of deer, distorted in a result of excessive hunting of selected age and sex classes.
Comparative studies on the condition of roe deer and deer, killed by wolves and shot by
hunters, based on the content of fat in the bone marrow, revealed that the predators remove
from deer populations individuals with smaller fat resources than hunters (Spajic 2009). In
Europe, there has been over 500 thousand collisions per year noted involving wild ungulates,
in which 30 thousand people are injured, and material losses were estimated to be one billion
euros. The increase in the density of cervidae in the woods also causes a significant growth of
the tick population, which contributes to the increased number of Lyme diseases and tickborne encephalitis in human populations (Wilson et al. 1988, 1990). Limiting the population
of wild ungulates by wolves may help to reduce the scale of these phenomena.
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Wolves, in places where they coexist with beavers, effectively hunt these animals being
their only natural predator. A single wolf can eat a dozen beavers per year, thus lowering the
density of this species. Compensations paid to farmers for the damages done by beavers were
in 2011 nearly 10.5 million PLN and were 9.5 times greater than the sum of compensations
for damages caused by all the other protected species in Poland. Livestock are on average
3-5% of food eaten by wolves, but less than half of the packs in Poland cause damages to the
inventory. 400-500 thousand PLN is paid annually as a compensation for livestock killed by
wolves.
1.2. Eurasian lynx (Ryś euroazjatycki)
1.2.1. Appearance, senses, adaptations
Lynx Lynx lynx is the largest Carnivora representative of the family Felidae occurring in
Poland. Body weight of adults is usually 18-25 kg, length reaches 80-130 cm, tail measures
11-25 cm and the height at the withers is 60-75 cm. Sexual dimorphism is poorly distinct, but
males are significantly larger and heavier than females (Aulagnier et al. 2009).
Torso of a lynx is relatively short, limbs are long and muscular, head is small with
triangular ears ended with characteristic black tufts of hair, the tail is short. Many individuals
have longer hair on the cheeks, forming the characteristic cheek mane. Lynx’s tracks are less
symmetrical and more rounded than in wolves. One of the middle fingers is distinctively
extended to the front, and triangular interdigital pad a trilobite heel pad. Like other cats, lynx
hide their claws while walking, which means they are not reflected on the ground. The coat on
the back and sides of the body is dominated by tawny, red and orange colours, the underside
of the body is clearly lighter - grey-white and creamy. Rows of black spots or rosettes on the
back and limbs are well visible in individuals living in the Carpathians and Roztocze. This
feature is much weaker in lynx from Polish lowlands. The coat of these cats is dense, soft and
fluffy. Lynx has 28 permanent teeth, amongst which relatively long fangs stand out. Teeth
have a cutting-crushing nature, but the capacity of crushing bones is much weaker than that of
wolves', because these cats eat mostly muscles and other soft parts of the killed large prey,
and they leave the skeleton and skin almost intact. Their digestive tract is very simple and
short, which promotes rapid digestion of meat, and disenables the digestion of plant food
(Okarma and Schmidt 2013).
Lynx see very well in poor light, but visual acuity is weaker in comparison with human.
Position of eyes in front of the head gives them the stereoscopic vision. This capability is
useful for hunting, because it helps to assess the distance to the prey (Ewer 1998). Hearing is
better developed than in humans, lynx are able to hear sounds of higher frequency than we
are, reaching 60-70 kHz. The sense of smell plays an important role in inter-individual
communication.
1.2.2. The legal status of the species
Lynx has been protected in Poland since 1995. According to the current regulation of
the Minister of the Environment, it is a strictly protected species, requiring active protection.
A conservation zone can be establish for the lynx, ranging 500 m from the den, in period from
early April to late August. Lynx is included in Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive. This
makes it possible to create special areas of conservation of habitats for the lynx in the Natura
2000 network. Lynx is also protected under the regulations of the Washington Convention
and the Berne Convention. It is forbidden to kill, maim, capture or to hold lynx and to take the
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young from the dens. It is also forbidden to dissect their corpses and to sell the skins and other
parts of dead individuals.
Not respecting the foregoing is subject to arrest or fine. Just as for wolves, in special cases,
e.g. for scientific research, an authorization for killing lynx can be issued by the Chief
Inspector of Environmental Protection or by the regional directors of environmental
protection.
1.2.3. Basic information about the biology and ecology of the species
Analysis of the environmental factors associated with the presence of lynx in Poland
have shown that the high forestation rate favours it most. On the other hand, large numbers of
human settlements, roads and railways are unfavourable (Niedziałkowska et al. 2006).
Presence of lynx is supported by the understory and natural hideouts, for example fallen trees
and wind-fallen trees. In such conditions it is easier for them to find a place of rest and
rearing, as well as to sneak unnoticed to potential prey (Podgórski et al. 2008). In the
mountains, lynx often use rocks, chasms and small caves (Mysłajek 2011).
Lynx live alone, except for females raising young. Their territories cover a very large
surface. In the Białowieża Forest it is 190-340 km² (males) and 120-150 km² (females) while
in Polish Carpathians it's 164-199 km² for males and 124-190 km² for females (Jędrzejewski
et al. 1996, 1999, 2002c, Schmidt et al. 1997, Okarma et al. 2007). The territory of an adult
male covers the territories of 2-3 females, which the male is trying to monopolize during the
mating season, that takes place at the end of winter. This is the only period when a male has a
contact with females. After that he doesn't participate in the rearing of the young. After 67-74
days of pregnancy, a female gives birth to 1-3 kittens. The young are born in a secluded spot,
e.g. in chasms, under windthrows or in dense coppices. In the first period, the female feeds
the young with her milk, later she provides them with meat. When the kittens get older,
female leads them to the prey she killed. The young stay with her until the next mating
season, and then begin to gradually move away and seek for their own territory. Females
usually settle near the maternal territory, while young males travel for much longer distances
(Schmidt 1998, 1999).
Lynx eat almost exclusively the animals they hunt, mainly roe deer. Sometimes they kill
deer, but only calves and hinds, as well as smaller mammals and birds. Lynx’s attacks on
livestock are very rare in Poland (Jędrzejewski et al. 1993, Okarma et al. 1997, Mysłajek and
Nowak 2004). They may also feed on the remains of kills of other predators, for example
wolves. Lynxes cannot eat the whole kill at one time, so after every meal they secure their
prey from potential scavengers. They cover it with snow or litter, or drag under spruce and fir
with low-lying branches (Jędrzejewski and Sidarowicz 2010). Over the next few days lynx
return to the prey to finally leave only the skin, head, bones and stomach (Okarma et al.
1997).
Main method of hunting is stalking. Lynx tries to sneak to the prey, using the cover of
bushes, logs and uneven terrain, and then reaches it in few jumps and quickly kills. On
average, lynx kills one animal every 5 days, but the most effective hunters are females raising
young, which kill on average every 2 days (Okarma et al. 1997, Jędrzejewski et al. 2002c).
Lynx’s predation is one of the most important factors of mortality in a population of roe deer
(Jędrzejewska et al. 1997). The density of roe deer has a significant impact on the size of the
territories and the survival of lynx kittens. When densities of prey are high, territories are
smaller, and the efficiency of rearing is higher (Schmidt 2008, 2010).
1.2.4. Species distribution and abundance
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The original range of the lynx extended throughout Europe and Asia, reaching the
Himalayas. However, deforestation and hunting for this species has led to the withdrawal of a
predator from almost all western, central and southern Europe. Thanks to the reintroduction
projects it was possible to re-establish its population i.e. in the Alps, the Swiss Jura, the
Vosges Mountains and the Dinaric Alps. In Europe, the largest populations, each numbering
approx. 2,000 individuals, inhabit the Scandinavian Peninsula, the Carpathians and the Baltic
countries (Breitenmoser et al. 2000).
In Poland, lynx have been eradicated at west from the Vistula river (Wisła) in the
eighteenth century (Bieniek et al. 1998). Currently, there are mainly present in the
Carpathians and in the vast forests of the north-eastern and eastern parts of the country. In
central Poland one can meet lynx, that come from the reintroduced population in Kampinoska
Forest (Puszcza Kampinoska). However, in western Poland, except Karkonosze Mountains
and Jizera Mountains (Góry Izerskie) where it gradually returns, it is still very rarely recorded
(Bartmańska 1992, Bartoszewicz and Staniszek 2010). The number of lynx in the country in
2001 was estimated at about 200 individuals (Jędrzejewski et al. 2002b). In 2010, according
to the Central Statistical Office (Główny Urząd Statystyczny), it was estimated at 285
individuals (CSO 2012). After taking lynx under protection in 1995, its return to certain parts
of the Carpathians has been recorded, from which it has previously been eradicated, e.g. to
Little Beskids (Beskid Mały) and Silesian Beskids (Beski Śląski) (Mysłajek and Nowak 2004,
Mysłajek 2012).
1.2.5. The role and importance of the species in forest ecosystems
Lynx predation and its impact on wild ungulates has so far been studied only in the
Białowieża Forest, where the lynx density ranged from 2.4 to 3.2 individual per 100 km² and
roe deer and deer density was respectively 288-492 and 359-607 individuals per 100 km²
(Okarma et al. 1997). Lynx killed from 110 to 181 roe deer per 100 km² annually, which is
21-36% (average 26%) of the species in the spring. Predation of these cats decreased the
growth in the population of roe deer by 52-85% (average 64%). Thus, lynx were the most
important factor of the mortality of this species. At the same time, these predators did not
show preferences with respect to gender, age, or physical condition of roe deer. The effect on
the populations of deer was far smaller. Lynx killed annually from 42 to 70 deer per 100 km²,
which is 6-13% (average 10%) of the spring population. They were thus responsible for
reduction of the deer population growth of 21-43% (average 33%). Lynx hunting for deer
clearly preferred juveniles and individuals in bad condition (Okarma et al. 1997).
Thanks to predation, lynx are not only important factor in mortality of deer, but also
providers of food for the multitude of other species. Remains of the prey are used by many
mammals and birds (Jobin et al. 2000, Selva et al. 2005), for which this source of nutrition is
especially important in winter (Helldin and Danielsson 2007). The remains of prey of large
predators also play an important role in increasing the amount of nutrients in soil (Bump et al.
2009) and in stimulation of the species diversity of invertebrates (Melis et al. 2004).
1.2.6. The impact of predation on human activity
Populations of wild ungulates, that have been increasing in recent years, contribute to
the increase in funding for forest crop protection against browsing and stripping. In the
context of commercial forestry, these are huge costs. Adjusting the number of wild ungulates
is now one of the priorities for the protection of forest resources. Lynx, due to its impact on
cervidae populations, especially roe deer, can be regarded a natural ally of foresters.
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In Poland there were only few cases of lynx attacking the livestock reported (Mysłajek
and Nowak 2004, Schmidt 2011), so it does not seem for lynx to have any economic
significance on the livestock breeding. Lynx can kill dogs (Okarma et al. 1997) and cats.
These animals are an important factor of the mortality of wild animals and their predation is
considered one of the most important risks for both protected and game species. Therefore,
removing them from the forests should be considered as an additional benefit of the presence
of lynx.
1.3. Brown bear (niedźwiedź brunatny)
1.3.1. Appearance, senses, adaptations
Brown Bear Ursus arctos belongs to the family Ursidae and the order Carnivora. In the
Carpathians adults are 92-112 cm height at the withers (females), and 95-135 cm (males),
body length measures 160-199 (female) and 170-220 cm (males), while the weight of bears is
about 140- 160 kg (females) and 170-190 kg (males), but there are much heavier specimens
(weighing nearly 300 kg). Bears have the lowest weight in the spring, after leaving their lair,
and the highest in autumn, before entering the state of hibernation, the differences can reach
30-50%. Bear has a massive, compact silhouette, back descending toward the tail, shoulder
blades distinctively protruding above the ridge, and a short tail that measures 7-8 cm. The
head is large, with high cheekbones and small, rounded, very hairy ears. The snout is short,
with strong jaws, large fangs and molars adapted for chewing plant food. Eyes are small,
black and deep set. Limbs are strong, large feet are wide, hairless at the bottom and directed
inwardly. Hair colour of individuals can be quite varied, from golden brown to almost black.
Juveniles often have a characteristic lightening at the neck in shape of a collar or small stains.
The bear is a plantigrade animal. Fingerprints of the hind paws are similar to human feet, with
clearly imprinted heel and five fingers tipped with 3-4 cm long claws. Front paw fingerprint
also has five fingers, but it’s shorter (width and length are similar), with powerful claws
reaching 8 cm (Hell and Ślamečka 1999).
Smell is one of the most sensitive senses of this predator. Ears perfectly localize the
direction from which sounds come. Sight of the bear is comparable with the human’s, and is
even better at night. Bears can recognize colours, which is associated with their partially plant
diet and activity through day and night (Ewer 1998, Selva et al. 2011b).
1.3.2. The legal status of the species in Poland and the European Union, consequences of
the legal status
Bears are protected in Poland since 1952 under the Regulation of the Minister of
Forestry (Journal of Laws 1952 No. 45, item 307). However, they haven’t been hunted since
1944, under the annual regulations on the protection of certain wild game. The current legal
status of bears is regulated by the Regulation of the Minister of Environment (Journal of Laws
2011 No. 237, item 1419). According to it, the bear is a strictly protected species throughout
Poland and requires active protection. A protection zone can be establish for bears, ranging
500 m from the lair, in the period from 1 November to 30 April. Killing bears is prohibited. It
is also forbidden to maim, capture or to hold bears and to destroy their lairs and disturb the
animals housing them, and to store and sell their skins and other parts of dead individuals
without proper authorization. In special cases, as well as for research, an authorization for
killing bears can be issued by the Chief Inspector of Environmental Protection or the Regional
Director for Environmental Protection for a specific voivodeship. Not respecting the
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foregoing is subject to arrest or fine, both under the Act on Protection of Nature (Ustawa o
ochronie przyrody) and the Criminal Code.
Amongst the most important European legislations, brown bear is listed in: Appendix II
of the Bern Convention; Appendix II of CITES (CITES); Annex II (species requiring the
designation of special areas of conservation) and Annex IV (a species in need of strict
protection) of the Habitats Directive.
1.3.3. Basic information about the biology and ecology of the species
Bears, mostly active during day in unpopulated areas, in areas with a large human
populations move and hunt most frequently early in the morning, in the evening and at night.
Sometimes they are also active during the day, especially females with young. When they
rest, bears sleep in a rolled position on the ground, sometimes in specially prepared lairs cavities, pad out with leaves or other parts of plants (Frąckowiak and Gula 1996). In winter,
bears usually fall asleep in the special kind of lair, although there are brief departures for
feeding in the meantime. Period of normal activity and feeding is the spring and summer. In
autumn bears feed extensively to collect the appropriate layer of fat for the winter. Bears
mating season is usually only once a year, from early May to early July. Females in childbearing age mate with several partners, which may cause that each of the cubs of the same
female has a different father. Implantation of the embryo occurs five months late. Cubs are
born in the lair during hibernation, from December to March after 6-8 weeks of embryonic
development. They weigh about 350-500 grams, are naked, blind, sensitive to cold and even
momentary lack of care on the part of the female can be deadly for them. The litter has 1 to 3
cubs, rarely more. Until they are self-reliant, only mother takes care of them, feeding them
with milk for 1.5-2.5 years. Cubs can be taken care of for 3,5 or even 4 years. During this
time, the female does not proceed to the next breeding. Usually, grown cubs eventually leave
their mother during the mating season. Females are ready for reproduction in their third year
of life, but most of them start breeding later.
Bears are omnivores. They eat the roots, rhizomes, bulbs, fruits, nuts and tree seeds,
invertebrates and vertebrates, including carcass. In areas where bears live near human
settlements, food of anthropogenic origin is an essential component of diet (Frąckowiak and
Gula 1992, Frąckowiak 1997, Bojarska and Selva 2011, Selva et al. 2011b). Brown bear is a
species of enormous space requirements, but also the ability to use a large variety of habitats,
from high alpine meadows, by mountain and foothill coniferous and mixed forests, wetlands
to lowland forests. Lairs are set up in hard to reach areas, on steep slopes, away from human
settlements and roads, mainly in caves or under rock overhangs, in wind-fallen trees, copses,
under low-lying branches of spruce. Usually at higher altitudes, in the Tatra Mountains
(Tatry) between 1200-1600 m above sea level, in Bieszczady between 700-1000 m (Jakubiec
2001, Loch 2010, Jakubiec and Zyśk-Gorczyńska 2012).
Male bears, except for a short period of oestrus, lead solitary lives, while females after
reaching child-bearing age are often accompanied by their offspring. Territories of males are
usually much larger than the territories of females, both of them overlap to a lesser or greater
extent. The largest bear territories in Europe have been observed in Sweden (1600 km2 for
males, 225 km2 for females) and the lowest in Croatia (males 128 km2, females 58 km2),
where the density of bears is particularly high. Based on preliminary study results, the surface
areas of males territories in Bieszczady are rated at 520-1540 km2 and females at 670 km2,
while in the Tatra Mountains the territories of females were estimated at over 500 km2 (Selva
et al. 2011b). The territories include both Polish and Slovak parts of mountain ranges,
indicating the cross-border nature of the bear populations in both countries.
