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What is Stress? Stress Stress is a negative emotional experience accompanied by predictable Biochemical changes Physiological changes Cognitive changes, and Behavioral changes That are directed either toward altering the stressful event or accommodating to its effects. Body’s Job in Stressful Situation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Conserve energy Mobilize energy Turn off projects planned for next few hours Turn off growth/reproduction Turn off immune responses Selye’s Model: General Adaptation Syndrome Theories of Stress Historically, two main theorists Selye Lazarus First, stressor, then stress Integrationist or transactional approach Selye’s Model Emphasized the physiology of stress Most of his research was on nonhuman animals Didn’t address interpretation and perception 1 Lazarus’s Model Not the event that stresses, but the understanding of the event Defined stress as “a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being” Lazarus’s Model The Transactional Model of Stress Transactional Model — The experience of stress depends as much on how an event is appraised as it does on the event itself Primary appraisal — Determination of an event’s meaning Secondary appraisal — Evaluation of one’s ability to meet the demands of a challenging event Cognitive reappraisal — Process by which events are constantly reevaluated Implications of Lazarus’s Model Other Models of Stress and Illness Diathesis-Stress Model — An individual’s susceptibility to stress and illness is determined by two interacting factors Predisposing Factors (in the person) genetic vulnerability acquired behavioral or personality traits Situations or events are not inherently stressful or unstressful Cognitive appraisals are extremely susceptible to changes in mood, health, motivation The body’s stress response is nearly the same, whether a situation is actually experienced or merely imagined Other Models of Stress and Illness Tend-and-Befriend Theory — Theory that females are more likely than males to respond to stressors with behaviors that: Quiet, nurture, and care for offspring (tending) Establish and maintain social networks (befriending) Precipitating Factors (from the environment) traumatic experiences 2 Sources of Stress Sources of Stress: Catastrophes Major Life Events Social Readjustment Rating Scale — attempts to quantify life events in terms of life change units September 11, 2001 First systematic effort to link stress and illness Faulted for subjectivity and failing to consider individual differences in cognitive appraisal 90% of Americans showed some signs of stress 35% of adults said that they had children who showed signs of stress December 26, 2004 Thousands dead or missing Sources of Stress Daily Hassles Daily Uplifts Concern about weight, health, appearance, too much to do Relating well with friends, completing a task, getting enough sleep Hassles have proven to be a better predictor of health problems than major life events and the frequency of daily uplifts Environmental Stress: Noise Noise Basically, noise is just sounds that a person doesn’t want to hear Children living near airports have higher blood pressure and stress hormone levels Cohen, Glass, & Singer (1979) — Children who live in noisy homes have more reading problems than children who live in quieter homes Because they are young, children are less able to tune out extraneous sounds, thus making chronic noise more disruptive Environmental Stress: Crowding Calhoun (1970) Rats living in a progressively crowded environment begin to engage in deviant behaviors Population Density A measure of crowding based on the total number of people living in an area of limited size Crowding is not an inevitable consequence of density Crowding is a psychological event 3 Sources of Stress: Crowding Sources of Stress: Work Research studies have linked crowding with Increased aggression Withdrawal from interpersonal relations Increased crime rates Unwanted social interactions Dorm room studies Residents of traditional corridor rooms feel more crowded, less in control, more competitive, and are more easily annoyed than those in suite-type room clusters Overload People who feel they have to work too long and hard at too many tasks feel more stressed, have poorer health habits, experience more accidents, and more health problems Role Overload Problem associated with juggling multiple roles simultaneously Burnout Job-related state of physical and psychological exhaustion Depersonalization Emotional exhaustion Reduced personal accomplishment Jobs that involve responsibility for other people are associated with higher levels of burnout (nurses, firefighters, air traffic controllers) Job-related stress costs American industry more than $300 billion annually Absenteeism Reduced productivity Worker compensation benefits People who handle money, work at night, and those who work in the inner city are most likely to report job-related fear Homicide is leading cause of workplace death among women Role Overload in Working Parents Scarcity Hypothesis Enhancement Hypothesis Because time is limited, multiple roles are damaging The benefits of meaningful work in enhancing self-esteem outweigh the costs Among both men and women, those who balance vocational, marital, and parental roles generally are healthier and happier than those who function in only one or two of these roles What matters most is not the number of roles a parent occupies, but the quality of her experience in those roles Other Sources of Job-Related Stress Lack of control over work The paradox of choice Role ambiguity or conflict Shiftwork Job loss Discrimination and Gender harassment Inadequate career advancement Retirement 4 Sources of Stress: Social Interactions Loneliness Interpersonal Conflict Caregiving Psychoneuroimmunology Subfield of health psychology that emphasizes the interaction of psychological (psycho), neuroendocrine (neuro), and immunological processes in stress and illness Immune System Protects body from invaders Performs housekeeping History of Psychoneuroimmunology 1975 Robert Ader & Nicholas Cohen at University of Rochester 1981 David Felten at Indiana University Bacteria, viruses, fungi Removing worn-out & damaged cells Patrolling for mutants Made up of the lymphatic system How Does Stress Make You Sick? Classic conditioning of immune function Discovered network of nerves leading to blood vessel and immune system cells Ader, Cohen, & Felten wrote first book on subject in 1981 5 How Does Stress Make You Sick? Psychoneuroimmunology Evidence Tumor cells grow more rapidly in animals exposed to electric shock, loud noise, or other stressors Immunosuppression has been linked to divorce, bereavement, unemployment, exam periods, occupational stress, and stressful bouts of exercise Stress & Immune function: c Stress & the Immune System Stressors can be short-term Or long-term making speech Significant stressors, effects over time Smaller stressors spread out Even after controlling for confounding factors such as smoking and substance abuse. The effect of stress has been investigated for the most part as a main effect, however other studies also show that it may interact with other factors (e.g. personality) in its effect on illness. Mood & the Immune System Negative emotions induced by stress also impact the immune system. Sick people are 3 times more likely to die as a result of their illness if they are depressed, in comparison to those who are ill and not depressed. Cancer patients who are depressed have lower natural killer cell activity (NKCA) in comparison to their nondepressed counterparts. These findings come from 2 types of studies: 1) studies following cancer-free people over time, measuring their mood and possible cancer onset; 2) studies following individuals already diagnosed with cancer and monitoring how their mood is associated with cancer progression. Taken from J.L.Jarry’s (2002) Health Psychology slides at U.of T. 6 Effects on Immune Function Coping with Stress Optimism Approach vs. Avoidance Problem-focused vs. emotion-focused Mindfulness Disclosure Other factors including, anxiety, sleep deprivation, abortion, divorce, family illness, unemployment, personality, coping style, psychiatric illness, and war have also been shown to impact immune function. (summarized by Reilly & McCabe, 1997). Conversely, the immune system and disease can be positively influenced by relaxation, humor, hypnosis, meditation, and positive attitudes. These techniques induce a physiological “relaxation response” (as opposed to the stress “fight-or-flight” response), reducing blood pressure, respiratory rate, heart rate, etc. Social Support & the Immune System Additionally, emotional and instrumental support have been shown to be related improved immune function. Theorell et al. (1995) found that HIV-positive men with low levels of social support had a more rapid decline in T-helper cell counts over a period of 5 years than did HIV-positive men with high levels of social support. What does this mean for health practice? Therapeutic interventions such as Hypnosis Psychotherapy stress management Have all demonstrated effects on improving health… This is the focus of this class 7