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Introduction to Integrated Coastal Area Management
5. International organizations and their work in ICAM
International organizations, especially United Nations Agencies, provide the necessary
framework for government agencies to act or participate in issues with a global or
international character. This may include sea level rise caused by global warming, decline
in biodiversity, transboundary pollution (atmospheric, effluent, oil spills, river inputs),
the spread of alien species (via ballast waters and aquaculture), and issues, which
necessitates regional cooperation and shared responsibility (shared fishery resources,
safety, environmental monitoring) (Holland 1998).
5.1. Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC)
5.1.1. Introduction
The Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) was founded in 1960 as part
of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The
aim of the organization was to support scientific research related to international
environmental policy. Traditionally, the IOC supported research, which included all
ocean sciences, specifically the development and application of ocean technologies
pertaining to global ocean processes in the open sea. The organization started at the
Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States,
Barbados (April-May 1994), a follow-up on the United Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), to specifically address issues related to coastal areas and coastal
management. This was done through initiating projects, conducting workshops, training
and technical exchange programs on coastal processes, for these states (Cicin-Sain and
Knecht 1998, Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
The objectives of the IOC have broadened, since its inception, to four key areas, namely
(i) research, (ii) ocean monitoring, (iii) education, and (iv) information dissemination.
Research should be encouraged by developing, promoting, and facilitating international
oceanographic research programmes, which will lead to a better understanding of ocean
processes and their relationship to the sustainable development of ocean resources. The
ocean should be monitored by means of an operational global ocean observing system,
which will provide information for oceanic and atmospheric forecasting, for oceans and
coastal area management, and for global environmental change research. Education
should be provided through training programmes and technical assistance specifically
related to global ocean, coastal area, and related research. Ocean data and information
generated by research, observation and monitoring should be handled efficiently and
distributed widely (Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
5.1.2. Programme Structure
These aims are directly linked to the programmes under the auspices of the IOC or
programs in which the IOC participates. The programmes of the IOC are separated into
five categories, namely Ocean Science, Ocean Services, Operational Observing Systems
Programmes, Regional Programmes and TEMA (Training, Education and Mutual
Assistance in Marine Science). Each category will be listed below, however only those
sub-programmes that are directly or indirectly relevant to coastal area management will
be discussed (Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
(i) Ocean Science
OSLR (Ocean Science in Relation to Living (Marine) Resources)
IOC Harmful Algal Blooms Programme (HAB)
ONLR (Ocean Science in Relation to Non-Living (Marine) Resources)
Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment, and Marine
|||||Pollution Research and Monitoring (GIPME/MARPOLMON)
Ocean Mapping Programmes
ICAM (Integrated Coastal Area Management)
The Ocean Science in Relation to Living (Marine) Resources (OSLR) Programme aims
to provide a scientific basis for the management of living resources by looking at the
relationship between living resources, biological production and the marine environment.
This program has a prominent Harmful Algal Bloom component and also includes the
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP), which forms part of the
development of the Living Resource Module of GOOS (Global Ocean Observing
System) (Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
The Ocean Science in relation to Non-Living (Marine) Resources (OSNLR) Programme
focuses on the interaction between the conditions and processes in the oceans and coastal
areas, and the distribution of non-living resources and the management thereof. It
provides information on changes relevant to the sustainable development of nonliving
resources (Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
The Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) Programme
assesses contamination/pollution of the marine environment in order to initiate regulatory
actions for the prevention and control of marine pollution. The GIPME program is jointly
funded by IOC, UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) and IMO
(International Maritime Organization), with the IAEA (International Atomic Energy
Agency) sponsoring specific activities (Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
The Integrated Coastal Area Management Programme uses other IOC programmes with
specific regional additions to make a scientific contribution to integrated coastal area
management (Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
(ii) Ocean Services
International Oceanographic Data Exchange (IODE)
IODE Marine Data Management Programmes
IODE Marine Information Management (MIM) Programmes
The International Tsunami Warning System
(iii) Operational Observing Systems Programmes
GOOS (Global Ocean Observing System)
IGOSS (Integrated Global Oceans System)
The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) is funded by the IOC, WMO (World
Meteorological Organization), UNEP and ICSU (International Council of Scientific
Unions). GOOS is being developed to establish an ocean observing system which will
produce data which will aid forecasting, ocean management and sustainable
development. The system is divided into the following modules; (i) climate variability
and change (the ocean component of the Global Climate Observing System); (ii)
monitoring and assessment of marine resources; (iii) monitoring of the coastal area
environment and changes; (iv) monitoring, assessment and forecasting of ocean health
(marine pollution); and (v) marine meteorology and oceanographic (short-term)
operational services. Existing operational GOOS activities include the Integrated Global
Oceans System (IGOSS); the Global Sea Level Observing System (GLOSS); the Marine
Pollution Monitoring System; and the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, with
several regional activities being planned (Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
(iv) Regional Programmes
IOC Sub-Commission for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions
(IOCARIBE)
IOC Sub-Commission for Western Pacific (WESTPAC) website under
construction!