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1.3.4. Species distribution and abundance
In the past, brown bears were common throughout Europe, Asia and North America,
from arctic tundra in the north to the deserts in the south of those continents (Servheen et al.
1998, Swenson et al. 2000). Currently, the size of the European population is estimated at
about 17 thousand individuals. Carpathian population has more than 7 thousand. (Kaczensky
et al. 2012). In Poland, bears are found only in the Carpathians and the Przemyskie Foothills
(Przedgórze Przemyskie). In the years 1991-1998 one individual have been reported in the
Sudetes, moreover, short stays of single individuals in the lowland part of Poland have been
observed. The number of bears in the Polish Carpathians was assessed at about 95 individuals
(Selva et al. 2011b). Population coverage is not continuous. Permanent territories of the
species, i.e. such where bears hibernate every year, are: Bieszczady, Low Beskids (Magura
National Park [Magurski Park Narodowy] and its neighbourhood), Gorce Mountains, Tatra
Mountains and Żywiec Beskids (Beskid Żywiecki). In other massifs of the Carpathians bears
appear temporarily, mainly males during their long migrations. Areas of reproduction of this
species are limited to the Bieszczady, the Tatra Mountains and the Beskid Mountains.
1.3.5. The role and importance of the species in forest ecosystems
In the forests of the temperate zone, bears eat mostly plant food and invertebrates
(Bojarska and Selva 2011). In the fall, almost 70% of faeces contain residues of fruits, which
shows that these predators are important for spreading many plants. In Bieszczady, they eat
the fruit of more than 15 species of plants, including apples, bird cherries, pears and
blackberries. In the Tatras, bears feed mainly on blueberries, raspberries and rowan (Selva et
al. 2011b). On the mountain meadows in the spring they are able to eat 10-15 kg of young
shoots of plants per day. Amongst the invertebrates eaten by bears are ants and wasps.
Vertebrates meat, included in the diet of bears, comes mainly from the found carcass. These
are usually victims of other predators: lynx and wolves, animals that died from disease and
starvation, rarely they are prey hunted by a bear himself. Therefore, the impact of bear
predation on the populations of wild ungulates in the Carpathians is not important. In contrast,
these animals, using their impressive teeth and claws to get to tissues of large mammals, for
example European bison, wild boar or deer, provide access to these food resources to other,
smaller scavengers, including rare species, such as golden eagles and wildcats.
1.3.6. The impact of predation on human activity
The impact that bears have on human economy concerns beekeeping, livestock farming,
crops such as oats and corn, and to a much lesser extent - fruit growing. In addition, in areas
that are strongly populated or intensively used for tourism, bears may cause material damages
to buildings and belongings. Compensations are paid only for damages caused by bears in the
inventory, apiaries and agricultural crops. In the years 2009-2011, the average compensation
amounted to 176 thousand PLN per year. The greatest damage is caused by bears devastating
beehives in apiaries (Śmietana2012).
2. Threats and protection methods
2.1. Threats
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2.1.1. The loss, degradation and fragmentation of habitats
In Europe, wolves (wilk), lynx (ryś) and bears (niedźwiedź brunatny) are primarily
associated with forests, and deforestation of the continent and its urbanization was the most
important reason for the disappearance of these species. Due to their huge space requirements,
the area of forest complexes should be sufficiently large. But not only the area of forests, but
also their quality determines the proper functioning of the population of predators. The
simplified structure of forest, associated with a lack of dead trees, wind-fallen trees,
undergrowth and preference of even-aged stands, is a phenomenon particularly bad for lynx
(Podgórski et al. 2008) and for bears, which often set up a lair under fallen trees or in large
decayed trees and feed, amongst others, on invertebrates, inhabiting decaying wood (Jakubiec
2001).
Even the biggest forest complexes in Poland are not large enough to accommodate the
population of predators capable of functioning for a long period of time, regardless of the
neighbouring populations. Movement between forest areas and within them, however, may be
difficult or completely impossible, e.g. due to the presence of agricultural areas, continuous
development, gated roads and railway lines, water tanks, infrastructure, tourism and industry.
The inability to escape from one forest to another weakens the exchange of individuals
between subpopulations. Isolated populations are therefore exposed to the inbreeding. For
survival of large predators it is extremely important to maintain communication between the
forests and small populations of large carnivores that live there. In addition, predators must be
able to move freely within each forest complex.
2.1.2. Low populations
At low population adjustment of individuals drops, that is their ability to survive and
produce offspring. In populations of large predators, the main reason for this phenomenon
may be caused by problems in finding a partner for reproduction, and in species that live in
groups, like e.g. wolf, the breakdown of social ties and reduced foraging efficiency in groups
that are too small. A small number of potential mating partners forces animals to cross in
close kinship. Negative effects of inbreeding are associated with a reduction in the genetic
diversity of the population, which in turn can lead to more frequent appearance of
unfavourable mutations, weakened immunity to diseases, higher mortality of young, female
fertility reduction and deterioration in the quality of sperm of males. In populations with a
high inbreeding rate, probability of extinction is much higher (O'Grady et al. 2006).
2.1.3. The exploitation of cross-border populations
Poland shares the populations of wolf, lynx and bear with neighbouring countries. The
legal status of large carnivores, especially wolves, is different in many of our neighbour
countries. Wolves are killed in Russia, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine and Slovakia, while lynx
are still hunted in Russia, as well as in nearby Estonia and Latvia. Despite the protection of
species, every year about 30 brown bears are killed in Slovakia in the so-called regulation
shooting. A large part of them dies in a zone 20-30 km from the Polish border, which given
the vast territories of the Carpathian bears, has undoubtedly negative effect on our small
population of this species. As there are extensive forests in border zones, also inhabited by
wolves, and a significant number of our domestic packs have cross-border territories (Nowak
et al. 2008, Findo and Chovancová 2004, Okarma et al. 1998, Jędrzejewski et al. 2002b),
killing wolves in our neighbouring countries has a negative impact on the Polish protected
population. Many wolves born and raised in the Polish border zones wander in search of free
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territories and partners and move to territories in the neighbouring countries, unoccupied
because of the hunting (Jędrzejewski et al. 2005b).
In Polish border zones there have been created a number of Natura 2000 sites that
protect habitats of large predators. Intensive hunting by our neighbours thus negatively affects
the proper protection status of species in these areas. This is a significant problem for our
country, because of the need to fulfil its commitments towards the European Commission.
Therefore, it is extremely important to cooperate internationally in the field of monitoring and
management of shared cross-border populations of large carnivores.
2.1.4. Disturbance in refuges
Significant form of habitats degradation is excessive penetration of forests by humans.
In Poland, it is popular to pick berries and mushrooms and to search for deer antlers in the
spring. The time of picking berries and mushrooms is also a time of rearing for most
mammals and is associated with the presence in the forests of thousands of people searching
for fruits of undergrowth and reaching even the most distant territories, scaring animals. It is
also a time of increased number of road traffic collisions involving animals, which disturbed
by amateurs of undergrowth, run into the busy roads and die under the wheels of vehicles. It
can be illustrated by the case from Krucz Forest Inspectorate (Nadleśnictwo Krucz) of the
Noteć Forest (Puszcza Notecka). In 2012 a young wolf died, hit by a car, after he has been
frightened away by mushroom pickers. In winter, disturbing the female bears in their lairs in
60% of cases leads to miscarriage or death of the young, that are very sensitive to cold and
lack of food (Swenson et al. 1997). Such cases have also been reported in the Tatra Mountains
and Bieszczady (Selva et al. 2011b). The reason were mostly antlers gatherers.
Intensive tourism and skiing, especially in the mountains, where a network of trails and
ski slopes is dense, and in peak areas and scenic locations where hostels and catering facilities
are, cause disturbance of large predators. This is especially acute for the bears, which on one
hand can be frightened away from lairs by skiers and snowmobile users, and on the other
hand are lured by the diners, food storage containers and dumpsters. This intensifies conflicts
with humans. A major problem are mass events organised in the forests, especially off-road
rallies, which due to the number of participants, duration and noise, cause a huge anxiety
amongst animals. Scourge of Polish forests are people illegally using cross motorcycles,
quads, off-road vehicles and snowmobiles.
2.1.5. Poaching
Illegal shooting and poaching, using snares, are important factors of mortality of large
predators. Violators are mostly hunters. Snares are used by poachers mainly for illegal
entrapping of wild ungulates, large carnivores are caught accidentally. Assessment of the
impact of poaching on the population status of large carnivores is possible due to tagging the
individuals with collars equipped with telemetry transmitters. Thanks to that it was possible to
demonstrate that in the Białowieża Forest (Puszcza Białowieska) 53% of all reported cases of
lynx death was caused by poachers (Zub 1994, Jędrzejewski et al. 1999). In the same forest
complex 50% of wolves monitored using radio telemetry were killed in snares or were shot
(Theuerkauf et al. 2003).
2.1.6. Other factors of mortality
Amongst other forms of human activity, which are important factors of mortality in
populations of large carnivores, one of the most important are collisions with vehicles. This
applies first of all to deaths of animals hit by cars, but there are also records of individuals
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killed by trains. In recent years we found dozens of predators who were killed this way in
Poland. Some small populations suffer particularly, for example in Bydgoszcz Forest
(Puszcza Bydgoska) 5 wolves were killed on the road over 7 years. The impact of collisions
on the population depends on the area where it happened. In western Poland, where the size of
the wolf population is still small, each individual capable of reproduction and contributing to
the gene pool of a population, or able to help in rearing pups, is extremely important. Threat
to lynx, related to the conduct of forestry works, are fences made of mesh. Predators may
entangle in it, which leads to serious injuries. Such case occurred in Narol Forest Inspectorate
(Nadleśnictwo Narol). It was necessary to amputate the limb of the lynx that was entangled to
the fence. The animal is forced to stay in the rehabilitation centre for the rest of its life. Large
predators die also from natural causes due to a lack of food, but also as a result of diseases
and parasites. The latter can also infect from domestic animals, especially dogs and cats.
2.1.7. Adverse hunting practices
Hunting, in addition to threat that is deliberate or accidental shooting, is associated with
practices that may be harmful to large predators. It is dangerous to carry out hunting,
especially group hunting, in breeding and rearing sites of predators, and in sites nearby to
bears' lairs. Placing an overdue or processed food and kitchen waste on feeding sites and bait
stations, and the use of high-calorie food can disturb the natural activity of bears, cause their
concentration in the vicinity of feeding sites, disturb hibernating bears and increase the
amount of conflicts with humans.
2.1.8. Risks resulting from forest management
In the forests, the cause of disturbance amongst predators in their territories may be
forestry work, especially conducted at the place and time of rearing by wolves and lynx and
hibernating bears. Another activity related to forest management is the purification of former
polygons. These works, due to the systematic and thorough penetration of the land, if they are
conducted in spring and summer, are a threat to young wolves and lynx raised in this period.
In addition, to the disturbance of predators in their territories, contributes extensive expansion
and modernization of forest roads, especially those that cross the centre of the forest complex
and pass near the previously peaceful areas of breeding and resting of predators (Sahlene et al.
2011, Lesmerises et al. 2012). Locating car parks, rest and camping areas inside the forest is
also unfavourable for the preservation of peace. It provokes people to come and spend free
time in such areas, explore them, making noise, leaving processed food and waste dangerous
to wild animals (Gucinski et al. 2001, Newsome et al. 2013). While tracking predators, cases
of scooping litter from containers and bags by bears and wolves were recorded, as well as
chewing containers of engine oil for chainsaws abandoned during forest works (S. Smith,
R.W. Mysłajek own observations).
2.1.9. Depletion of prey base
The number of wild ungulates, which are the base of the diet of wolves and lynx, has
been growing for many years. However, when populations of deer (jeleń), roe deer (sarna)
and wild boar (dzik) are becoming less numerous locally, due to a deliberate reduction of their
numbers or increased pressure from other factors of mortality, large predators may have
problems with getting food. Reaction of the predators for the scarcity of food may be varied.
They are usually not able to switch completely to alternative prey. This applies especially to
the lynx, which specialize in hunting roe deer. Wolves in Belarus, in the absence of wild
ungulates, often attacked livestock and dogs and occurred near the villages (Sidorovich et al.
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2003). Lynx in the Białowieża Forest in the years in which a deliberate reduction in the
number of deer was conducted , increased their territories areas, and the number of kittens
reared by females significantly decreased (Schmidt 2008). For bears, more dependent on plant
food, destruction of groups of blueberries can be a significant problem, as well as
afforestation and raising buildings on mountain meadows which are their feeding places.
2.1.10. Negative attitude of people
In popular culture, large predators are stereotypically presented as a threat to humans.
This particularly affects the wolf, which in many fairy tales became a symbol of evil. Thus
created negative attitude of children towards predators translates into their view of these
animals in adulthood. Contemporary media, especially those focusing on sensationalism and
fuelling extreme opinions, also set the public unfriendly to predators.
2.1.11. Hybridization
The only species of the large predatory mammals occurring in Poland, which is exposed
to the hybridization with domesticated species is a wolf, that can interbreed with dogs. This is
especially dangerous in areas where wolf population is small and there is a deficit of partners
for reproduction (Vilà and Wayne 1999).
2.2. Methods of protection
2.2.1. Area protection of habitats of predators
The Act on Protection of Nature (Ustawa o ochronie przyrody) contains a directory of
area forms of protection, which include national parks, nature reserves, landscape parks,
protected landscape areas, Natura 2000 sites, ecological grounds and landscape-nature
protected complexes. To effectively protect habitats of large predators, surfaces of protected
areas must be sufficiently large. However, smaller areas may be effective in protecting the
most important parts of forests, for example central zones serving as breeding territories for
predators or areas used by bears during hibernation. In order to use appropriate protective
disciplines and to develop conservation plans or plans of protection tasks in which it is
possible to take into account the needs of large predatory mammals, it is most recommended
to protect habitats in form of national parks and Natura 2000 sites.
2.2.2. Suitable habitat management
Forest activities directly affect the state of conservation of large carnivores. In the
breeding sites of wolves and lynx, as well as wintering locations of bears, it should be limited,
or even temporarily forbidden to conduct forestry operations. Construction of new forest
roads and use of skid trails should also be prevented . It is important to leave wind-fallen
trees, heaps of rootstocks and branches to provide safe places for the hibernation of bears,
rearing place and hideouts for large predators. Works in forest reserves should also be
avoided, due to the heterogeneous structure of trees, they are often important refuges for
predators. In the mountains, rock outcrops should be put under special protection, as they are
potential places for bears to hibernate and for lynx to rest and hide. Presence of decaying
fallen trees and dense undergrowth helps lynx to obtain food. Schmidt and co-authors (2007)
suggest that the amount of dead wood left was modelled on the stands of the Białowieża
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Forest, where in the developed forests approx. 40 m3 of dead wood per 1 ha was recorded
(Wolski, 2003). Therefore, in order to protect lynx it is extremely important to maintain a
diverse age structure, altitude and species of tree stands, as well as leaving fallen trees on the
forest floor. Presence of thick trees slung over streams facilitates crossing rivers by these
predators during periods of high water.
During spring bears willingly eat young plants, especially associated with wet habitats:
ciliate chervil (świerząbek orzęsiony), Rumex arifolius (szczaw górski), Petasites (lepięznik),
coltsfoot (podbiał) etc. Therefore, it is recommended to protect the mountain wetlands, wet
meadows, peat-bogs and ponds forming convenient place for bears to obtain food. An
important source of the food for bears are Vaccinium myrtillus berries (borówka czarna),
therefore, it is recommended to protect the groups of blueberries.
The ban on entry of unauthorized motor vehicles or vehicles without proper permission
should be enforced on forest areas, particularly in relation to recreational snowmobile and
ATV riding . It is also desirable to restrict vehicle access into currently unused roads and
skidways (e.g. by closing or blocking such roads), especially located within the rearing areas
of lynx and wolves and areas of bear hibernation.
An essential component of the protection of large carnivores in the context of forest
management is training the owners and employees of the forest service on conducting forest
works in term of rules and regulations regarding protection of wildlife, avoiding disturbing
the animals, prohibiting the capture and moving the animals (including young predatory
mammals), the prohibition of leaving residue food and packaging in the forest. Daily practice
of collection and disposal of packaging and waste produced during forest works should be
introduced. It is also necessary to remove bins on the trails and scenic locations, and instead
educate the tourists so they take the litter with them, away from the forest. Rent of forest land
under the apiary, in areas with brown bears, should be subject to effective securing the hives
from the damage.
2.2.3. Protecting the ecological connectivity and integrity of habitats
It is most advantageous for large predators is to maintain extensive and coherent forest
complexes, between which there is a possibility to move freely along the forest ecological
corridors. Forests should be fragmented as least as possible. You should therefore avoid
locating in their interior sand pit, gravel pits, landfills, and other objects that due to the large
area and generating traffic can lead to a reduction of the coherence of the forest complex. It is
also adverse to run new public roads and railway lines through the woods. When forest
complex is divided by an enclosed road or railway line, animals should be able to safely move
from one part of the forest to another. Research has shown that the best for this purpose are
broad upper passages for animals as they meet the requirements of a much larger number of
species, including large predators. Underpasses, extended bridges or culverts are much less
effective (Pierużek-Nowak et al. 2013). Ecological corridors connecting forest complexes
may consist of strings of forests or forest islands strings and trees separated by farmland.
