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KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Digestive System: p977-984 Definition: o A collection of organs that break down food into energy that can be used in cells. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Mouth o Stomach o Esophagus o Gall Bladder o Liver o Pancreas Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Stomach: A muscular sac that mechanically processes food into chyme. Produces gastric juice that contains pepsin and HCl Begins the chemical digestion of proteins. Produces a protective layer of mucus, so it does not digest itself. o Small Intestine: The pancreas, liver, and gall bladder excrete into the small intestine. A long, narrow tube in which most digestion takes place. All absorption occurs here. The inside is lined with villi. Smallest Functional Unit: o Villi: Small finger-like projections, covered with epithelial cells, which absorb nutrients. Increases the surface area of the inside of the small intestine. High surface area increases efficiency of absorption. Capillaries inside transfer the digested nutrients to the blood. How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Provides all body cells with the essential nutrients they need in order to survive. An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Type 1 Diabetes: Causes: Cells require insulin to take in sugars for energy. Pancreas cells are attacked by the immune system. Symptoms: Insulin production slows. Sugars are excreted with the urine, and water follows. The body breaks down fat for energy and the blood becomes acidic. Changes in pH and fluid balance kills cells all over the body. o Small Intestine o Large Intestine o Rectum/Anus KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Nervous System: p874-879, 885-894 Definition: o A physically connected network of cells, tissues, and organs that controls thoughts, movements, and simpler life processes. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Brain o Nerves o Spinal Cord Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Brain: The central organ of the nervous system Made-up of three main structures: cerebrum, cerebral cortex, and brainstem Attached (at its base) to the spinal cord o Spinal Cord: Ropelike bundle of neurons about as wide as your thumb Connects the brain to other parts of the body (via neurons) Controls involuntary movements called reflexes Smallest Functional Unit: o Neurons: A specialized cell that stores information and carries messages within the nervous system and between other organ systems. Are made of three parts: Cell body: o Contains the nucleus and organelles Dendrites: o Branchlike extensions that receive messages from neighboring cells Axon: o A long extension of the cell that carries electrical messages away from the cell body. How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Reflexes prevent injury or harm to the body by allowing quick, involuntary, responses to stimuli. o Keeps certain areas of the brain active with appropriate amounts of neurotransmitters (chemicals) An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Depression: Causes: Low amounts of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain. Symptoms: Extended periods of intense sadness, inability to sleep, and feelings of helplessness. KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Endocrine System: p874-875, 896-901 Definition: o A collection of physically disconnected organs that helps to control growth, development, and responses to the environment. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Glands: o Hypothalamus o Pituitary Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Hypothalamus: Small area in the middle of the brain Makes hormones that stimulate the pituitary gland to release hormones Stimulates the production of other hormones that control growth, reproduction and body temperature o Pituitary Gland: Small area in the middle of the brain Makes and releases hormones that control cell growth Stimulates other endocrine glands Smallest Functional Unit: o Glands: Small organs found in many places in the body Produce hormones Hormones are chemical signals made by the endocrine system How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Continually monitors and balances the levels of hormones in the body. An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Hypothyroidism: Causes: The thyroid does not produce enough of certain hormones. Symptoms: Weakness Sensitivity to cold Weight gain Depression KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Respiratory System: p910-912, 914-916 Definition: o The body system in which gas exchange takes place List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Lungs o Trachea Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Lungs: Absorbs O2 and releases CO2 Contain branch-like structures that help to absorb and release gases o Trachea: Long structure made of soft tissue, reinforced with cartilage Divides into 2 bronchi (each branch goes into each lobe of the lungs) Smallest Functional Unit: o Alveoli: Small clusters of air sacs (look like small clusters of grapes) Gives lungs a HUGE surface area for absorbing O2 and releasing CO2 How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Provides all cells with O2 and removes CO2 (a cell’s waste product). An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Asthma: Causes: Muscle spasms caused by constricted bronchioles. Triggered by allergens, stress, environmental factors, chemicals, or exercise. Symptoms: Shortness of breath Difficulty breathing Wheezing KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Circulatory System: p917-929 Definition: o A body system that transports nutrients and wastes between various body tissues. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Heart o Veins o Arteries o Capillaries Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Heart: A muscle in the chest that moves blood throughout the body. Has four chambers: the left and right atriums and the left and right ventricles. Has flaps of tissue called valves that prevent blood from flowing backward. The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs, and the left side pumps to all other body tissues. o Blood Vessels: Transportation networks for the blood. Includes: Arteries: transport blood away from the heart Veins: carry blood toward the heart. Capillaries: very thin walled allowing materials like oxygen to diffuse through them Smallest Functional Unit: o Blood: Red blood cells: carry oxygen to body cells and carry carbon dioxide away from cells. White blood cells: defend the body against infection and remove foreign material and dead cells. Platelets: cell fragments that help form clots that control bleeding How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Circulates required substances and wastes away and toward the body cells. An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Atherosclerosis: Causes: Smoking Lack of exercise Excessive weight Long-term stress Symptoms: Blood flow is partially or fully blocked by sticky material, called plaque. High blood pressure Can lead to a heart attack, stroke, or kidney damage. KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Immune System: p945-954, 957-958 Definition: o A body system that fights off infections and pathogens. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Skin o Circulatory System o Cilia o Lymphatic System Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Cilia: Hair-like structures in the mucus membranes that produce sticky mucus. Trap invading pathogens so they cannot enter the body. Present in the openings to your body near your eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and excretory organs. o Circulatory System: Transports white blood cells and proteins such as antibodies and interferons throughout the body. Smallest Functional Unit: o White blood cells: Find and kill pathogens that have gotten past the body’s external barriers. Ex) Phagocytes: surrounds, engulfs, and kills invading viruses, bacteria, and fungus. Ex) T-cells: destroy body cells that have been infected with pathogens. Ex) B-cells: produce antibodies that weaken the pathogens or clump them together. How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Detects and destroys pathogens that pose a threat to the homeostasis of many other body conditions. An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Allergies: Causes: Allergens are proteins, called antigens, which cause an allergic reaction. Oversensitivity to a normally harmless antigen. Symptoms: A chemical called histamine and some white blood cells cause unnecessary inflammation. Blood vessels become porous and blood leaks out of the circulatory system. Anaphylaxis occurs when inflammation tightens the airways. Can lead to asthma, sneezing, watery eyes, congestion, and rashes. KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Excretory System: p986-991 Definition: o A body system that eliminates non-solid wastes through sweat, urine, and exhalation. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Kidney o Ureter o Urinary bladder Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Kidney: Organs that eliminate wastes by filtering and cleansing blood to produce urine. Maintain fluid and chemical balances in body by filtering water, salts, and other fluids. Hormones regulate kidney function. o Urinary Bladder: A saclike organ that can store up to half a liter of urine at one time. Urine is released through the urethra into the outside environment. Smallest Functional Unit: o Nephron: The individual filtering unit of the kidney. Each kidney contains approximately 1 million nephrons. Blood enters the nephron through an artery where it is then filtered. Filtered blood leaves the nephron and is returned into the circulatory system. How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Removes waste products from the blood o Maintains electrolytes, pH, and fluid balances in the body An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Kidney Failure: Causes: Kidneys (including the nephrons) not properly working, or not working at all Symptom: Imbalance in electrolytes (sodium) disrupts the rhythm of the heart. Confusion and disorientation due to toxins building up and effecting neurons in the brain. KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Skeletal System: p1000-1005 Definition: o A body system that includes the bones and connective tissues that hold the bones together. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Cartilage o Examples of bones: o Joint o Clavicle o Ligament o Femur o Humerus o Vertebrae Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Ligament: A long, flexible band of connective tissue that connects two bones across a joint. o Cartilage: A flexible connective tissue that is found between two bones. Allows for smooth movements. Smallest Functional Unit: o Bone (osteocyte): Living tissue Supports, allows movement, and protects internal organs Form from cartilage that is hardened with calcium Grow from their ends where cartilage is located How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Deposits and removes calcium from bones. o Serve as storage deposits for calcium (the body uses this calcium for other functions) An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Loss of bone density (osteoperosis): Causes: Calcium is lost (removed) from the bone to be used in other places in the body Symptom: Reduced bone density Increased likelihood of bone breakage KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Muscular System: p1006-1011, 123 Definition: o A system that moves bones at the joints and pushes substances such as blood, food, and fluids throughout the body. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Skeletal Muscle o Smooth Muscle o Cardiac Muscle (Heart) Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Skeletal Muscle: Type of muscle that attaches to bones via tendons. Rectangular and striped cells with many nuclei. Mostly voluntary; under one’s control. Can be made of fast-twitch or slow-twitch muscle fibers o Smooth Muscle: Spindle shaped cells without stripes. Involuntary , contract automatically Make up the digestive tube, bladder, uterus, and blood vessels. Smallest Functional Unit: o Sarcomere: A section of a muscle fiber that contains protein filaments that can contract. The protein filaments, actin and myosin, grab and pull on each other to shorten the sarcomere. When a nerve impulse is received, calcium enters the sarcomere and regulatory proteins move off of the binding sites on actin allowing myosin to bind. How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Allows us to actively respond to changes in the external environments as well as providing the propulsion for the circulatory, digestive, and immune systems. An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Sore Muscles: Causes: Intense exercise that does not provide enough oxygen to the muscle cells. Lactic acid builds up in cells. Symptoms: The glucose is converted to lactic acid, which causes muscles to “burn” during hard exercise. KEY! – Class Copy - Do not write on this copy The Integumentary System: p1013-1015 Definition: o The body system that surrounds all other organ systems. List of Main Organs/Structures/Tissues: o Skin: o Epidermis o Dermis o Sweat glands Examples of Two Main Organs/Structures: o Keratin: A tough, waterproof protein that gives your hair and nails the ability to grow away from the body, but still maintain shape and sturdiness Found in both hair and nails o Epidermis: Outermost layer of the skin First layer of protection for deeper skin layers Smallest Functional Unit: o Skin Made up of three layers Outermost layer on body How the Organ System Maintains Homeostasis: o Fights infection by preventing bacteria and fungi from entering skin o Helps maintain body temperature by sweating (sweat glands) An Example of Departure from Homeostasis: o Skin Cancer: Causes: Over exposure to UV rays Symptom: Irregularly shaped moles on skin Uncontrolled cell growth o Keratin o Hair o Nails o Oil glands