IOC Regional Committee for the Co-operative Investigation in the North ||||and
Central Western Indian Ocean (IOCINCWIO)
IOC Sub-Commission for the Central (northern) Indian Ocean (IOCINDIO)
website under construction!
IOC Sub-Commission for the Central Eastern Atlantic (IOCEA) website under
construction!
IOC Sub-Commission for the Southern Seas (IOCSOC) website under
construction!
IOC Regional Committee for the Black Sea unavailable option
The IOC also cooperates with regional organizations in the South, Northwester and
Eastern Pacific; the Mediterranean; the Persian Gulf; the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden
(Kullenberg 1998).
(v) TEMA (Training, Education and Mutual Assistance in Marine Science)
The IOC is currently developing a TEMA (Training, Education and Mutual Assistance in
Marine Science) program for its capacity building activities in marine sciences. At the
end of 1996, the TEMA program has led to eight national and regional workshops on
integrated coastal area management, with more already being planned (Cicin-Sain and
Knecht 1998 Kullenberg 1998, IOC 1999).
The IOC programmes include all marine sciences and ocean observations, as well as
capacity building through education and training. The IOC however still needs to
cooperate with other organizations in order to fulfill its goals. The IOC is involved in
various inter-agency mechanisms, for example, the ACC Sub-Committee on Oceans and
Coastal Areas, GESAMP (Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Environmental Protection), ICSPRO (Inter-secretariat Committee on Scientific
Programmes Relating to Oceanography /UN-FAO-UNESCO-WMO-IMO); all of which
are related to the United Nations. The IOC also cooperates with ICSU (International
Council of Scientific Unions), SCOR (Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research), IUCN
(World Conservation Union), IOI (International Ocean Institute), and IGBP (International
Geosphere-Biosphere Programme) (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
The IOC programmes and the inter-agency cooperation allow the IOC to provide
scientific and related information needed for management and development to various
sectors of society. The IOC is also an intergovernmental organization, which forms part
of UNESCO. This makes the IOC an organization, which can have both national and
international influence (Kullenberg 1998).