Corridors should be unobstructed along their entire length. Like in the case of forest
complexes, no buildings should be located here, and the negative effects of transport
infrastructure should be minimised by constructing optimized animal passages.
An extremely important aspect of protecting the integrity of habitats is adequate area
development plan at all levels, from the national to the commune level. The key is to avoid
scattering and stretching the development along the road, encroachment of investments into
forest areas, as well as blocking the ecological corridors with the residential, service and
industrial development.
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2.2.4. Prevention of mortality on roads and railway lines
Preventing the death of large predators in collisions with vehicles is carried out in two
ways: by changing drivers’ behaviour and preventing intrusion of animals on roads and
railways. Amongst the drivers, educational programs can be carried out to sensitize them to
the problem of mortality on the roads. Passive and active warning systems against potential
collisions with animals are being installed along the roads. Animal behaviour can be modified
by deterrent systems and by modifying the environments surrounding the roads. Animal
access to roads and railways is also limited by their fencing. However, it is connected with the
appearance of significant barriers to the movement of animals, which negative impact should
be limited by the construction of the relevant passages for animals.
2.2.5. Modification of hunting practices
Hunting should be conducted in such a way that does not deplete local food resources of
large predators, minimizes the possibility of accidental shooting these protected animals,
avoids disturbing them in breeding refuges, and in the case of a bear avoids disturbing them in
hibernating, and that does not lead to their concentration in feeding places. There existing
recommendations for modifications of the annual plans of acquiring deer and roe deer by
hunting in areas inhabited by wolves and lynx (Schmidt et al. 2009) were based on the
findings of research in the Białowieża Forest. Due to regional differences in the structure of
species of wild ungulates and in the predators diet, it is best to make adjustments of hunting
plans basing on the study of food composition in predators diet and ungulates inventory
results in a particular forest complex. Hunting should not be conducted in the zones of
periodic protection of bears' lairs in the period from 1 November to 30 April, and in the
periodic protection zones around breeding sites of wolves and lynx in the period from 1 April
to 31 August. Hunting pulpits should not be located within these zones. It is absolutely not
allowed to leave the debris of processed food at bait stations. In the mountain ranges, where
bears hibernate, it should be prohibited to feed game species during winter using corn and
beets. Polish law also prohibits the use of dead livestock. It is recommended to carry out the
education of hunters in the recognition of species, ecology and need of protecting large
predatory mammals.
2.2.6. Preventing poaching
Large predators are killed deliberately or accidentally as victims of poaching on other
species, e.g. falling into the snares placed to catch wild ungulates. Preventing poaching is on
one hand the efficient detection of offenders, on the other hand effective carrying out the
investigation and subsequent adequate punishment of the perpetrator. The services
responsible for fighting poaching should be properly trained and equipped. Also important is
the cooperation between forest guards, hunting guards, guards of national parks, wildlife
protection services, police and prosecutor's office.
An important issue in fighting poaching is also the education of local communities
community, both in terms of the negative impact of poaching on the protection of species and
the ability to detect, pursue and punish the perpetrators. In many cases it happens that the lack
of response to cases of poaching is caused by gaps in knowledge about how to proceed and
what services should be alarmed.
2.2.7. Preventing excessive penetration of the forest and recreation in refuges for
predators
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Excessive penetration of the habitats of large predators by humans is particularly
dangerous in the case of interference with the breeding places, during rearing, and in the
vicinity of the bear lairs during hibernation (Swenson et al. 1997). Access to the refuge may
be facilitated by the emerging forest roads, thus their construction in these areas should be
limited (Loucks et al. 2003, Crist et al. 2005 Selva et al. 2011a). It should be avoided to place
recreation centres and other places for recreation in their neighbourhood, and the mass sports
events should be conducted in such places and at such a time, which interferes as little as
possible with the process of rearing of predators. Hiking trails should be placed far from the
breeding places of large predators and bear wintering places. Modification of access to forests
for recreational purposes should be accompanied by educational programs for residents and
tourists.
2.2.8. Preventing the spread of diseases and parasites
The most important vectors for delivering diseases and parasites to the populations of
large predatory mammals are humans and domestic animals, particularly dogs and cats. The
latter can cause infections directly, e.g. when they become prey of large predators, or
indirectly, when they leave their droppings in the woods. Minimizing the risks is associated
with the prevention of storage of hazardous waste, especially the remains of dead animals in
the forests and their neighbourhood. Much more difficult is to solve the problem of the
penetration of forests by dogs and cats. Their physical elimination by shooting is not
acceptable by society and legally allowed only in specific cases. Shooting dogs can also lead
to accidentally killing wolves. The catch is expensive and organisationally difficult to perform
and is associated with the need to ensure the place for the captured dogs and cats. It remains
to educate pet owners and legal solutions, which would imply an individual identification of
dogs and cats to specify an animal's owner. In contrast, limiting the population of dogs and
cats should be carried out by their sterilization.
2.2.9. Creating protection zones around the breeding and wintering sites
The Regulation of the Minister of Environment of 12 October 2011 on the protection of
species of animals (Journal of Laws 2011 No. 237, item 1419) allows to create a protective
zone with a radius of 500 m around breeding sites of wolves and lynxes, in the period from
the beginning of April to the end of August, as well as around the bear lairs in the period from
1 November to 30 April. According to the Act of 16 April 2004 on Nature Conservation
(Journal of Laws 2004 No. 92, item 880, with amended changes), such zones can be identified
and eliminated by regional director for environmental protection (regionalny dyrektor
ochrony środowiska) by an administrative decision. An alternative to the formal creation of
protection zones is the introduction to the various protection programs of particular forest
Inspectorates relevant provisions regulating the special way of development of areas
important for large carnivores, so as to exclude economic operations at the sites and during
the rearing by wolves and lynxes and bears hibernation place in winter.
2.2.10. Reintroduction and strengthening of the population
Reintroduction involves placing animals in areas where they previously lived, but were
eradicated or extinct, and strengthening the population is associated with releasing additional
individuals in areas where the population of the species still exists, but for some reason (e.g.
small size or low genetic diversity ) needs to be strengthened. Recommendations in respect to
the reintroduction and strengthening the population have been developed by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN 1998). Such projects should be preceded by
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research on the taxonomic status of individuals to be used for reintroduction. Individuals
should be preferred that are the most genetically similar to those that have lived in the area. It
is important to know the exact causes of extinction of the population in the area and to
identify whether they can continue to influence the species. If the factors that caused the
previous extinction continue to occur, they must be previously eliminated or limited to a level
that does not threaten the reintroduction program.
The key is to understand the biology and ecology of the species, including habitat
preferences, adaptation capacity to local conditions, social organization of the population, the
size of the territories, nutritional requirements and the selection of shelters, as well as
potential diseases. The impact of the species on the target ecosystem should be assessed to
estimate the optimal number of animals needed for reintroduction and their gender structure ,
and then the number of years needed to reach the desired population should be specified. Such
programs should be carried out only in areas that meet the environmental requirements of the
species, and which are big enough to ensure the survival of a viable population of the species
without the need to strengthen it from the outside. It is desirable that the area to which the
transplantation of the animals is provided has a stable environment for the long term and is
not going to be dramatically changed, which would negate the effects of reintroduction.
Wild individuals should be preferred for reintroduction, that are genetically identical, or
as close as possible to those that have lived in the area and are similar morphologically,
physiologically and behaviourally. It is important that the source population from which the
animals for reintroduction come, does not suffer in a result of the weakening its size. Each
individual to be used for reintroduction must pass thorough veterinary examination.
Individuals infected with diseases or seriously injured cannot be transplanted. To properly
assess the health status, transplantation should be preceded by quarantine. Quarantine is also
limiting attempts to return to the area of origin made by the released animals.
Reintroduction programs are by their nature long-term actions that need to be provided
with long-term financial and organizational support. Such programs should be preceded by an
assessment of the impact, costs and profits of the transplantation of predators for the local
community. It is recommended to carefully examine the attitudes of the local community to
the presence of predators, especially when the original cause of the disappearance of species
in the area was the deliberate action of people. Since the presence of predators creates the
possibility of damage in the inventory, reintroduction program should be associated with the
implementation of effective measures to minimize the occurrence of such damage. For each
reintroduction program indicators of its effectiveness should be developed, which will be
evaluated during the ongoing monitoring all the time. It is recommended to trace the released
animals, assess the genetic and demographic parameters of the newly established populations
regularly, as well as to trace the adaptation of individuals to local conditions.
2.2.11. Preventing damage in livestock
Large predators can kill farm animals reared in their refuges. Additionally, bears are
causing damage to apiaries, destroying beehives and bee colonies. The is a variety of methods
used worldwide to protect livestock against large predators. They allow to reduce the size of
destruction, however, the effectiveness of preventive measures is largely determined by their
consistent and correct use. Simultaneous use of several methods increases their effectiveness
(Nowak and Mysłajek 2006). During the grazing, animals should not be left unattended and
can be protected by technical means. Livestock should not be left on pasture at night, grazing
in the areas where predation is facilitated by dense vegetation should be avoided, herds should
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be watched in the periods of bad weather. Dead animals should be utilised in accordance with
the applicable rules and carcass should not abandoned near the forest.
To protect livestock, especially sheep and goats in the mountains, livestock guardian
dogs are used. Polish breed of such dogs is the Polish Tatra Sheepdog (owczarek
podhalański). These dogs can be extremely effective in deterring predators and are able to
actively oppose wolves, and even bears. To protect larger herds, to 3-4 dogs are needed. An
additional benefit of having a few individuals is that their courage and vigilance is increased
in a group, so security is more reliable. The dog is introduced into the herd at the age of
approx. 8 weeks. Pups should be in good condition and have all the records on the origin and
vaccinations made and still necessary. Buying adult dogs and dogs from uncertain sources
should be avoided. A detailed description of the education and training of livestock guarding
dogs can be found in specialized publications (Nowak and Mysłajek 2006, Śmietana 2006).
Fences, which are intended to protect livestock from predators should be made of mesh
with a height of 2.5-3 m. In addition, to avoid undermining the fence, it must be dig into the
ground to a depth of at least 0.5 m, or be curled at the bottom (1.2-1.5 m) to the outside, laid
on the ground and attached to the ground with pegs. It is recommended to attach 1-2 lines of a
barbed wire on top of the fence or to use the electric shepherd, in order to prevent predators
from jumping over the fence. Important factor influencing the effectiveness of the fencing is
the terrain configuration. Any hills, ditches and stream valleys are good places for the
predators to breach into the enclosure. Therefore, one should pay special attention to the
tightness and proper fence height in those places. Creating a good fence is expensive and
time-consuming, so this solution can be used to protect livestock in limited circumstances, for
example to secure separate parts of pastures where livestock are kept at night (Nowak and
Mysłajek 2006).
Electric fences (i.e. electric shepherds) are currently considered to be the most effective
method of protection against large predators, provided that they are appropriately modified.
The best solution are not the shepherds consisting of lines, but those using the 3-4 cm wide
tapes. The fence consists of 6-7 tapes. 2-3 bottom tapes should be placed 25 cm from each
other, higher tapes 30 cm from each other. Lowest tape should be placed approx. 15-20 cm
above the ground. In the growing season, grass under the shepherd should be regularly
mowed to avoid power surge (Nowak and Mysłajek 2006, Śmietana 2010). New
recommended solution, which was successfully tested in the USA, both in aviaries and in the
pastures, is a combination of fladry and classical electric shepherd, consisting of three lines
(Lance et al. 2010). Fladry are hung on the same poles as electric shepherd (they can also be
hung on separate poles on the outside of the shepherd), at a height of 70-75 cm above the
ground. Shepherd consists of three lines (or tapes), the lowest hanging 15 cm above the
ground (where the ribbons of fladry end), the other at the same height as the cord, to which
fladry are sewn, and the third line at a height of 100 cm above the ground. The test results
indicate that this method is 2-10 times more effective than fladry or electric shepherd used
separately. If only the shepherd with lines is used, lines should be installed even more
densely. The lowest shepherd's line should be placed 10-15 cm above the ground, the last at a
height of up to 2 m. To the height of approx. 1.5 m lines should be placed 15 cm from each
other, while the distance between the lines placed above can be up to 20 cm. Optionally, one
can use a 1.2 m high metal grid connected to the energiser and above the grid additional
wires. It is recommended that the voltage on the fence line is at least 4500 V (Śmietana 2010,
Lance et al. 2010). Electric fences can also be used in combination with mesh fences. In this
case, the wires are placed over the fence mesh 1.2 m high. Additionally, one wire is placed
10-15 cm above the ground on the outer side of the fence (Nowak and Mysłajek 2006).
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Electric fences (constructed as described earlier) are particularly recommended for the
protection of apiaries, as standard fences (mesh, wood etc.) are ineffective, and bears can
easily overcome it. Hives can also be placed on high (approx. 2 m) platforms made in such
way, that prevents bears to climb it (Selva et al. 2011b).
Fladry recommended to protect livestock should consist of strips of red, airy material
measuring 10 × 60 cm, sewn on a strong cord with a diameter of 3-4 mm, distance 40 cm
from each other. Thin knit called 'dederon' is recommended as a material for fladry. Fladry are
hung up around the pasture or fold on poles stuck in the ground, approx. 1.5-2 meters from
the outer sides of the fence. Grazing animals on a leash can also be surrounded by fladry, but
it should be ensured that they cannot reach fladry and destroy them. Fladry cord should be
tense, and the height of the poles must be chosen so that the lower edges of the material are
about 15 cm above the ground and are floating in the air freely. It is very important that fladry
form a closed rectangle or circle. Breaks, resulting e.g. from loose cord or breaking up of
strips of material are unacceptable. In addition, fladry performance can be strengthened by
intense smell, for example using deodorants, or other intense, unpleasant smelling substances.
It is best to wind fladry on the light drum (destined e.g. for a garden hose) that allows to
unfold and roll them easily, and to store them during winter (Nowak and Mysłajek 2006).
According to the art. 126 of the Act on the Protection of Nature, it is recommended that
owners or users of farms cooperate with the regional director for environmental protection in
the field of protecting livestock against damage caused by large predators.
2.2.12. Intervention groups and animal rehabilitation centres
To efficiently solve the problems associated with injured individuals found , captured in
snares, or those that strayed close to human settlements, it is essential to establish a welltrained and equipped intervention groups. Operation of intervention groups is also associated
with the need to create rehabilitation centres for animals. After a period of treatment and
rehabilitation, the animals able to continue to live independently should be released into the
environment.
2.2.13. Preventing hybridization
Interbreeding of wolves and dogs can be prevented by limiting the dog population or
preventing them from penetrating the forest complexes. In case of suspicion of hybrids in the
natural environment, appropriate genetic tests should be carried out . It can be done noninvasively using a sample of DNA from faeces. When the presence of hybrids is confirmed ,
such individuals should be immediately removed from the environment.
2.2.9. Monitoring and testing of populations of large predators
Animal populations monitoring is a tool that allows to make decisions serving for their
protection. Its aim is to understand the changes in distribution and abundance, and sometimes
also other population parameters. To make this possible, it is necessary to conduct regular
inventories, using a fixed methodology. Data should be collected in the appropriate database.
The basic mistake made when monitoring species are frequent changes in inventory
methodology and institutions responsible for the final analysis and interpretation of the data
collected. The research are gaining new knowledge about the species. Both the monitoring
and the research itself, can be carried out by government agencies, NGOs, research institutes
and universities. Formally, in Poland, the Chief Inspector for Environmental Protection
(Główny Inspektor Ochrony Środowiska) is responsible for monitoring protected species,
supervised by the Ministry of Environment.
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2.3. Projects for the protection of large predators in Europe
Many projects for the protection of large predators in Europe were financed from the
LIFE program and their effects have been assessed in a report ordered by the European
Commission (Salvatori 2013). It highlights projects that met their goals best.
In Romania, there were three LIFE Nature projects dedicated to the protection of wolf,
lynx and bear executed in the Romanian Carpathians. First of them (LIFE02 NAT/RO/8576),
implemented in the Vrancea County, initiated a monitoring system for large predators, and
data collected through the analysis was used to propose Natura 2000 sites to protect the
habitats of wolves, lynx and bears - those sites were then created. In another project (LIFE05
NAT/RO/170) Intervention Group was established, which react in cases of predators injured
during a collision with vehicles or caught in snares. Animals were transported to a specially
appointed rehabilitation centre. Amongst the important elements of the project were the
introduction of a variety of methods to protect farm animals against predation, as well as the
development of management plans for Natura 2000 sites. The third project (LIFE08
NAT/RO/500) implemented the experience of previous programs for the protection of bears
into another two counties: Covasna and Harghita.
In Slovenia, the project LIFE02 NAT/ SLO/8585 was designed to protect the bears.
Monitoring of the species has been initiated and strategy for managing bear's population has
been developed. Protection areas for bears have been implemented as well, where hunting for
this species was forbidden. LIFE projects have also been devoted to the strengthening of
endangered populations of predators using individuals from other areas.
In the Italian Alps, bears were on the verge of extinction in the 90s. To prevent their
complete disappearance, Adamello Brenta National Park has implemented projects (LIFE96
NAT/ IT/003152 and LIFE00 NAT/IT/007131) in which local population of this species was
strengthened with individuals derived from Slovenia. Thanks to those actions, bear population
has grown, and individuals originating from this population inhabit the neighbouring areas of
the Italian Alps. In France, Ministry of Environment has implemented projects (LIFE96
NAT/FR/3202 and LIFE99 NAT/FR/6299), which purpose was to protect the wolves
recolonizing the French part of the Alps. Thanks to the project, monitoring system of the
population has been implemented and a support system for farmers was developed,
introducing a variety of methods to protect livestock.
Currently, the European Commission and the Bern Convention Steering Committee
strongly support a population-based and cross-border approach to the protection of large
predators, that require a multi-spatial system of population monitoring. Such a system for
cross-border population of lynx and wolf in the Alps is used by Switzerland, Italy and France,
with growing use of genetic monitoring. A well-developed national system of monitoring of
large predators is used by Sweden (in combination with GSM and GPS telemetry and genetic
monitoring). Also the cooperation within the monitoring of Scandinavian populations of large
predators is developed between Sweden, Norway and Finland. GPS GSM telemetry is
increasingly used by government agencies of European countries, as a way to monitor
populations of large predators.
In Europe, a number of initiatives was undertaken, related to defragmentation of the
environment, protection of ecological connectivity and solving problems associated with the
development of transport infrastructure. One of the most famous is the Infra-Eco Network
Europe (IENE), which main objective is to secure the sustainable development of Pan-
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European transport network by recommending solutions that protect biodiversity, preventing
fragmentation of the environment and reducing the problem of vehicle collisions with
animals. IENE is a cooperation network established in 1996, bringing together experts in the
field of transport, infrastructure and science. It organizes international conferences,
workshops and symposia, it initiates a specialized publications and international cooperation.
The biggest impact was IENE’s project named COST 341 ‘Habitat fragmentation due to
linear transportation infrastructure’, carried out by representatives of several European
countries in 1998-2003 and financed by the European Union. Under the project, a guidebook
‘Wildlife and traffic: an European handbook for identifying conflicts and designing solutions’
was developed (Iuell et al. 2003), which later became the basis for most solutions trying to
minimize conflicts between environment and transport infrastructure in Europe.
Projects concerning reintroduction of large predators in Europe mainly concern lynx.
They were carried out in the 70s and 80s of the twentieth century on the border of Slovenia
and Croatia in the Dinaric Mountains, in Switzerland, in the Alps and the Jura, and in
Germany in the Harz Mountains, and on the border between Germany and the Czech
Republic (Bavaria and the Bohemian Forest). The source of acquisition of released
individuals were Slovakian Carpathians, mainly Kysucke and Orava Beskids, so the areas
adjacent to the Żywiec Beskids, and animals from zoos (which is now heavily criticized and
discouraged). Some of these projects succeeded. Lynx populations in those areas of
implementation are stable or increasing.
3. Description of best practices
3.1. Nationwide inventory of wolf (wilk) and lynx (ryś) in forest inspectorates and
national parks in Poland
Nationwide inventory of wolf and lynx in Poland started in 2000 by the initiative of
the Mammal Research Institute of the Polish Academy of Sciences and the Association
(Instytut Biologii Ssaków PAN) for Nature ‘Wolf’, based on the decision of the Chief Nature
Conservator (Główny Konserwator Przyrody), General Director of State Forests (Dyrektor
Generalny Lasów Państwowych) and Director Board of National Parks (Dyrektor Krajowego
Zarządu Parków Narodowych) in collaboration with the regional directors of State Forests,
forest inspectorates, national parks and the then Voivodeship Conservators of the Wildlife
(wojewódzcy konserwatorzy przyrody). Coordination of work and data analysis was dealt by
MRI PAS staff, in cooperation with the AN ‘Wolf’, while most of the data collection was
carried out by the staff of the National Forests, national parks services, MRI PAS and
members of AN ‘Wolf’.
3.1.1. Presentation of the problem
Gathering reliable information on the abundance and distribution of endangered species
is an essential tool that allows to make the right decisions for their protection. Monitoring of
large predatory mammals is however not an easy task, due to their enormous space
requirements, low population size and secretive lifestyle. In Poland, in the late 90s. the only
source of information about the state of wolf and lynx populations were hunting inventories,
which due to the inclusion of large predators under protection, were unsuitable tool to assess
changes in their populations. Hunting estimations were accused of padding the number of
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predators (Okarma 1989). Furthermore, due to urbanization and development of transport
infrastructure, question arose about the state of ecological connectivity between forest
complexes. The wolf and the lynx, animals with a natural tendency for dispersion and walking
long distances, are therefore excellent species for the assessment of ecological connectivity.
There was therefore a need to implement multi-spatial assessment of the large predators
abundance and distribution in the country, based on a uniform methodology and analysis
using current knowledge of the ecology of wolf and lynx.
3.1.2. Stage of planning and preparation of activities
Objectives and methodology of inventory of wolf and lynx have been developed by
experts from the MRI PAS and AN ‘Wolf’. Due to social structure of the population of both
predators and the use of fixed areas, the stated objective of the inventory was to obtain
information on the number of family groups of wolves and the number of female cats with
kittens and individual lynx inhabiting Poland. Due to the seasonal variation of the number of
individuals in family groups and difficult of detection of animals during dispersion, total
number of individuals of each species was considered a secondary objective, and this
parameter has to be specified as a range of values. The methodology was tested in 2000 in
north-eastern Poland and presented to the General Director of State Forests with the proposal
to involve as one of the main contractors of this inventory. After discussing the details of the
development of data and reports and signing of the agreement on cooperation and
participation of the ‘State Forests’ in the project, a series of trainings for employees of the SF
and national parks have been conducted on the ecology of both species, methods of data
collection in the field and ways of recording and reporting to the coordinating body.
Description of the methodology, along with basic information about the purposes of the
inventory, the ecology of both species, recognizing their tracks and inventory card model in
the form of ‘Instructions for inventory of wolf and lynx’ was submitted to the Regional
Directors of State Forests, forest inspectorates, national parks, and placed on a special
inventory-related website. Coordination of the project was financed in 2001 by the
Directorate General of State Forests and the co-financing institutions were: EuroNatur
Foundation (Germany), the Norwegian Research Council (Norway) and the UK Wolf
Conservation Trust (UK).
3.1.3. Presentation of implemented actions
The inventory of both species started in winter 2000/2001. Assessment of abundance of
wolves and lynx was conducted for the entire forest complexes, and not for individual units of
economic administration, that are forest inspectorates or game shooting inspectorates. Within
the forest complexes, for easy organization of activities, 70 areas of inventory were
designated, including several forest inspectorates and possibly national park, separated from
the other parts of the complex with clear natural or anthropogenic barriers that could represent
boundaries of the wolves pack territories and lynx areas. In each area a coordinator was
designated, who led the work of all units located within his boundaries. Also, in each forest
inspectorate and national park, a person was identified responsible for the organization of
conducted counts and data collection. The inventory was based on two core activities of field
studies: harvesting any observations during a year and coordinated tracking during winter.
Year-round observations were based on recording on special forms (cards of monitoring
wolves and lynx) all reliable information about the observation of predators, alive or dead,
and found traces of their activity such as tracks, droppings, urine marking, earth scratched
with claws, signs of oestrus, remains of prey, attacks on livestock, dens, burrows and other
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rearing places, heard howling etc. Each of the entries had a number of essential details: date,
time (if it was relevant), name of the forest inspectorate, forest, branch number, number of
individuals, their age, gender, description of findings (e.g. type of findings, prey type, cause
of death of a predator), size of the track, an assessment of the reliability of observations, and
the name of observer. Monitoring cards were collected in forest inspectorates on a quarterly
basis, and after copying, sent to the MRI PAS and to the coordinator of a given region.
Winter tracking of predators was conducted in the first half of winter, because at the end
of winter in February and March wolves have their oestrus and parental couple often separates
from the rest of a group, which may impede counting of individuals and differentiation of
packs. Tracking was conducted once or twice a season, no later than 12 hours after a fresh
snowfall, simultaneously in all forest inspectorates within a single region of inventory. Based
on year-round observations, in each region, areas most frequently penetrated by predators
were determined, and they were typed to check first. Forest service workers designated to
carry out tracking, experienced in the diagnosis of tracks of both species, on day indicated by
the coordinator passed or slowly rode on the roads and hiking trails so as to passed transects
formed loops and evenly covered inventory area. Trackers were equipped with a
communication system so if they shall find tracks passing to the area being checked by
another person, they would be able to inform that person. Once he found the tracks of wolves
or lynx, the tracker was supposed to measure them, assess the number of individuals in a
group and follow them until they leave the road and enter into the forest. Then he should go
around a branch or a larger area (depending on the availability of roads and terrain
conditions), to which the predators entered and look for tracks again as they returned onto the
road. If it failed, the tracker could go back on the road and continue to follow it. If predators
certainly did not come out from the checked area, it was considered to be a place of their
current resting. All information (location of tracks, direction of transition, the number of
individuals, exits and entrances to the branches) was applied on a map of the area, and using
the symbols recommended by methodology, recorded on the card for monitoring the wolf and
lynx with all the information required (as in the case of full-year tracking), including snow
conditions and assignment of information to a particular pack if it was possible.
After completion of the tracking, completed forms and maps were passed to forest
inspectorates. Then the person responsible for tracking prepared a consolidated map of the
detected tracks of wolves and lynx, found resting places and other findings. Then the
representatives of forest inspectorates within the inventory region met with the coordinator
and prepared consolidated maps for the entire region, including the routes that trackers
crossed.
All completed forms and consolidated maps of winter tracking were transferred to the
MRI PAS by the end of March each year, and the card with year-round observations to the
end of each quarter. Forest inspectorates which did not detect presence of large predators, sent
the information on lack of the species once a year. In addition, the contemporaneous
Voivodeship Conservators of the Wildlife sent to the coordinating institutions cards with
information about the damage in inventory caused by both predators. The MRI PAS’s
specially hired employee typed all data from the forms to the database, assigning to all the
information: specific geographic coordinates, code of observation and detailed description.
Then, using GIS software, he pictured in separate layers routes chosen by trackers of
footprints of wolves and lynx along with the number of individuals in the group, the location
of rest areas identified predators inventory for all regions in Poland. At the end of year,
information gathered in yearlong observations collected in a database were imported in form
of a layer to the GIS program. These data, together with the results of winter tracking, were
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analysed by a team of specialists in the field of ecology of predatory mammals. Based on the
location of breeding sites, and a high concentration of urine markings and marking with
scratching and faeces indicating the locations of central zones of territories (Zub et al. 2003)
different family groups of wolves were distinguished and their number was determined.
Based on research on the ecology of the wolf, it was assumed that the observed breeding
places within a distance equal to or greater than 8 km belong to separate family groups.
Furthermore, while distinguishing packs, it was adopted that an average territory of wolves in
area of the lowlands is 220-250 km2 and in the Carpathians 100-150 km2 , and ellipses of such
surfaces are used to illustrate separate family groups on the maps of the species. Size of each
group was estimated based on the largest number of wolves found in the area. To illustrate
lynx family groups, ellipses of the surfaces approx. 120-150 km2 were adopted and for males
approx. 250 km2. Every year, the Mammal Research Institute PAS developed the report on
the results of inventory. These reports, together with all information on the methodology,
were sent to the General Directorate of State Forests (Dyrekcja Generalna Lasów
Państwowych), Chief Conservator of Wildlife (Główny Konserwator Przyrody), regional
directorates of state forests and national parks, and were posted on a special website
(http://www.zbs.bialowieza.pl/artykul/526.html). Access to detailed maps and information
was granted for involved inventory units of the SF and parks, and general information about
numbers throughout the country and in various regions of the country and Polish maps with
the location of populations were freely available.
The results were presented by the staff of MRI PAS and AN ‘Wolf’ at meetings with
representatives of GDSF, RDSF directors and employees of forest inspectorates.
Methodology and results of the inventory were presented at national and international
conferences.
Card for monitoring wolves and lynx used in the inventory
Name of the observer. .
Date
of
observat
ion
Exact location:
Forest inspectorate,
forestry, department,
nearby villages, roads,
rivers, etc.
(possible coordinates)
Species
of the
animal:
Wolf
Eurasia
n lynx
Number
of
individuals
in
the
group
.
Compositio
n of the
group:
Adults:
Juveniles:
Description:
circumstances
of
observation, burrows, dens,
markings, oestrus, faeces,
howling, hunting, species
of prey, carcass, route of
tracking etc.
Track Size
Degree
of
or
of the certainty
observ track:
of
ation
(length determined
x width) species:
CERTAIN,
UNCERTAI
N.
Tracking
terms,
No. of days
after renewal
The
distinctio
n of packs
and
individual
s
in
winter
counting:
(pack no.)
3.1.4. Resulting ecological effects
Information for reports and follow-up activities. Original purpose of the inventory was to
investigate the range of distribution and abundance of wolf and lynx populations in Poland
(Jędrzejewski et al. 2002b). Continuation of this project in the long term also allowed to track
changes in both parameters. Information collected was used for the preparation of national
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
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reports on state of protection of wolf and lynx for the European Commission in 2006, where
in addition to data on the current numbers, size of the contemporaneous and reference wolf
population's range was estimated, as well as the potential size of the population. Polish report
was highly praised by the European Commission. Methodology tested in the project became
basis for the development of recommendations for monitoring wolf and lynx in the special
sites of conservation under the Natura 2000 network (Jędrzejewski et al. 2010a, 2010b).
Protection of populations and habitats of predators. The inventory database collected
approx. 30 thousand informations, each with the assigned geographical coordinates. Data
contained in the database of both predators were used when appointing dozens of Natura 2000
sites, which now protect wolf and lynx habitats in country. In addition, they were used in
assessing the impact of a number of planned investments, including recreational, industrial
and transport infrastructure on the environment and in developing appropriate measures to
minimize impact on the habitats of wolves and lynx. Based on the data received, analysis was
performed on environmental factors favourable and unfavourable for occurrence of wolves
and lynx in Poland (Jędrzejewski et al. 2004a, 2005a, Niedziałkowska et al. 2006), and
models of habitat suitability were development for both species (Jędrzejewski et al. 2008,
Huck et al. 2010). In order to supplement and clarify the information, collaterally with the
inventory, genetic studies were undertaken in cooperation with the Institute of Nature
Conservation of the Polish Academy of Sciences, to determine the direction of gene flow and
to assess the degree of genetic isolation of sub-populations of wolves in Poland (Czarnomska
et al. 2013). Information about the genetic structure of populations of wolves contributed to
creation of several Natura 2000 sites to protect subpopulations of this species in Roztocze.
Preventing fragmentation. Information collected during several years of inventory allowed
to assess the ecological connectivity and define the placement of ecological corridors within
the commissioned by the Ministry of the Environment ‘Project of ecological corridors linking
the European Natura 2000 network in Poland’ (Jędrzejewski et al. 2005c). It was part of the
Phare program (PL0105.02) entitled ‘Implementation of the European Ecological Network in
Poland.’ The project was developed by MRI PAS in collaboration with AN ‘Wolf’ and the
Museum and Institute of Zoology PAS. Wolf and lynx have been used as indicator species,
and tracking changes in the distribution of populations of both predators for a longer period of
time allowed to determine the most likely migration routes and determine the degree of
isolation of individual Polish forest complexes. Ecological corridors were determined using
geographic information systems (GIS) so that they can be used later in defining the location
of wildlife crossings in both refuges for predators, as well as on the course of ecological
corridors.
Projects of counteracting the fragmentation of forests and promotion of ecological
corridors conducted by MRI PAS also include educational and promotional elements. In
2004, the institution published a book ‘Animals and roads. Methods of reducing the negative
impact of roads on wildlife populations‘ (Jędrzejewski et al. 2004b), which is the first
publication of this type in Poland. The book had a second edition in 2006 and the English
edition was released in 2009. Additionally, in November 2008 MRI PAS organized an
international conference entitled ‘Implementation of the concept of ecological corridors in
Poland.’ Conference materials, published in book ‘Protecting ecological connectivity in
Poland’ (Jędrzejewski and Ławreszuk 2009), became a valuable material used in planning of
transport investments.
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3.1.5. Participation of State Forests and foresters in the project
In the first year of inventory, data from 431 forest Inspectorates and 17 national parks
was sent to MRI PAS. Counting during the winter season 2000/2001 was conducted by 137
forest inspectorates and 7 national parks. Yearlong observations results were received from
410 forest inspectorates and 13 national parks. Information has not been received from only 8
forest inspectorates and 5 national parks. In subsequent years, the number of inspectorates
participating varied. In March 2004, the information was sent by a total of 284 forest
inspectorates and 19 national parks. 85 units conducted winter tracking. By the end of
December 2011, a total of 246 forest inspectorates and 11 national parks sent information on
the presence or absence of large predators in seasons 2009/2010 and 2010/2011. Thus, in the
above form, but with varying degrees of involvement of each of inspectorates, inventory is
still being conducted today. Over the years, fewer and fewer of inspectorates led laborious
snow tracking, but many of them are still collecting and passing yearlong observations.
Inventory has been enlarged by inspectorates from the areas recently colonized by wolves in
western Poland. In later years, lack of participation of inspectorates from certain areas of the
permanent presence of predators did not allow for a comprehensive assessment of their
numbers and the current distribution.