One of its programs, the Programme on Coastal Ocean, Advanced Science and
Technology (COASTS), provides an international framework within which national and
regional programs and projects are coordinated and synthesized to enhance the
understanding of the coastal area (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
The IOC convened the Second International Conference on Oceanography (Lisbon)
during November 1994. The title of the conference was "Towards Sustainable Use of
Oceans and Coastal Zones". Several hundred ocean scientists and marine policy makers
from around the world reaffirmed the commitment of the international marine science
community to sustainable ocean and coastal use. The need for integrated management of
marine and coastal environments, and the need to preserve biodiversity, was the first,
which the conference wanted to address (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
5.2. United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea
(UNDOALOS)
The United Nations Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea (UNDOALOS),
as part of the UN Secretariat, managed the development of UNCLOS III and remains
actively involved with its implementation. The office also served as the Secretariat for the
UN negotiations related to straddling and highly migratory fish stocks, which led to an
adoption of a landmark agreement on an international regime for management of these
species. The office stimulated some of the early work on integrated coastal area
management and promoted ICAM case studies. UNDOALOS has recently taken the lead
in stimulating discussion and action on training needs related to the implementation of
UNCLOS III and UNCED. A significant training program, Train-Sea-Coast is now in the
implementation phase (Cicin-Sain et al. 1995, Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
5.3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is responsible for
the conservation and management of international fisheries. The FAO focuses primarily
on maintaining coastlines in a clean and healthy state in order to ensure sustainable
fishing. This has led the FAO to develop training and educational materials related to
effective coastal management techniques. The FAO also a report on integrated coastal
management (FAO 1991) during the UNCED preparatory process which led to the
adoption of the ICAM concept in Chapter 17 of Agenda 21. The FAO has been centrally
involved in the development of a code for responsible fisheries practices and in the
negotiations of the UN Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish
Stocks. Its legal office also recently completed a study on the legal aspects of ICAM,
looking particularly at institutional issues (Cicin-Sain et al. 1995, Cicin-Sain and Knecht
1998).
5.4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
The United Nations Environment Programme’s (UNEP) mission is to provide leadership
and encourage partnerships in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing and
enabling nations and people to improve their quality of life without compromising that of
future generations. UNEP was established after the 1972 Stockholm Conference on the
Human Environment, as the environmental conscience of the United Nations system
(UNEP 1999a, b).
UNEP's uniqueness lies in its advocacy of environmental concerns within the
international system. In this, it makes a particular effort to nurture
partnerships with other UN bodies possessing complementary skills and
delivery capabilities as well as enhancing the participation of the private
sector, the scientific community, NGOs, youth, women, and sports
organizations in the achievement or sustainable development.
One of the most important functions of UNEP is the promotion of
environmental science and information. UN-System-wide research and
synthesis of environmental information, promoted and co-ordinated by
UNEP, has generated a variety of State-of-the-environment reports, and
created worldwide awareness on emerging environmental problems - some
of which triggered international negotiations of several international
environmental conventions.
UNEP derives its strength and influence from the authority inherent in the
importance of its mission -environmental management. The extent that
governments face common environmental problems, are disturbed by
environmental threats beyond their jurisdiction, or need to harmonize
policies relating to the environment, UNEP has and will continue to play a
pivotal role.
Today, 24 years after the Stockholm Conference and four years after
UNCED, the challenge before UNEP is to further catalyze, promote and
implement an environmental agenda that is integrated strategically with the
goals of economic development and social well-being - an agenda for
sustainable development.
(UNEP 1999a)
The first ICAM guidelines was developed in 1993 and published by UNEP in 1995
(UNEP 1995). ICAM falls under UNEP’s Regional Seas Programme, and focused at first
on the Mediterranean Sea. Currently, the Regional Seas Programme consists of 13
conventions or action plans, which cover over 140 countries (in the Mediterranean, the
Caribbean, Kuwait, West and Central Africa (WACAF), the South East Pacific (SEPCF),
the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea, the South Pacific (SPREP), the East Asian Seas, East
Africa, the South Asian Seas, the North West Pacific, the Black Sea, and the South West
Atlantic). Each convention is an action plan for cooperation on management, protection,
rehabilitation, development, monitoring and research of coastal and marine resources.
The convention also provides an inter-governmental agreement of a framework
convention embodying general principles and obligations. It also provides detailed
protocols dealing with particular problems, such as oil spills, dumping, emergency
cooperation and protected areas. (UNEP 1999a, b).
UNEP have been using series of regional technical workshops, since 1996, to develop
regional programmes of action for the implementation of the GPA on land-based
activities. These are attended by government appointed experts, representatives of UN
agencies, regional development banks, international financing institutions, the private
sector and non-governmental organizations. These workshops discuss and finalize
regional overviews on land-based activities, including national and regional sources of
pollution. The workshops also discuss the development of the regional components of the
clearing-house mechanism, and find solutions and agreement on regional programmes of
action to address the impacts of land-based activities upon the aquatic environment
(UNEP 1999a, b).