3.1.6. Further fate of the project
Using the experience from this project, for several years an inventory of wolf and lynx
has been conducted in RDSF Olsztyn - in the Piska Forest (Puszcza Piska) and NapiwodzkoRamucka Forest (Puszcza Napiwodzko-Ramucka). A similar inventory is carried out for two
years in West Pomeranian Voivodeship, coordinated by the Regional Directorate for
Environmental Protection in Szczecin. Due to the resulting from art. 11 of the Habitats
Directive obligation on the Member States of the EU to monitor the priority species (within
and outside Natura 2000 sites), and also because of the obligation to send to the European
Commission a report every six years, describing the state of these species, containing, inter
alia, their size, extent of occurrence, changes in population and conservation status of habitats
(Art. 17 of the Directive), it is necessary to regularly (e.g. every 3 years) conduct an inventory
of wolf and lynx across the country based on the same methodology and wide re-integration
of state forests.
3.2. Protection of large predators in the Western Carpathians
Project has been implemented by Association for Nature ‘Wolf’ from 1996. Its goal is
to protect wolf, lynx and brown bear in the western part of the Polish Carpathians. The project
includes Żywiec Beskids (Beskid Żywiecki), Silesian Beskids (Beskid Śląski) and Little
Beskids (Beskid Mały). Most of the actions are carried out in forests administered by forests
inspectorates of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Katowice.
3.2.1. Presentation of the problem
In 1996, when the project was launched, three large predators were already put in the
Western Carpathians under strict protection. Bears since 1952, wolf and lynx since 1995.
Large predators stayed in the vast areas of Żywiec Beskids bordering with Slovakia, but they
appeared sporadically in the Little Beskids and Silesian Beskids. In the 90s there was no
efficient system for monitoring the population of predators, and data obtained during the
inventory conducted by hunting associations in the Beskid Mountains were burdened with a
huge mistake (Nowak 1999). State of knowledge of the ecology of all three species in the
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region was low. No institution offered help to farmers, there was also no system for paying
compensations for the harm caused by predators. Level of knowledge of local communities on
large predators was poor. Habitat protection of predators also left much to be desired. Parks
did not provide effective protection for the habitats of wolves, lynx and bears, and a few
reserves were too small to effectively play their role. The only larger area that could have
served to protect habitat for predators was Babiogórski National Park (Babiogórski Park
Narodowy), but it still had too small surface (it is currently approx. 34 km2and at beginning of
the project approx. 17 km2) to cover even one territory of lynx or wolf family group.
3.2.2. Stage of planning and preparation of activities
While planning activities within the project, best existing practices used in the
protection of large predators were taken into account. Cooperation was established with
specialists from MRI PAS, especially in the methodology of research and monitoring of
populations of predators. When assessing health status of the population and risks associated
with internal parasites, cooperation was established with experts from the Department of
Invertebrate Systematics and Ecology of Wrocław University of Environmental and Life
Sciences (Zakład Systematyki i Ekologii Bezkręgowców Uniwersytetu Przyrodniczego we
Wrocławiu). The project was funded from a variety of sources, i.e. by the EuroNatur
Foundation (Germany), International Fund for Animal Welfare (USA), Wolves and Humans
Foundation (UK) and own funds of AN ‘Wolf’.
3.2.3. Presentation of implemented actions
Population monitoring and research on predators. To carry out effective measures for
large predators of the Western Carpathians, a thorough knowledge of them was needed. The
works began with monitoring the distribution and abundance of all three species, as well as
with the research project on the ecology of wolf and lynx. Monitoring predators was
conducted throughout duration of the project. In winter, intensive tracking of wolves and lynx
was conducted, also tracks of bears were recorded. In spring, summer and autumn, traces of
the presence of predators were searched on the network of walking transects. Predators’
tracks, as well as all other traces of their presence - faeces, urine and scratching markings,
remains of prey, lairs - were recorded in the databases that have the same structure as the
national inventory database for wolf and lynx, so it was possible to compare them. All the
information was assigned with geographic coordinates, in the first period of the project using
topographic maps, and since 2002 using GPS receivers. For analysis of the data from 2001,
GPS software was used. In 2003 automatic cameras were implemented for monitoring (i.e.
fototraps), and then cameras (wideotraps).
Monitoring allowed to track changes in distribution and abundance of wolf and lynx
(Nowak et al. 1997, Mysłajek and Nowak, 2004). It also allowed to evaluate the reliability of
abundance estimates made by the hunting groups (Nowak 1999). Studies on the ecology of
predators were focused mostly on wolves. Evaluation was made on composition of the diet of
this predator based on an analysis of nearly 1,300 droppings and remains of more than 100
preys (Nowak et al. 2005, Karpowicz 2007, Tołkacz 2013). They recognized level of
reproductive success, mortality factors and preferences for breeding sites (Nowak et al. 2008).
By working with parasitologists the degree of infestation with parasites in wolves was known
(Popiołek et al. 2007). There was a research conducted on the vocalization of wolves and the
possibility of using stimulation with howling for monitoring this species was tested (Nowak et
al. 2007).
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Association for Nature ‘Wolf’ was also included in the project of genetic monitoring of
wolf in Poland run by the Mammal Research Institute of Sciences PAS (Instytut Biologii
Ssaków PAN) and the Institute for Nature Conservation PAN (Instytut Ochrony Przyrody
PAN). In years 2005-2009 in the Western Beskids nearly 200 samples of faeces of wolves
were collected. These were used i.a. to assess the genetic structure of wolf population in
Poland (Czarnomska et al. 2013) and to estimate the exchange of individuals between the subpopulations (Alberts et al., unpublished). Research on lynx focused on the composition of the
food, assessment of reproductive success of females and environmental preferences (Mysłajek
and Nowak 2003, 2004, Mysłajek 2011, 2012). In case of bears, mainly changes in
distribution and potential impact of investments on their habitat have been studied (Mysłajek
and Nowak 2011). A doctoral thesis have been made basing on the project, which focused on
ecology and protection issues of wolf in the Silesian Beskids and Żywiecki Beskids.
Cooperation of the Association with the Department of Biology of University of Warsaw
(Wydział Biologii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego) moreover resulted in the creation of four
master's theses and two undergraduate works on ecology and protection problems of wolf and
lynx. The research for master thesis on wolf was also conducted by students from Germany
and the USA.
Preventing damage caused by large predators in livestock. The aim of first phase of
operations in years 1996-2000 was to reach out to farmers with knowledge on methods to
protect farm animals from predators. An important element of cooperation with breeders was
to assist in obtaining compensations. ‘Wolf’ Association prepared and consulted with
breeders design of the system of compensations for damages from wolves in Poland, and then
lobbied for better laws to deal with this problem, so that the relevant regulation have been
issued. Articles were published in specialised journals by the agricultural advisory centres
(Mysłajek 1999), a leaflet was developed for farmers, and then book ‘Protecting farm animals
from wolves’ (Nowak and Mysłajek 1999) was released after consulting the Chamber of
Agriculture in Krosno (Izba Rolnicza w Krośnie) and the Regional Association of Sheep and
Goat Breeders in Lesko (Regionalny Związek Hodowców Owiec i Kóz w Lesku).
Publications were delivered free of charge to communes, agricultural advisory centres,
agricultural schools, universities, institutes and research stations. They were also passed while
contacting breeders. Breeders were also aided directly through contacts with relevant
authorities, committees estimating damages and by writing lawsuits for compensations.
The second stage of the project was the introduction of methods of protecting farm
animals - Polish Tatra Sheepdog (owczarek podhalański) and fladry, that AN ‘Wolf’ proposed
as an innovative, simple and inexpensive method of protecting flocks from predators. Fladry
and sheepdogs went to the Beskid sheep, cattle and horse breeders. In 2000-2001 these
activities were carried out together with the Silesian Complex of Landscape Parks (Zespół
Parków Krajobrazowych Województwa Śląskiego), under the project ‘Active protection of
the wolf in the Western Beskids parks in the Silesian Voivodeship’, co-financed by the
Regional Fund for Environmental Protection and Water Management in Katowice
(Wojewódzki Fundusz Ochrony Środowiska i Gospodarki Wodnej w Katowicach), while in
2002-2005 the project was led by the Association itself. First, the information was collected
on the number and size of herds, grazing locations and foregoing cases of attacks of wolves
on livestock. These data, together with information on the distribution and abundance of
wolves in region, were used to indicate the breeding that should be covered by program in the
first place. All farmers were invited to two special trainings on the protection of livestock,
then to the selected breeding, whose owners wanted to cooperate, methods of protecting
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stocks were introduced. In 2000-2005, 19 Polish Tatra Sheepdogs were submitted for 12
households, and 18 sets of fladry went to 15 farms (Nowak and Mysłajek 2002, 2005). Most
of the breeding enclosed in the project introduced two methods together. Fladry served
primarily to protect temporary folds, so-called ‘barracks’, where sheep spend the night, rarely
used for fencing of grazing places. Polish Tatra Sheepdogs were passed as puppies, 6-8 weeks
old. Dogs came from breeding from Podhale.
Every dog owner received the instructions of his upbringing, and the staff of ‘Wolf’
Association maintained regular contact with the breeders and monitored the development and
training of puppies. Using night vision, volunteers monitored behaviour of the dogs in herds
at night. Contracts were signed with the breeders in which they undertook to appropriate use
of fladry and upbringing and use of dogs. Experience gained during project realisation was
used to write the book ‘Manual for the protection of farm animals from wolves’ (Nowak and
Mysłajek 2006). Special section for livestock farmers was created on the website of ‘Wolf’
Association, discussing methods of protecting livestock from predators, the current system of
compensations
and
the
procedures
to
obtain
them
(http://www.polskiwilk.org.pl/przeciwdzialanie-szkodom-od-drapieznikow).
Protection of habitats of large predators. Identification of breeding and rearing places
made during the project, as well as the identification of bear lairs, has allowed to develop
recommendations and to carry out activities to protect the habitats of large predators in
region. In cooperation with RDSF in Katowice and Beskid forest inspectorates, during the
severity of work related to removing the effects of mass dying of spruce forests, refuges of
large predators were defined in the Silesian Beskids and Żywiecki Beskids and guidelines
were prepared for the modification of forest management in these refuges. Assessment was
developed on the impact of planned ski resorts, chairlifts, water reservoirs and other
investments on places of bear hibernation and wolves and lynx breeding, and ecological
connectivity in the western part of the Carpathians, in Gmina Ujsoły, Gmina Węgierska
Górka, Gmina Rajcza, Gmina Brenna and Gmina Lipowa. These assessments prevented
construction of the most damaging investments. Collected data on essential places for
reproduction of predators was used in the development of plan concerning protection tasks for
created here a special area of protection of habitats ‘Żywiec Beskids’ (PLH240006).
To protect the habitats of large predators, together with the RDSF in Katowice, a
campaign was conducted to reveal how group integration events impact the wildlife in the
Beskid Mountains. The campaign was directed to institutions benefiting from the services of
companies that organize this type of events and offering, usually illegally, rides on ATV,
quads or snowmobiles along forest roads and mountain trails. A guide was prepared,
containing tips on how to choose the offer that does not threaten nature and does not violate
the law. The campaign under the slogan ‘Do not scare the lynx - take care of ecological image
of your company’ was promoted on the websites of both institutions, as well as in the press.
Possibility of the development of different forms of adventure tourism in forests of this region
with regard to its potential impact on the environment was assessed using a SWOT analysis
(Mysłajek 2001).
Education of the society. ‘Wolf’ Association conducted various forms of education
dedicated to large predators. In years 1996-2013 over 80 presentations, lectures and training
sessions were conducted, which were attended by more than 3,000 adults, students, and
children from kindergartens. The Association also organizes ‘Wolf Workshops’, during which
volunteers are trained to help in the collection of data about wolves in the area - so far 29
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workshops for 270 people have been conducted. Additionally, students and naturalists from
abroad take part in a multi-day seminars. 22 classes of this type were attended by over 240
people. Foreigners had a chance to expand their knowledge about predators while helping in
the implementation of projects. 40 students from Switzerland, Germany, Spain, Austria, Great
Britain, Lithuania and the United States worked as volunteers. Promotion of knowledge about
wolves takes place through participation in documentaries and nature films (e.g. ‘Wild
Poland’ series). Also articles appear under the project, popularizing the knowledge about
large predators. Special publications and educational materials were developed: the book ‘On
a trail of the wolf’ (Nowak and Mysłajek 2000), stickers, t-shirts, posters, leaflets and
brochures in Polish, German, English, Slovak and Ukrainian. Foreign publications promote
project experience in neighbouring countries, where wolves and bears are still hunting
objects, as is the case in Slovakia and Ukraine. For teachers and educators, presentations were
developed on the ecology and protection of wolves that facilitate conducting classes for
different age groups of children, teenagers and adults. These presentations are passed on CDs.
A website is operating: www.polskiwilk.org.pl , containing the current knowledge on biology,
ecology, occurrence and issues related to the protection of this species. There is also the
hugely popular profile on the social networking site Facebook and the movie channel on
YouTube, where videos are published showing i.a. wild animals in their environment
recorded using videotraps.
Animal rehabilitation and reintegration into the environment. During the project, several
times wolves and lynx were found, which required direct help. An example of a successful
action was the reintegration of a young wolf and two lynx into the environment in the Żywiec
Beskids. In summer of 2001, lost wolf pup was found near one of the Beskid villages. It was
transferred to the animal rehabilitation centre in Mikołowo operating at Katowice Forest
Inspectorate, and then to AN ‘Wolf’. By the decision of the inspectorate veterinary officer in
Żywiec, the pup has been subjected to quarantine for ten days, during which it had minimal
contact with people, and was fed with raw, minced beef. Because the wolf came from a small
family group consisting of two adults, which were monitored, the area of their breeding and
rearing was known. Thus, the Voivod Nature Conservator (Wojewódzki Konserwator
Przyrody) of Katowice issued the decision to release a young wolf. Based on additional
fieldwork, members of ‘Wolf’ Association established a place where the adults stayed. After
the quarantine ended, pup was transported there and released, and later performed tracking
showed the presence of a young wolf with a pair of adults. Moreover, in 2007 in the Pasmo
Policy in Żywiec Beskid, three young lynx were found, of which two males were dead, but
the female was still alive. Shortly afterwards, another young female lynx was found, coming
from another litter, found in Skawica, on the outskirts of the Pasmo Policy. Both individuals
were transferred to the animal rehabilitation centre in Mikołowo. To allow their return to the
environment, they were fed with natural food, providing rabbits and deer killed on the roads.
In the spring of 2008, thanks to the Babiogórski National Forest and ‘Wolf’ Association, in
collaboration with the Regional Nature Conservators from Katowice and Kraków, lynx were
released to the environment. Earlier in the Babiogórski National Forest, the adaptive aviary
was built in a densely wooded area, far from human settlements. It allowed to accustom the
lynx to the mountain climate and to observe their behaviour in a new environment. Before
transporting into Beskids, health status of females was examined and they were tested for
presence of diseases, also the blood and tissue samples were collected for DNA analysis. In
addition, females were equipped with radio telemetric collars, fitted with a lock allowing
them to drop the collar after a few months. During their stay in the adaptive aviary, kittens
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were provided with natural food and their behaviour was observed from a special observation
tower. After a few weeks females were released, and their fate was controlled by automatic
cameras and radio telemetry bearings. Tracking of the lynx was conducted by workers of the
Babiogórski National Forest and ‘Wolf’ Association. The action was successful, both cats
found food and penetrated the national park and its adjacent forest located on the Slovak side
of the Babia Góra.
Protection of cross-border populations. Research on wolf shooting on the Slovak side of
the border in the Żywiec Beskids have shown how huge impact it has on the conservation of
this predator in the Polish Natura 2000 sites (Nowak et al. 2008). Based on information
obtained in the course of research under the project, ‘Wolf’ Association lobbied in favour of
cross-border approach to the protection of shared populations of predators. Meetings have
been organised with representatives of both Slovak and Polish ministries and agencies
responsible for protecting the environment. ‘Wolf’ Association joined the appeal sent by the
association ‘Workshop for All Beings’ on the shooting of brown bears in Slovakia. The result
of these activities was the cooperation in management of cross-border populations of large
predators, especially wolves and brown bears also at ministerial level, and establishment of
Polish representatives to the Polish-Slovak working group on large predators. at the end of
2012 by Chief Nature Conservator. The first official meeting of this group took place in
Zakopane in the spring of 2013.
3.2.4. The resulting ecological effects, their measurement and monitoring
Monitoring populations of large predators showed that territory of occurrence of
wolves, lynx and bears have extended in the area where project was conducted. While at the
beginning of its implementation, predators were permanently present in the Żywiec Beskids,
now all three species occur in the Little Beskids, the lynx and the bear are also present in the
Silesian Beskids. Wolf population in the Silesian Beskids grew rapidly until 2004. (Nowak et
al. 2008). Collapse of spruce tree stand and associated deforestation in places where wolves
previously brought up young led to the withdrawal of this species. Currently, only individuals
are occasionally observed in this area. Local forest inspectorates recreate forest cover, which
gives hope for the reintroduction of wolves. The return of lynx and bears to the Silesian
Beskids prove the process of restoration. As a result of measures to protect the habitats of
large predators it was possible to stop the construction of particularly harmful investments in
the Beskid Mountains, such as dam and water reservoir in Zimnik Valley (Dolina ZImnika) in
Węgierska Górka Forest Inspectorate and ski resorts on the Wielka Racza and Lipowska in
the Żywiec Beskids. Thanks to the project realisation, local breeders routinely use a variety of
methods to protect herds (guard dogs, electric shepherds, fladry, sound deterrence), they also
know the procedure for estimating potential damages and obtaining compensation. Amongst
other things, thanks to the activities undertaken as a part of project, bilateral Polish-Slovak
talks were initiated on cross-border approach to managing populations of predators.