UNEP’s strong interests in protecting the marine environment through its Global
Programme for Action on Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based
Activities (GPA) is directly linked to its interest in protecting marine biodiversity. UNEP
plays a leading role in the implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
UNEP is also involved in capacity building through its NETTLAP (Network for
Environmental Training at Tertiary-Level In Asia and the Pacific) training program. This
program is a tertiary environmental training program, which includes coastal area
management. The overall aim of NETTLAP is to provide overall environmental expertise
at technical, management and policy levels (Cicin-Sain et al. 1995, Cicin-Sain and
Knecht 1998, NETTLAP 1999).
5.5. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) obtained its mandates from the
1992 UNCED; its main objective being the promotion of sustainable human development
in countries where capacity building is needed in order to design and carry out
development programmes. These programmes are created to eradicate poverty, to create
employment and sustainable livelihoods, to empower women and to protect and
regenerate the environment, giving first priority to poverty eradication (UNDP 1999a).
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a program called Capacity 21,
which support a number of integrated management efforts, including ICAM. Capacity 21
aims to build capacity in order for Agenda 21 objectives to be fulfilled. It does this
through integration, participation, information, and monitoring. Integration refers to
cross-sectoral coordination and the integration of environmental concerns into all
development processes as envisaged by Agenda 21 (UNDP 1999b, Cicin-Sain and
Knecht 1998).
Participation refers to the fundamental importance of broad public participation in
decision making to achieve sustainable development. It also refers to the promotion of
partnership between governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), communitybased organizations (CBOs), universities, and research institutions, and any other
affected parties (UNDP 1999b).
Information refers to the concept of sustainable development, that everyone is a user and
provider of information. Information needs to be available at all levels, from that of
senior decision-makers at the national and international levels to the grassroots and
individual levels. Capacity 21 helps countries to access information and to use it in the
decision-making process. It analyses the lessons that countries have learned in
implementing Agenda 21 and disseminates this information through publications,
workshops and computer networks. Capacity 21 works closely with UNDP’s Sustainable
Development Networking Programme (SDNP), which helps countries to establish
networks of information users and give them access to international sources of
information by improving communications and linking them to Internet (UNDP 1999b).
Monitoring of programmes by all stakeholders ensure that all participants learn from one
another's experiences and incorporate them in future sustainable development activities.
Continuous monitoring is an important quality control tool (indicator of sustainability); it
ensures that corrective actions are taken promptly; it allows for exchange between
Agenda 21 programmes in different countries (UNDP 1999b, Cicin-Sain and Knecht
1998).
UNDP also supports the Train-Sea-Coast program and the ICAM training program of the
International Ocean Institute (IOI) (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
5.6. International Maritime Organization (IMO)
The International Maritime Organization (IMO) was formed as part of the United Nations
because of the need for a permanent international body responsible for the effective
promotion of maritime safety. It was in 1948 at an international conference in Geneva,
that a convention was adopted which formally established IMO1. It entered into force in
1958 and the new organization met for the first time the following year (IMO 1999).
The purpose of IMO is to provide the infrastructure for cooperation among governments
in the field of governmental regulation and practices relating to technical matters of all
kinds affecting shipping engaged in international trade; to encourage and facilitate the
general adoption of the highest practicable standards in matters concerning maritime
safety, efficiency of navigation and prevention and control of marine pollution from
ships. The organization is also empowered to deal with administrative and legal matters
related to these purposes (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998, IMO 1999).