3.2.5. Participation of State Forests and foresters in the project
From the point of view of the protection of large mammal predators, foresters are a key
professional group responsible for the durability and protection of habitats of large predators.
An important element of the project were contacts with the administration of the National
Forests. There was collaboration established with foresters from RDSF in Katowice and the
local forest inspectorates in monitoring populations of predators and creating refuges for large
predators in the Silesian Beskids and Żywiecki Beskids. Talks and lectures in forest were
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conducted, people took part in meetings of the committee supervising the creation of
management plans, there were also lectures for students of the study of nature conservation of
Faculty of Forestry at the University of Agriculture in Kraków (Wydział Leśny Uniwersytetu
Rolniczego w Krakowie) during the meeting, which took place in the Węgierska Górka Forest
Inspectorate. Cooperation was also carried out in the framework of the Social Science Council
of the Promotional Forest Complex (Rada Naukowo-Społeczna Leśnego Kompleksu
Promocyjnego) ‘Lasy Beskidu Śląskiego’ and the Council of the State Forests (Kolegium
Lasów Państwowych). Articles dedicated to the problems of predators and their protection
were published in the specialised press (e.g. ‘Echa Leśne’, ‘Głos Lasu’ and ‘Poznajmy Las’).
3.2.6. Importance of the project for the local community
Thanks to the project implementation, awareness of local communities has increased
about the presence of predators in region and their role in local ecosystem. Educational
activities involved over 3,000 people in the region, and a much larger number of recipients
was educated through the press, radio, TV and website. Large predators have become an
essential element of the promotion of tourist attractions of the region. A good example is the
żywiecki poviat, for which a natural-landscape catalogue has been issued describing i.a.
wolves, lynx and bears (Mysłajek 2008). Workshops and seminars were conducted using local
agritourist farms, so that residents obtained an income directly related to the presence of large
predators. Interest in predators of foreigners participating in seminars, as well as the presence
of foreign volunteers working in the project, helped to raise awareness of local communities
that large predators may be an important element of attracting tourists.
3.2.7. Further fate of the project
The project is still in progress and experience gained from it is used in other programs
to protect large carnivores in Poland. The project was also awarded for several times, i.a. in
1999 it took second place in national edition of the Henry Ford European Conservation
Award and in 2003 it was awarded by the Regional Fund for Environmental Protection and
Water Management in Katowice.
3.3. Active protection of the lowland populations of lynx in Poland
Since 2011, WWF Poland leads the project ‘Active protection of the lowland
populations of lynx in Poland.’ Its aim is to rebuild the population of this predator in the Piska
Forest (Puszcza Piska) and Napiwodzko-Ramucka Forest (Puszcza Napiwodzko-Ramucka),
in Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship. The project continues part of the activities of the
‘Protection of species of lynx, wolf and bear in Poland’ program, implemented by the WWF
Poland foundation in years 2008-2012. One of the project partners is the Regional Directorate
of State Forests in Olsztyn.
3.3.1. Presentation of the problem
In 2001, only one lynx has been recorded in the Piska Forest and Napiwodzko-Ramucka
Forest (Jędrzejewski et al. 2002b). Breakdown of the population in the region has been seen
in 80s. The main reason for this was hunting, during which even several males and females
with their young were killed (Sobotko 2007). Contemporary threat to these cats is a dynamic
development of transport infrastructure and an increase in the number of vehicles on the road.
This leads to the fragmentation of forests and interruption of wildlife passages through which
lynx from neighbouring forests could reach the Piska Forest and Napiwodzko-Ramucka
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
Forest (Niedziałkowska et al. 2006, Huck et al. 2010). Amongst the local community the
knowledge on lynx is still very poor, therefore it is necessary to raise awareness of residents
and key professional groups, including foresters, on the presence of species in forests of the
region and the need to protect it.
3.3.2. Stage of planning and preparation of activities
In the preparation stage of the project, necessary permits for the reintroduction of lynx
were obtained, and cooperation with local forest inspectorates was established, also
consultations with experts in the study of this species took place. Actions for lynx are funded
largely by grants. The 'Active protection of the lowland populations of lynx in Poland' project
is co-financed by the European Union from the European Regional Development Fund under
the Operational Programme 'Infrastructure and Environment' Previously implemented project
'Protection of species of lynx, wolf and bear in Poland' was in turn supported by the EEA
Financial mechanism and the Norwegian financial mechanism. WWF Poland foundation also
obtains donations and funds from the 1% tax.
3.3.3. Presentation of implemented actions
Reintroduction of lynx in the Piska Forest and Napiwodzko-Ramucka Forest. The aim of
the project is to increase the population of lynx in the Masurian woods to the level of 20-40
individuals and predators introduced by the WWF are to contribute. Reintroduction of lynx is
carried out in two ways - through the transplantation of wild animals and releasing into the
wild lynx from breeding. Wild lynx come from Estonia and so far (until mid-2013) 2 males
and 2 females have been brought. Lynx stay in reintroduction aviaries for a few days, and
then are released into the environment. Each individual is equipped with a collar with GPS
GSM transmitter. Collars allow to track the released lynx and assess the degree of their
adaptation to new conditions.
Since 2007, WWF Poland foundation also supports lynx reintroduction program
implemented by the Wild Animal Park (Park Dzikich Zwierząt) in Kadzidłowo. A method has
been developed to introduce lynx to the environment under the name of 'born to be free'. This
method has previously been used to reintroduce gallinaceans, and since 2005 it's been used
for lynx (Krzywiński et al. 2012). The ‘born to be free’ method consists of several stages.
Inside the forest complexes in which transplantation is to take place, special aviaries are built.
They are designed in such a way that the lynx kittens have the opportunity to go outside
aviary through a small opening, which, however, is small enough to prevent escaping of adult
females. The kittens are born inside the aviary. In the first period of life small lynx may leave
the aviary and return to it without restriction, thus maintaining contact with the mother.
Entrance to the aviary is blocked in the fourth or fifth month of life of kittens when the
mother stops feeding them with milk. Young lynx are then fed by people and stay in vicinity
of the aviary for next months, until becoming independent, which usually happens in the
spring of next year. During this time, they have the freedom to penetrate the forest complex
that surrounds aviary, but they don’t go from the aviary, in which their mother is, for a
distance greater than 0.5-1.5 km (Krzywiński et al. 2012). In years 2005-2011 to such led
reintroduction four aviaries were used, located in Maskulińskie, Pisz and Spychowo Forest
Inspectorates. In years 2004-2012 Wild Animal Park in Kadzidłowo released into the
environment 12 lynx (5 males and 7 females), of which 11 individuals using the ‘born to be
free’ method and 1 adult female was brought up in the Park. Four of them were released in
2009-2011 under the project of the WWF Poland foundation 'Protection of species of lynx,
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
wolf and bear in Poland.' Since 2007, all the released lynx are marked with implants with an
individual number. In 2010-2011, three lynx released were equipped with telemetry collars
(Krzywiński et al. 2012).
Monitoring of the population. An important element of the project is to monitor the
population of lynx in the Piska Forest and Napiwodzko-Ramucka Forest. The basic method of
monitoring is to search for tracks of lynx on the transects network . Tracking is carried out in
the winter at the same time on all transects in order to avoid repeated counting of the same
individuals' tracks. Field work is performed by employees of local forest inspectorates and
members of hunting clubs. Coordination of activities in conducted by Spychowo Forest
Inspectorate. The first inventory of lynx was held in February 2011. It covered approx. 2500
km2 of forests in 12 forest inspectorates included in the RDSF in Olsztyn (10 forest
inspectorates) and RDSF in Białystok (2 inspectorates). Tracking was conducted by 150
employees of the State Forests, who in one day went through transects with a total length of
approx. 2500 km. During the inventory, tracks of 8 lynx were found. Another inventory was
made in February 2013. It covered 19 forest inspectorates included in the RDSF in Olsztyn
(16 forest inspectorates) and RDSF Bialystok (3 inspectorates). Total forest area, on which
the tracking was carried out was approx. 3740 km2. Field work was preceded by training,
which took place at the headquarters of RDSF in Olsztyn. 358 forest inspectorate employees
and members of hunting clubs participated in tracking, divided into 135 field groups. Total
length of transects was approx. 11500 km. 4 lynx’s tracks were found in the area covered by
the inventory. Thanks to direct observation made by an employee of the State Forests in
January 2013 on the Spychowo Forest Inspectorate territory, the presence of female with cubs
was revealed, which was not tracked down during the inventory. In the Piska Forest and
Napiwodzko-Ramucka Forest, 30 cameras have been placed, that automatically respond for
movement. Their purpose is to record lynx, including those released into the environment.
Protecting the food base of lynx. To ensure adequate food base for lynx in areas covered by
the program of reintroduction, a series of measures were prepared to improve the availability
of food for deer and roe deer. Due to them, mid-forest clearings will be sown with grass
mixtures, and the feeding of wild deer will be carried out in the winter. The basis of lynx food
are deer, which is why WWF Poland foundation cooperates with hunters for the appropriate
level of deer shooting during hunting season, which would not cause excessive depletion of
food basis for lynx.
Education and raising public awareness. Under the projects for this species, a film was
prepared on the problems related to the conservation of lynx in Poland. A brochure 'Save the
lynx in Poland' was released, and for tourists visiting the regions inhabited i.a. by lynx, a
special guide was developed: 'How to help large predators live in the land of tourists?'. WWF
Poland foundation also conducts extensive informational campaign. News of the project are
regularly posted on its website, and press releases are sent to the media.
Protection of ecological corridors. Effective protection of ecological corridors largely
depends on the appropriate legal solutions. For this reason, one of the elements of the projects
of the WWF Poland foundation, serving to protect lynx, was to analyse possible changes in
regulations and the development of actions program for selected ecological corridors. So far
three surveys have been prepared: (1) ‘The effectiveness of the protection of ecological
corridors. The concept of legislative changes ‘(Pchałek et al. 2011), (2) ‘Evaluation of the
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
implementation of the concept of ecological corridors into area development plans for
voivodeships.' (Bernatek 2011), and (3) ‘Plan of clearing the north and the Carpathian
ecological corridor in four selected areas’ (Jakimiuk et al. 2011). All of these publications are
available on the website of the WWF Poland foundation (www.wwfpl.panda.org). Currently,
works are conducted on the preparation of the protection plan of so-called northern ecological
corridor - defined on the basis of the study of Jędrzejewski and associates in 2005.
3.3.4. Resulting ecological effects, their measurement and monitoring
The effects of reintroduction of lynx are monitored by tracking the implemented lynx using
telemetry collars. Thanks to them, it was found that one of the reintroduced individuals from
Estonia emigrated from the project area, went to the Kaliningrad Oblast (Russia), and then
settled in the neighbourhood of the Piska Forest. One individual died - probably due to
parasitic infections, and the other two still reside in the area of implementation. Lynx
inventory carried out in the winter of 2011 showed the presence of at least 8 individuals,
while in the winter of 2013, 4 individual lynx and a female with one kitten were observed.
3.3.5. Participation of State Forests and foresters in the project
The project to protect the lowland population of lynx is conducted in cooperation with the
National Forests. Direct partner of the project is the Regional Directorate of State Forests in
Olsztyn. Aviaries are still used in the reintroduction within following forest inspectorates:
Maskulińskie, Pisz and Spychowo. The inventory of lynx is led by employees of
inspectorates. In 2013 it was 16 forest inspectorates from RDSF in Olsztyn: Spychowo, Nowe
Ramuki, Olsztyn, Jedwabno, Nidzica, Korpele, Szczytno, Wielbark, Mrągowo, Strzałowo,
Olsztynek, Wipsowo, Stare Jabłonki, Wichrowo, Miłomłyn and Jagiełek and 3 forest
inspectorates from RDSF in Białystok - Maskulińskie, Pisz and Drygały.
3.3.6. Importance of the project for the local community
Thanks to the project, lynx in the Piska Forest and Napiwodzko-Ramucka Forest became a
recognizable symbol of local forests for local communities as well as an attraction for tourists.
Broad promotional campaign of the reintroduction project, linked with a media exposure,
contributed to the increase in awareness of local communities of the need to protect the lynx.
3.3.7. Further fate of the project
The ‘Active protection of the lowland populations of lynx in Poland’ is still in the
implementation phase.
3.4. Protection of wolf population recolonizing western Poland
The project has been implemented by Association for Nature ‘Wolf’ since 2001. Its
goal is to protect wolf subpopulations living in the western part of Poland. The project
includes the voivodeships: West Pomeranian, Pomeranian, Kuyavian-Pomeranian, Lubusz,
Greater Poland and Lower Silesia. The activities are conducted primarily in forests
administered by the Regional Directorates of State Forests in Szczecin, Szczecinek, Gdańsk,
Toruń, Piła, Zielona Góra, Poznań and Wrocław.
3.4.1. Presentation of the problem
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
At the end of the twentieth century in Poland wolves inhabited mainly forest areas
located east of the Vistula river. In west of the country they were very few, notwithstanding
that the area was rich in both good habitats for them, as well as with wild ungulates, which are
the basis of wolves' diet. According to the criteria of the International Union for Conservation
of Nature (IUCN), wolf population in western Poland, together with a population in eastern
Germany, acquired the status of critically endangered (Linnell et al. 2008). After taking the
wolves under protection , they began to gradually return to forest complexes, from where they
were eradicated by human. This process, however, was slowed down by a shortage of partners
for reproduction, mortality caused by humans, increasing fragmentation of the environment
resulting from the development of transport infrastructure. Local communities in western
Poland for decades have had no contact with large predators, and the return of wolves was
associated with a number of concerns. This region was not well prepared for solving possible
conflicts between wolves and animal husbandry. Moreover, previous research on this species
in Poland covered mainly populations inhabiting forests in the Carpathians and forests of the
lowlands of north-eastern part of the country. Forests of western Poland differ radically from
them, due to the dominance of large stands of pine, and the presence of many open areas heaths and military training grounds. It remained a mystery how the wolves adapt to such
different conditions.
3.4.2. Stage of planning and preparation of activities
The planning of activities was based on the experience gained during the
implementation of the previously described project ‘Protection of the large carnivores in the
Western Carpathians.’ While monitoring population and during ecological studies,
cooperation was established with the scientists from MRI PAS, as well as Wildbiologisches
Büro LUPUS (Germany). The parasitological studies were carried out in cooperation with the
staff of the Department of Invertebrate Systematics and Ecology of Wrocław University of
Environmental and Life Sciences (Zakład Systematyki i Ekologii Bezkręgowców na
Uniwersytecie Przyrodniczym we Wrocławiu). Funds for the project were obtained from the
International Fund for Animal Welfare (USA), EURONATUR Foundation (Germany),
Wolves and Humans Foundation (UK) and from private donors. It also used funds from the
1% tax that 'Wolf' Association received as a non-profit organization.
3.4.3. Presentation of implemented actions
Population monitoring and research on predators. Monitoring of wolves in western
Poland has started in 2001 on detailed field studies to detect the presence of these predators in
forests located in a strip width for 100 km along the German-Polish border. In years 20022013 monitoring included most of the large forest complexes in western Poland. Workers and
members of ‘Wolf’ Association, trained volunteers, foresters willing to cooperate, employees
of national parks and landscape parks were involved in wolves tracking. The selection of
areas included in monitoring was based on information about the historical distribution of the
species and on the presence of suitable habitats. Field works were carried out during all
seasons. In the winter - based on tracking on the snow, and in other seasons by locating tracks
of the presence of predators in sand and mud. Tracks, faeces, urine and scratching markings,
dens, lairs, and remains of kills of the wolves were recorded. Also fototraps and videotraps
were used. The number of individuals in family groups were evaluated on the basis of
tracking, direct observations and recordings from videotraps.
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
Information about the presence of wolves were also obtained from local foresters,
naturalists, border guards, workers of landscape parks and national parks and hunters. Most of
them were verified in the field. For all information the exact coordinates were determined
using mobile GPS receivers, and then transferred into the database, the same database as in
case of the national inventory of wolf and lynx. Composition of the diet of wolves was rated
on the basis of analysis of nearly 500 faeces collected mainly in the Lower Silesian
Wilderness (Bory Dolnośląskie), Rzepińska Forest (Puszcza Rzepińska), Wałeckie Forests
(Lasy Wałeckie) and Bydgoska Forest (Puszcza Bydgoska) (Nowak et al. 2011). The project
also evaluated wolves mortality due to poaching and collisions with vehicles. In 2005-2009 in
western Poland also 150 samples of faeces and tissues of wolves were collected, which were
used in subsequent genetic analyses carried out by the Mammal Research Institute PAS. This
material was used to understand the genetic structure of the population of this species in
Poland (Czarnomska et al. 2013) and the dispersion of wolves (T. Alberts et al., in
preparation). In subsequent years, genetic material was collected and analysed in order to
trace the history of the formation of packs and the origin of individuals setting up a family
group in western Poland. Cooperation with the Department of Invertebrate Systematics and
Ecology of Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences resulted in the
assessment of parasite infection in wolves in several forest complexes.