IMO also controls the World Maritime University in Malmö, Sweden, which enables it to
provide training and education concerning matters related to shipping, safety at sea, and
maritime pollution (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
5.7. Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental Protection
(GESAMP)
GESAMP used to be known as the Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution. Their name changed to the Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of
Marine Environmental Protection following UNCED, because of a shift in emphasis from
the scientific assessment of marine pollution to a much broader perspective, namely
marine environment protection. GESAMP is jointly funded by IMO (International
Maritime Organization), FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations), UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization),
WHO (World Health Organization, WMO (World Meteorological Organization), IAEA
(International Atomic Energy Agency) and UNEP (United Nations Environment
Programme) (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
GESAMP was established as an independent interdisciplinary body by IMO, FAO,
UNESCO and WMO. The activities of GESAMP fall into two broad categories, namely,
(i) evaluation of specific scientific issues related to marine environment protection, and
(ii) periodic reviews and assessments of the state of the marine environment. The aim of
this body was to evaluate and disseminate the information generated by its parent bodies.
Thus GESAMP interacts with IMO on issues related to the prevention of marine
pollution from ships. Its relationship with the FAO focuses on the protection of marine
living resources, with UNESCO and the IOC to coordinate the scientific research and
evaluate the data related to marine pollution, with the WHO to coordinate the health
aspects of coastal pollution and water use, with the WMO concentrates on meteorological
research on the airborne transport of pollutants and its effects on global climate change,
and with the IAEA focuses on radio-ecological problems associated with nuclear energy
activity (Khaliminov 1995).
5.8. World Bank
UNCED increased the World Bank’s interest in environmental issues, and consequently
also its interest in ocean and coastal issues. This interest translates to $11.5 billion being
made available for some 153 environmental programs in 62 countries. The World Bank’s
motivation is to reduce poverty by supporting countries, which want to change to
integrated environmental management. ICAM projects, initiated by the World Bank,
includes those in the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Danube River basin, the
Black Sea, the Aral Sea, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden, the Caspian Sea, and Lake
Victoria. ICAM was also introduced in countries where the World Bank invested in
coastal development projects, for example, Mexico, Ghana, Thailand, Albania, and
Indonesia (Table below) (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
The World Bank also supports capacity building through the publication or funding of
documents related to ICAM, for example, “Africa: A Framework for Integrated Coastal
Zone Management” (World Bank 1995). Similarly, it also funds the successful Clean Air
Initiative in Latin America, which has brought together decision makers, technical
specialists, and private industry in a number of cities with air quality problems. Even
though the Clean Air Initiative is not directly related to ICAM the practices and lessons
learnt can be used in controlling coastal pollution. The World Bank also uses the many
projects it supports to increase its management efforts and experience, which leads to a
stronger environmental management capacity in client countries by helping identify bestpractice examples, compiling key information, and linking with other sources of
information. A new Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook was approved late in
1998, replacing earlier guidelines and prepared by IBRD and IFC in collaboration with
the World Health Organization and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as
well as international agencies, governments, and industry groups (World Bank 1999).
It is also collaborating with the Swedish International Development Authority’s
Department for Research Cooperation in assessing marine biotechnology in developing
countries. The World Bank’s Land, Water, and Natural Habitats Division developed a set
of ICAM training modules which includes seminars on the Red Sea and the Gulf of
Aden, North Africa, and the Gaza Strip (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
5.9. Global Environment Facility (GEF)
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) was launched in 1991 as a pilot program by the
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) and the World Bank. GEF is operated by these organizations and
serves as a financial mechanism which provides grants and concessional funds to
recipient countries for projects and activities that aim to protect the global environment
(Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998, GEF 1999).
GEF Ocean and coastal management studies and projects, such as the Red Sea Coastal
and Marine Resource Management project, the Ghana Coastal Wetlands Management
Project, and the Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project has been well funded
by GEF (Cicin-Sain and Knecht 1998).
GEF operates on the basis of providing or covering the difference (or increment) between
the costs of an environmentally sound project, and the costs of an alternative project that
the country would have implemented in the absence of global environmental concerns.
Also, countries eligible for funding from GEF, include those which are able to borrow
money from the World Bank (IBRD and/or IDA) or which receive technical assistance
grants from UNDP through a country program (GEF 1999).