Wolf habitat area protection. Within the realisation of the project of creating the Natura
2000 sites in Poland, a representative of the ‘Wolf’ Association participated i.a. in the
activities of a regional team of specialists in Lubusz Voivodeship, where based on data
collected during monitoring, he proposed to establish areas protecting the habitats of wolves Dobrosułów Forests (Lasy Dobrosułowskie) (PLH080037) in Rzepińska Forest and Wilki nad
Nysą (PLH080044) in Lower Silesian Forests. Both proposals have been approved by the
European Commission. In addition, by monitoring the development of the wolf population in
western Poland, information on the presence of wolves were updated in the standard data
forms for several more Natura 2000 sites. Material collected by ‘Wolf’ Association was used
for the preparation of plans for wolf protection tasks in the Natura 2000 sites in Lower
Silesian Forests and Notecka Forest. It was recommended in it to i.a. improve the conditions
for breeding and rearing by creating zones of temporary restrictions on use of the forest with
an area of few-dozen units of the forest. In areas with limited access to water sources, it was
proposed to build tanks serving as waterholes for animals.
Preventing habitat fragmentation and mortality of wolves on the roads. In years 20032013, ‘Wolf’ Association prepared a number of opinions containing proposals to reduce the
negative impact of transport infrastructure on the consistency of the habitats of large
predators. Negotiations included i.a. location and appropriate size and design of wildlife
crossings for major transport investments in the western and central Poland, such as the A1,
A2, A4 and A18 highways or S3 and S6 two-lane expressway.
Also registration protocols for wolves that died on the roads were prepared and it was
proposed to implement them. The same protocol is proposed for the registration of other death
cases of predators, e.g. as a result of poaching.
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
DEAD BIG PREDATOR INSPECTION PROTOCOL
Species:
Name . ....................................................................
Phone number
Date and time of the incident
(day/month/year) (hr./time of day)
Incident location
(forest inspectorate, forestry, district, forest
circle, road no, railway no, the nearest town
or geographical coordinates)
Description of the place of incident
(e.g. forest/trees, woodland, forest road,
field, meadow, buildings)
Cause of death:
(e.g. poaching, collision with a car/train)
State of the body (description)
Type of injury (e.g. suffocation, shot, blow
to the head/to the side/back/broken
legs/ribs)
Estimated time of death (day/month/year)
(hr./time of day)
Age/Gender/Body weight, length (from
nose to base of tail), tail length, height at
the withers
Appearance (hair colour, presence of
lesions, e.g. scabies)
Dental condition
Was the photographic documentation
taken? (take before genetic testing!)
Are genetic samples collected?
Name institution, where samples were
sent.
Was the section conducted, social and
reproductive status established?
Name the institution that conducted the
section.
Were other tissues samples collected for
testing? What samples?
What has been done to the subject? (e.g.
recycling, preparation, where?)
Please send completed protocol to the appropriate regional director for environmental
protection and the Association for Nature ‘Wolf’ (e-mail: [email protected]).
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
PHOTOGRAPHIC DOCUMENTATION CARD OF DEAD PREDATOR
Photos must be taken before genetic testing!
Name of the author ........................................................................
Phone number .............................
Date of finding the predator:
Place of finding the predator:
Table of photography (checklist)
Pictures of the whole subject from different sides at the place of incident, so (x)
that surroundings and circumstances of death are visible (e.g. road, railway
line, snare)
Photo of entire subject from both sides
Picture of entire subject in front
Picture of entire subject from behind
Photo of the head from the side (so the muzzle, ears and neck are visible)
Photo of front of the head
Photo of back of the head, so the colour of hair is visible on the back side of
the ears
Photos of teeth (jaws and jowl) in fronts, from both sides (roll the lips) and
taken from top
Photos of tail from the sides and in front (in wolf, violet gland is typically in
1/3 length from the base of the tail)
Photos of foot pads of front and rear paws
Pictures of fresh injuries, wounds (e.g. wound after hitting the vehicle, after
clamping of snares, trace of the bullet, etc.)
Photos of other details, injuries (e.g. lack of hair, old wounds, injuries)
Please send filled card with image files on CD or by e-mail to the appropriate regional
director for environmental protection and a copy to the Association for Nature ‘Wolf’,
Twardorzeczka 229, 34-324 Lipowa. E-mail: [email protected]
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
Preventing poaching. Measures to combat illegal poaching and shooting concerning wolves
works in two ways: through education, as well as through direct participation in the detection
of offenders, and later in the ongoing prosecutions and judicial proceedings. On the website of
‘Wolf’ Association there is a section entitled ‘Poradnik antykłusowniczy’ (anti-poaching
guide), which contains information on: the impact of poaching on wolves, the legal basis to
punish the perpetrators of such crimes, collecting evidence against poachers and assessing the
significance of harm to the local population. It contains useful information for services
involved in the fight against poaching, experts performing judicial evaluations regarding
poaching, as well as for individuals who experienced this problem. In the ongoing legal
proceedings against poachers, data is used that was collected during fieldwork in the areas
recolonized by wolves, including the DNA test results. Thanks to DNA test it can be assessed
e.g. from which family group the dead individual comes and its reproductive status can be
evaluated.
Frame: Anti-poaching guide
Poaching on wolves affects specific family groups, consisting of pair of parents (the only
reproducing pair in the group), and its offspring. Depending on which of the members of the
family group is killed, it has a definite impact on a given pack, and consequently, on the local
wolf population. In case of killing an individual from a parental pair, there is a serious
disturbance in the structure of the pack. If the family group, weakened by poaching, lacks
individuals that are experienced and unrelated enough, that could take the lead, it could
shatter the group and scatter the remaining members. Disturbance in functioning of the pack
may cause worsening conflicts between its members and the neighbouring packs that will try
to take territory of a weakened group. If poaching occurs during the rearing season (AprilSeptember), it may contribute to death of the pups, because survival of pups depends on the
delivery of food by adult wolves. If poachers operate in a large area, e.g. in the whole forest
complex, this problem affects the entire local population. Thus, killing a wolf is much greater
loss for both the local and national population than just removing one representative of the
protected species. Therefore, damage to the environment as a result of poaching on wolves is
significant and the prosecution and punishment of perpetrators should be treated strictly and
consistently.
The legal basis to punish the perpetrators
Polish law treats separately the issues of illegal killing of protected species and game animals.
We present the legal basis for punishing the perpetrators of killing protected animals.
Act of 6 June 1997 The Penal Code
Article 181.
§ 1. Whoever causes destruction of plant or animal life of considerable dimensions shall be
subject to the penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a term of between 3 months and 5 years.
§ 2. Whoever, in violation of the provisions in force in the protected area, destroys or
damages plants or animals, causing serious harm shall be subject to a fine, the penalty of
restriction of liberty or the penalty of deprivation of liberty for up to 2 years.
§ 3. The same penalty shall be imposed on anyone who, irrespective of place of the act,
destroys or damages plants or animals under protection, causing essential harm.
§ 4. If the perpetrator of the act specified in § 1 acts unintentionally he shall be subject to a
fine, the penalty of restriction of liberty or the penalty of deprivation of liberty for up to 2
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
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years.
§ 5. If the perpetrator of the act specified in § 2 or 3 acts unintentionally, he shall be subject to
a fine or the penalty of restriction of liberty.
Nature Conservation Act of 16 April 2004
Article 127.
Whoever intentionally:
2) breach of the prohibitions applicable to:
e) (...) animals (...) of protected species,
- is subject to fine or jail.
Gathering evidence against poachers
Gathering evidence for cases of illegal killing of wolves should serve two purposes: (1)
determining who and under what circumstances killed the wolf; and (2) how important was
the loss of wolf for the local population. The first objective is gathering evidence against the
perpetrator, while the second objective is the assessment of ‘significance’ of damage to the
environment.
(1) Determination of the offender and the circumstances of the incident
Collecting evidence against poachers is largely dependent on how the wolves were
killed. It is different in cases of poachers using the snares and other devices trapping animals.
In contrast, a completely different approach is used to gather evidence against the hunter who
illegally shot a wolf.
(a) The wolf killed in snares
Snares (cords gripping the leg or neck) or jaw-traps, gripping the paw, are primarily
used in the illegal killing of wild ungulates. Predators are usually caught accidentally when
searching for food. If a wolf is found, caught in such a way, it is essential to: secure the snares
or traps and determine how they are made (if it comes to searching the suspect's house,
construction of traps may be an indication serving to recognize the perpetrator). If the found
wolf has died recently (a few days), it may be useful to install the fototrap or videotrap in the
vicinity. That gives an opportunity to record the offender controlling the traps he set up.
(b) A wolf killed by hunter
Wolves may be intentionally or accidentally killed while hunting. Even if they are killed
intentionally, the perpetrator almost always explains it as the mistake, e.g. saying the wolf
was supposedly taken for another, similar animal. Therefore, for the law enforcement
agencies it should be important to:
 Determine what species the hunter was allowed to hunt at that moment. This is visible in
i.a. hunting plans, individual authorizations and record in so-called book of entering the
hunting zone (it's available from game warden of a hunting association), and in case of
hunting exchanges it's visible in the documentation of the company that organises it.
 Determining whether and in what form the information about the presence of wolves in
the hunting are was passed to the hunters. Have anyone checked the ability to identify
species by foreign hunters, if they come from a country where there are no species
protected in our country?
 The first rule of hunting is to shoot only identified target. It is therefore necessary to
make the site inspection of the place of incident and to determine the visibility from the
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl


place where shot was taken, and to know the placing of hunters in group hunting,
distance between the offender and predator killed, etc.
It's necessary to determine in what part of the body the hunter was aiming, where are the
bullet wounds in the dead wolf.
Information must be gathered about the type of weapons and optics used by the hunter.
(2) Necessary information about the killed wolf
To properly assess the significance of harm to the local population, gender, age, size, and
reproductive and social status of dead wolf should be determined and injuries should be
described.
Photographic documentation. It is very important, while gathering evidence, to prepare a
good and accurate photographic documentation. Table of necessary photographs can be found
in the form shown above. All the circumstances of the incident and conducted activities (e.g.
section) should also be documented photographically.
Gender: evaluated on the basis of secondary sex characteristics. The assessment carried out
only on the basis of the examination of the animal, especially by inexperienced person, can
lead to serious mistakes.
Size: body weight, body length (from tip of nose to base of tail), tail length, the height at the
withers.
Female reproductive status: first, check if there are swellings and wiped hair visible around
nipples (features visible only from May to July, while feeding the puppies with milk, then less
and less, until the complete disappearance in the fall). In the absence of these features, section
should be performed, during which condition of the ovaries, embryos scars in the uterus and
the presence of milk in the mammary glands must be determined. Features indicating the
reproductive status of the female are less or more visible depending on the season.
Injuries: first of all it, is necessary to conduct external autopsy and gather photographic
documentation of injuries. If necessary, conduct the section of the animal. Section should be
performed by a qualified person - a veterinarian or expert on the anatomy of mammals.
Assessment of social status based on the study of genetic material: muscle samples
(samples of tongue, heart and other tissues) should be taken in accordance with the
instructions below. DNA taken from head of dead wolf can be used to determine the social
status of a particular individual and his relationship with wolves from the local population.
However, one should have the results of DNA analysis of other individuals of a given
population, or DNA samples e.g. taken from faeces of wolves from the pack. It is then
possible to determine whether, for example, the mating individual was killed. Currently,
genetic research on wolves is conducted in Poland. In order to obtain information where the
results of analysis or genetic samples from local wolf populations are available, and where the
analysis for the purposes of the proceedings can be conducted, you can contact the
Association for Nature ‘Wolf’ or the Mammal Research Institute PAS.
The significance of harm to the local population
In assessing the ‘significance of the harm’ for the local wolves population, both the
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
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characteristics of the dead individual, and especially his social and reproductive status in the
family group should be taken into account, as well as the place where a particular wolf was
killed. Each killed wolf is a loss to the local population. However, the killing of an individual
of parental pair (so-called alpha pair), and especially reproducing female, has a much greater
impact on the functioning of the pack, than killing the young individual, who is not
participating in reproduction.
From the point of view of species conservation, wolves living in western Poland have a
different status than the others, living in refuges in the Carpathians and eastern Poland.
According to the ‘Guidelines for population level management plans for large carnivores in
Europe’ (Linnell et al. 2008), prepared by experts from the Large Carnivore Initiative for
Europe (LCIE) on request of DG Environment of the European Commission, wolf population
in western Poland, with a population in eastern Germany, have the status of Critically
Endangered (CE), according to the criteria of the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN). This means that wolves in western Poland are the object of concern for the
European Commission.
It is also important to indicate whether the wolf was killed in a national park or special
area of conservation of Natura 2000 habitats, which subject of protection are wolves. Killing
the wolf from such an area is always a significant loss.
Protection of cross-border populations. The project was carried out with an intensive
cooperation with German partners. An important element of the project was to exchange
information on the location and size of the wolf populations in both countries. The
Association also conducted a campaign pointing the need to protect ecological corridors
serving the dispersion through Poland of wolves coming from the German Lausitz and tagged
with collars with a GPS GSM transmitter by the researchers of Büro Wildbiologisches
LUPUS (Nowak 2009). Project results were presented at meetings and conferences. Also a
brochure was published in German. International aspect of the action is participation of the
Association representative in the Polish-German working group concerning wolf, operating
since 2010 within the Polish-German Environment Council. The group consists of
representatives of ministries and government agencies dealing with the protection of nature in
Polish voivodeships and German constituent states, and experts conducting research on this
species. During a meeting which take place once or twice a year, the group discusses
problems associated with protection of the cross-border wolf populations.
Protecting livestock. Breeders of western Poland were reached with a knowledge on methods
of protecting livestock from wolves attacks. ‘Guidance to protect farm animals from wolves’
was freely distributed by the Association (Nowak and Mysłajek 2006). More than half a
thousand copies were submitted to the regional directorates of environmental protection,
gmina administrations, and directly to the breeders. Also a special section for breeders was
updated on the website and articles in agricultural magazines were published (Mysłajek
2013). Breeders from the Lower Silesian Voivodeship (Lower Silesian Forests), Pomeranian
Voivodeship (Tuchola Forest[Bory Tucholskie]), and Western Pomeranian Voivodeship
(Wałeckie Forests) were handed with fladry to protect sheep, cattle and horses. In May of
2009 in Wałeckie Forests a training was organised - ‘Damage from wolves - identification,
assessment and prevention’. It was attended by 15 employees of the regional directorate of
environmental protection of the voivodeships: West Pomeranian, Pomeranian, Lubusz, Lower
Silesian, Łódź, Silesian and Podlaskie. Regional directorates of environmental protection are
also provided with assist in identifying the perpetrators of the damages.
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
Education of the society. Promoting the protection of wolf in western Poland was carried out
using all possible information channels: website, social networking site Facebook, YouTube,
through participation in radio and television broadcasts and by initiating newspaper reports.
Educational materials in the form of stickers and posters were distributed. Educational
activities were supported by publications. A brochure was released ‘The role of the wolf in
the forest’ (Nowak and Mysłajek 2004), addressed mainly to foresters. This publication, in
addition to knowledge on the ecology of the species and its role in the forest ecosystem, also
presented the benefits that forest management draws from the presence of large predators in
the forests. In 2011, a book was published, entitled ‘The wolves west of the Vistula’ (Nowak
and Mysłajek 2011), which summarized the results of monitoring the development of the
current wolf population in western Poland, identified threats to conservation and activities
within the project. Over five hundred people participated in lectures and talks on wolves.
Special training was conducted i.a. in Drawieński National Park (Drawieński Park Narodowy)
for park staff and employees of neighbouring forest inspectorates, while those contributing to
the project were trained during two workshops in Lower Silesian Forests and Wałeckie
Forests.
3.4.4. The resulting ecological effects, their measurement and monitoring
Monitoring of wolf population conducted within the project has shown a dynamic
growth of the predator population in western Poland. In 2012, at least 26 family groups
dwelled here, and the total population size exceeds 100 adults. Some forests have become
important refuges of the species. For example, in located at the German-Polish border, Lower
Silesian Forests and Lubskie Forests, 8 family groups multiply, and as many on the German
side of the border. Cross-border subpopulation of the wolf in this region thus became the most
numerous throughout the lowlands of central Europe. All transport investments in western
Poland use means to minimize their negative impact on the animals. There are already dozens
of passages for large mammals and their monitoring shows the use of these facilities by
wolves. Awareness of the importance of this predator for forest ecosystems increased. The
need to protect its habitat is included in the plans for tasks of Natura 2000 protection sites.
Ecological corridors are gradually incorporated into area development plans in voivodeships
of this part of the country.
3.4.5. Participation of State Forests and foresters in the project
During implementation of the project, collaboration with local forest inspectorates and
regional directorates of State Forests was established. Foresters supplied valuable information
about the presence of wolves in their areas and the structure and size of local populations of
wild ungulates. They also helped in collecting genetic samples. What is more, they initiated
the organisation of promotional and educational activities. One such example is the
conference entitled ‘ On a trail of the wolf ‘, organised by the Regional Directorate of State
Forests in Gdańsk and Pomeranian Voivodeship Government (Samorząd Województwa
Pomorskiego), which took place in the Marshal's Office (Urząd Marszałkowski) in Gdańsk in
April 2011. Employees of ‘Wolf’ Association were invited to present lectures discussing the
biology and ecology of wolf, population status and prospects for its development in
Pomerania, as well as conservation issues and methods of research and monitoring. The
conference was attended by over 100 people, representing diverse environments, from local
governments, by foresters, hunters and scientists, to representatives of natural organisations.
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
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Foresters also organised a meeting with the coordinators of the project, during which
the results of foregoing studies on wolf populations in western Poland were presented and
experiences and information were exchanged. It took place i.a. in the School of Forestry in
Milicz in August 2011, Kliniska Forest Inspectorate and Bolesławiec Forest Inspectorate in
November 2012. Foresters also participated in trainings and workshops such as in Drawieński
National Park in June 2011. At the invitation of the Regional Directorate of Environmental
Protection in Szczecin in January 2012, Association members co-led two-day workshop on
monitoring the wolf, which was held in Drawno and Borne Sulinowo Forest Inspectorates.
Representatives of all the forest inspectorates of West Pomerania were present.
In October 2011, a series of lectures on the problems of habitats fragmentation were
given for postgraduate students of Environmental Management ‘Ekoznawca’, held at the
Faculty of Biological Sciences of University of Wrocław (Wydział Nauk Biologicznych
Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego). Students were mostly office workers of forest management
and geodesy and State Forests employees.
3.4.6. Importance of the project for the local community
Promotional and educational activities resulted in an increase in the knowledge of local
communities about wolves. Lectures and presentations were attended by more than a half
thousand people. Over 1,200 copies of the book ‘Wolves west of the Vistula’ have been
distributed. Many people were reached through the press, radio, television and the Internet.
For example, some videos of wolves from the western Poland published on YouTube channel
had over 90 thousand views. Presence of the wolf begins to be seen as a hallmark of the
region, and the information about it appear in books and folders to promote the western part
of Poland.
3.4.7. Further fate of the project
The project continues to be implemented and developed. Currently, DNA analyses are
used for the monitoring on a larger scale. Cooperation with key institutions, including the
administration of the National Forests, is being continued, as well as with German partners.
For the wolf conservation project, ‘Wolf’ Association received the award from the ‘National
Geographic’: Traveler 2009 in the category of Social Initiative of the Year.
3.5. Species protection of the brown bear (niedźwiedź brunatny) in the Polish
Carpathians
Since 2011, WWF Poland leads the project entitled ‘Protection of the brown bear Ursus
arctos in the Polish part of the Carpathians ‘. Its purpose is to maintain a viable population of
bears and their habitats by preventing conflicts between predators and people and preventing
negative environmental changes. Some of the activities were carried out in past, under the
‘Protection of species of lynx, wolf and bear in Poland’ programme. The project covers entire
Polish part of the Carpathians, but most of the tasks were carried out in the Bieszczady
Mountains.
3.5.1. Presentation of the problem
The occurrence of brown bears in Poland is limited to the Carpathians, in other regions
they appear very rarely. The size of these predator’s population is estimated at approx. 100
individuals, but these estimates are questionable (Selva et al. 2011b). Bears can easily get
used to anthropogenic food sources. They can also cause damages to apiaries and livestock,
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
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destroy property, and even endanger the health and life of humans. This problem is
particularly serious in areas where there is a lot of tourism pressure. Conflicts are
strengthened by the attitude of local communities and tourists to the idea of conservation of
bears.
3.5.2. Stage of planning and preparation of activities
In preparation stage of the project, necessary permits were obtained to catch bears and
equip them with telemetry collars. Cooperation with local forest inspectorates was
established. The project was also consulted with scientists conducting research on this
species. Activities for brown bears are funded primarily by grants. The project ‘Protection of
the brown bear Ursus arctos in the Polish part of the Carpathians’ is co-financed by the
European Union by the European Regional Development Fund under the Operational
Programme 'Infrastructure and Environment'. Previously implemented project 'Protection of
species of lynx, wolf and bear in Poland' was in turn supported by the EEA Financial
mechanism and the Norwegian financial mechanism. WWF Poland foundation also finances
its activities with donations, as well as with the 1% tax, as a non-profit organization.
3.5.3. Presentation of implemented actions
Monitoring of the bear population. Monitoring of the population of bears in the Carpathians
is conducted using a variety of methods - observation, tracking and recording other signs of
presence of bears, videotraps, DNA analysis and telemetry on selected individuals. Under the
project ‘Protection of the brown bear Ursus arctos in the Polish part of the Carpathians ‘ it is
planned to create a network of field collaborators and database for observation of bears in
Poland. In Bieszczady bears are monitored using 12 automatic video cameras.
WWF Poland foundation also funded the analysis of genetic material of bears, collected
in years 2005-2010 in the Carpathian part of the Podkarpackie Voivodeship and in the Tatra
Mountains. Samples of fresh faeces and hair were collected by scientists conducting research
on this species, inspectors of the Regional Directorate for Environmental Protection in
Rzeszów, foresters of inspectorates of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Krosno,
employees of the Tatra National Park and Magura National Park and volunteers. In addition,
swabs were taken from individuals caught for telemetry studies. A total of 275 samples were
collected. On the basis of DNA analysis, attempts to assess the abundance of bears in the
Carpathian part of the Podkarpackie Voivodeship were conducted. Genetic diversity of the
population was rated and movement patterns of those individuals, of whom it was possible to
get few samples, were pre-diagnosed. Results were presented in a special report (Śmietana et
al. 2012).
It is planned within the project to catch and equip 6 bears with GPS GSM collars. So
far, three individuals were caught - adult male and female in autumn 2012 and a young female
in the spring of 2013, who still lived with her mother. This data will be used to evaluate the
use of land by bears, to find wintering and resting places and also to mark potential conflict
areas, where encounters of bears and humans are most frequent.
Minimizing conflicts with beekeepers. As a part of the project to protect the bears, WWF
Poland foundation donated more than 60 sets of electric fences to beekeepers from the
Podkarpackie Voivodeship. Electrical shepherds consisted of energiser, solar cell and fence
elements consisting of four lines of electric conductors placed 25, 50, 75 and 100 cm above
the ground. Each set allowed to secure the apiary of surface of approx. 950 m2. Owners of the
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apiaries were required to install the fence and start its use within 2 weeks from the date of its
reception. Apiaries were monitored, and the effectiveness of the methods was assessed in a
special report (Śmietanka 2012).
Preventing habituation of bears. Habituation is a form of learning. Bears' frequent contacts
with people, that don't entail negative impact for bears, may teach these predators that people
are not dangerous for them. As a result, bears tolerate the presence of people in a smaller than
usual distance (Selva et al. 2011b). First stage of the measures to prevent habituation of bears
in the Carpathians was recognition of factors favouring the emergence of conflicts in the
Bieszczady and Żywiecki Beskids. Field works were carried out in 2008. Tourist trails and
proximity of tourist resorts were audited, and in some places also car parks, bus stops,
pensions and catering facilities. Most places proven to have incorrect waste management,
unsecured and overfilled bins and containers for garbage, waste on hiking trails, as well as
garbage left by workers engaged in forestry work. A report was prepared based on the
collected data, which contained recommendations for actions to prevent conflict situations
(Zyśk-Gorczyńska and Jakubiec 2012). The second step was to put 50 secured bins in bear
refuges, that prevent predators from opening them. Such containers were placed in
Bieszczady, Little Beskids and Żywiecki Beskids in the local forest inspectorates and in
national parks: Bieszczady, Babia Góra and Magura.
Lairs protection An important element of the project is to protect lairs used by bears during
hibernation. In years 2007-2010, by order of WWF Poland foundation, a study was conducted
to locate and measure lairs in Bieszczady, Żywiecki Beskids and Tatras. Also factors that can
potentially have a negative impact on hibernating bears were identified and appropriate
recommendations were developed, which have been contained in a special report (Jakubiec
and Zyśk-Gorczyńska 2012). Places of hibernation of bears in Bieszczady are now also
identified by telemetric studies. In further stages of the project it is planned to create a
protective zone around 10 lairs.
Enrichment of food base of bears. Previous studies on composition of the diet of bears
living in Bieszczady showed that one of the most important components of their diet are
fruits, especially apples and pears. However, a small number of damages observed in orchards
indicates, that bears feed on fruits of trees growing in towns and farmland abandoned after
World War II. In a report prepared by Dr. Wojciech Śmietanka (2012a) recommendation was
included to preserve and restore fruit trees in areas managed by PGL State Forests. In the
framework of the WWF Poland foundation's project, more than a thousand young fruit trees
have been planted and fenced. What is more, maintenance works have been performed on
more than 3 thousands fruit trees in orchards located in abandoned villages of Bieszczady.
These works were carried out by a subcontractor selected by tender, professionally engaged in
dendrology. They were implemented in RDSF Krosno and RDSF Kraków (forest
inspectorates: Stuposiany, Lutowiska, Cisna Komańcza, Ustrzyki Dolne, Gorlice, Piwniczna
and Łosie).
Education and raising public awareness. WWF Poland foundation conducts very extensive
educational activities to raise awareness in society about bears. In addition to press releases,
television programs, events, flyers and brochures, information about progress of the project
can be found on the Foundation's website. One can also find there photos and videos of bears
CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
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recorded using videotraps. WWF Poland also regularly distributes press releases and initiates
the formation of articles, radio and television programs devoted to these predators.
3.5.6. Resulting ecological effects, their measurement and monitoring
Effects of the project are monitored - both studies are conducted on abundance and
distribution of bears, as well as on evaluating the effectiveness of security introduced for the
protection of apiaries. Monitoring of the population, along with genetic analyses, revealed i.a.
that bear population in the Podkarpackie Voivodeship occupies a larger area than previously
described (Śmietanka et al. 2012). Also most of the apiaries included in the project proved to
be effectively secured.
3.5.7. Participation of State Forests and foresters in the project
Forest inspectorates of the Regional Directorate of State Forests in Krosno cooperate in
various ways with the WWF Poland foundation during the implementation of measures to
protect brown bear. Restitution of fruit trees was conducted in the territories of forest
inspectorates Stuposiany, Lutowiska, Cisna Komańcza, Ustrzyki Dolne, Gorlice, Piwniczna
and Łosie. Local foresters also participated in collecting samples for genetic testing.
3.5.8. Importance of the activities for the local community
Cooperation of WWF Poland foundation with owners of the apiaries leads to conflicts
resolution and mitigates the negative attitude of beekeepers towards protection of bears.
Thanks to intensive distribution of educational leaflets, given to the tourists directly in
mountain huts, their knowledge is raised on the proper behaviour in case of meetings
predators. Tourists are also more aware of the role of waste in the process of habituation of
bears.
3.5.9. Further fate of the project
The project ‘Protection of the brown bear Ursus arctos in the Polish part of the
Carpathians ‘is in progress.
3.5. Effect of feeding ungulates on brown bears: a response at the individual, population
and group level
A research project was carried out in years 2009-2012 by the Institute of Nature
Conservation PAS in Kraków. Its director was Dr Nuria Selva. The study was conducted in
the Bieszczady Mountains, on the territory of forest inspectorates included in the Regional
Directorate of State Forests in Krosno and in the Bieszczady National Park. The main
objective was to investigate the bears' response for feeding ungulates within the hunting
economy.
3.5.1. Presentation of the problem
Ungulates are commonly fed across the Polish forests, mainly in the context of hunting
economy. Food delivered by human, in form of large doses of roughage and concentrated
feedingstuffs, causes dramatic changes in the normally occurring in the environment
availability of food - it is located in specific places, regularly replenished and appears in
periods when there is scarcity of natural food. Due to the large-scale of feeding, it was
expected that the impact on the functioning of the brown bear population will be significant,
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as the impact on wild ungulates and the whole cluster of vertebrates. Results of the research
were to become the basis for the development of recommendations for the conservation and
management of brown bear population.
3.5.2. Stage of planning and preparation of activities
The project received funding from the Ministry of Science and Higher Education. Grant
was awarded in the 37th competition of the Ministry within a scientific discipline of ecology
and nature conservation.
3.5.3. Presentation of implemented actions
Following activities were carried out within the project:
(1) The quantity, distribution in space and time, availability of food provided by the forest
service and hunting associations were determined. It was also examined which species
benefit from the food provided, with what intensity and in what periods. An important
part of the project was to see how a large amount of food was consumed by the species
that were not the purpose of feeding.
(2) It was tested which individuals - bears belonging to different age classes, gender, with a
specific reproductive status, as well as differing with patterns of hibernation - enjoy the
food available on bait stations, and how the feeding affects the movement of bears, i.a.
in winter.
(3) The share of the food from bait stations and feeding sites of ungulates in the diet of
bears and ungulates. Analysis used the analysis of stable isotopes of carbon δ13C and
nitrogen δ15N.
(4) Changes in the distribution and densities of different species of animals were monitored.
Particular attention was paid to the influence of feeding on species living in the vicinity
and not using bait stations, e.g. birds building nests on the ground and predators.
The research methodology included: pictures of animals taken by automated cameras
with motion sensors, which were placed in areas of feeding, feeding sites mapping, collection
of tissue samples of animals and plants and the subsequent analysis of stable isotopes
contained, assessment of the presence and abundance of animals in the tested areas, as well as
experiment with the level of predation on birds' nests. The project was combined with
informational and educational activities. A website was created: www.carpathianbear.pl to
promote the results of research and knowledge on the biology and conservation of bears.
Knowledge about the positive and negative effects of feeding animals was also passed during
meetings with foresters and hunters. Specialists in hunting in forest inspectorates received
images of animals at bait stations and feeding places. These materials were useful in planning
wildlife management, also showed the possibility of using fototraps for monitoring wild
game.
3.5.4. Resulting ecological effects, their measurement and monitoring
Thanks to the project, knowledge was gained that will be used to develop
recommendations for modification of ungulates feeding system in such a way that minimizes
the negative impact of these practices on bears. Research authors presented such
recommendation in the draft for a Programme of protection of the brown bear in Poland
(Selva et al. 2011b), pointing the need to limit the amount of food placed and to prevent bears
feeding on processed food. Using the food for game animals by bears should be regarded as
one of the examples of carnivores conditioning by food provided by humans. In Bieszczady
this type of food has proven to be an important component of the diet of bears, which in the
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Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
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opinion of the researchers may have an impact on their behaviour. Uninterrupted access to
high calorie food in winter can cause conflicts with people and accustom bears to unnatural
food, contributing to their habituation (Selva et al. 2011b). Very similar conclusions were
drawn by the researchers in Slovenia, where at the request of the Environmental Protection
Agency of the Ministry of Environment and Spatial Planning of Slovenia, 33 bears equipped
with GPS GSM receivers were tested for factors that contribute to their habituation and
coming into conflict with humans (Jerina et al. 2013). Analysis of stable isotopes showed, that
species competing with bears for food to the greatest extent in the Carpathians are wild boars.
Supporting the development of wild boars by artificial feeding may therefore affect the
availability of food resources for bears. In addition, the results of the Polish project
demonstrated that the presence of bait stations and feeding sites for animals has a negative
impact on the reproductive success of birds nesting on the ground within a radius of 1 km
from the feeding sites (Selva et al. 2014). Intensive monitoring of feeding sites and bait
stations conducted by researchers has shown, that not only corn and beets are placed, but also
food waste (e.g. bread and potato peelings). Such practices should be definitely prohibited,
due to the increasing number of bears causing damage and coming into conflict with humans.
3.5.5. Participation of State Forests and foresters in the project
Cooperation with the administration of the State Forests consisted was largely based on
foresters identifying the best feeding sites to monitor the bears and helping with the sampling
of hunted wild game. Forest inspectorates also shared information on the location of feeding
sites and the amount and type of food placed.
3.5.6. Importance of the project for the local community
The project was particularly important for local hunters and foresters involved in
hunting. Thanks to the project, their knowledge was increased about the impact of feeding
game animals on other species, including those strictly protected.
3.5.7. Further fate of the project
Data obtained in the course of the project are in the process of analysis. They will serve
for the development of scientific articles and practical tips for game and forestry management.
3.6. Summary
This guide presented several projects of active protection of wolf, lynx and brown bear,
selected from amongst dozens of initiatives implemented by various institutions across the
country. Selected projects stand out because of the scale, achieved results, the diversity of
activities, as well as the involvement of foresters. In the presented projects they were mostly
co-workers of implementing institutions or customers of measures. However, we hope that as
the Guide is read in the future, they will also become initiators and main implementers of
programs for the protection and conservation of large carnivores in our country.
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CCEP (CKPŚ), Stawki 2 Street, 20th floor, 00-193 Warsaw, www.ckps.lasy.gov.pl
Phone: 48 22 318 70 82; Fax: + 48 22 318 70 98; E-mail: [email protected]
www.lasy.gov.pl
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