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SECTION 2
TRAINING EMPHASIS
EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE TRAINING PLAN DESIGN
“Plans are nothing,
planning is
everything.”
Dwight D. Eisenhower
SECTION 2 – TRAINING EMPHASIS
Effective Performance Training Plan Design
The variables affecting performance are so numerous a coach cannot expect to control them
completely. Nonetheless, a systematic and planned training routine helps optimize consistency and
performance. Consistency in training builds a sense of physical and mental stability, instilling
confidence in athletes when they know what to expect and on what to focus. Athletes perform best
when they have a plan.
A performance training plan should be athlete centered and predicated on the goals of the athlete.
Both athlete and coach are responsible for building, monitoring, and evaluating how effective, how
appropriate, and how successful each training session and training cycle is related to those goals.
Never assume a training plan is perfect. Even if the plan looks theoretically “correct” on paper, it does
not automatically mean an athlete will improve. Remember that how an individual adapts to training is
unique to each athlete.
The premise of an effective performance plan is to use general physiological principles to guide
training. A good grasp of the fundamental concepts (Level 100) is key to implementing detailed daily
training sessions. Coach with the primary end goal in mind. The intent is a science-based
prioritization of these concepts into a plan that insures long-term athletic development, as well as
short-term performance. This prioritization process is commonly known as periodization.
Periodization has been described as an “educated attempt to predict future performance based on
evaluation of previous competitions, training results, and scientific facts about the body’s adaptive
response to stress. It is achieved through planning and organization of training into a cyclic structure
to develop all global motor qualities in a systematic and progressive manner for optimal development
of the athlete’s performance capabilities” (Gambetta, 2007)
Periodization is closely related and integrally linked to the principle of progression (Fish & Nolting,
2012). Progression is the most frequently violated principle of planned performance training. Athletes
and coaches often try to hurry the process and omit steps along the way, or begin at too advanced a
level in the training. “It is virtually impossible to force adaptation” (Gambetta, 2007).
The materials below in this section outline the number of sessions for specific modalities of training,
such as strength, aerobic sessions, and high intensity intervals. The intent here is to get you thinking
about how to best organize and prioritize these sessions, so they support the annual plan and build
from week-to-week and month-to-month. Reflect back to the Level 100 Manual and recall that
progression moves from:
Simple to complex
Easy to difficult
General to specific
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Slow to fast (Fish & Nolting, 2012)
A common violation of the planning process is to develop highly detailed daily training sessions that
lack flow into the next session that are not directly related to the annual plan, or fail to build in
progression towards the end goal (Principle of Context, Level 100 Manual, pg. 40). Each workout
should support the next. Recall that one principle of training specificity states “that training must
progress from highly general training to highly specific training. … sport-specificity (in any sport) is
linking fundamental physical, technical, and tactical attributes together in a very specific manner to
optimize performance in any given sport” (Fish & Nolting, 2012). These principles hold true from a
perspective of the phases of long-term athletic development, but also in terms of how to best organize
the training year. In short, progress the performance training plan from general to specific not only
year-to-year, but also from month-to-month.
There are numerous physical, tactical, and technical qualities an athlete and team can improve upon
at any given time of the year. Determining a strategy of improvement requires the coach to first
identify the goals of athletes and evaluate the make-up of the team. There is no one right answer;
however, understanding the general principles, and the time needed to see improvements, is a good
starting point. For example, endurance requires multiple months to develop, hence spring, summer
and fall is an appropriate time to focus on increasing endurance capacity.
Training is a balance between increasing capacities in certain areas and maintaining the physical
attributes developed in previous months and years. The goal in each period is to target particular key
training aspects to improve while still maintaining the other attributes. Eliminating any training
components of an athlete’s routine for a prolonged period of time will result in detraining. A common
example is when athletes end a competition season and completely eliminate high intensity training
for multiple weeks or even months. The result is a loss of their capacity in intensity training that had
been built over the entire competition season. An athlete may want to “re-set” in the spring and focus
on general physical attributes, but they should still keep an eye on their long-term goals.
The four major aspects of training – distance, strength, speed, and intensity – should exist throughout
the whole year to maintain an athlete’s baseline fitness. Emphasis on training components may shift,
but training stimulus should exist in all four aspects throughout the whole year. It is fundamentally
unsound to take one training component (such as speed) and train to the exclusion of all other
physical qualities. It is possible to design a program where a training component is emphasized for a
phase, but it should be put into the context of the whole training plan. If the principle of context is not
observed, then the components of training will get out of proportion and adaptation will not occur at
the predicted level. (Gambetta, 2007)
For example, endurance may be a higher priority in the summer, yet it is still important to maintain the
intensity capacity previously developed in winter with interval sessions in spring, summer, and fall.
The roles reverse in the winter, with competition and other intensity training being the highest priority,
and yet maintaining endurance with easy distance training sessions remains important. No single
training attribute ever receives zero stimuli at any given period of the year. Occasional review of the
annual training goals and plan aids the coach in making sure training remains in context.
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Recovery (both physical and mental) is a training component that needs to be an integral part of the
training plan. Recall that recovery in the supercompensation process is the stage in which the human
body increases performance. The intent is to elicit a positive response. Athletes can train too little or
too inconsistent. The result is inadequate training stimulus to improve. Conversely, athletes may
push too hard and tolerate the training, but may not improve performance, as their training stimulus is
too stressful, or they recover too little (inadequate sleep, inadequate nutrition, too many
extracurricular stressors). An effective training plan needs to fit well into the athlete’s daily routine on
and off the ski trails.
Training Adaptation
Training adaptation happens at differing rates depending on the training task. Some training tasks
require full recovery and other activities can continue to be training with incomplete recovery.
Training tasks with a high neural demand require complete recovery before being repeated. These
tasks include maximal strength, speed, and speed strength. Such efforts also require great mental
concentration. Conversely, activities with high metabolic demand (basic endurance, speed
endurance, and strength endurance) can be trained without complete recovery (Gambetta, 2007).
Following is a recovery timeline for specific training tasks (Olbrecht, 2007):





Aerobic Endurance (Endurance) – 4-12 hours
Extensive Endurance (Threshold)– 24-30 hours
Anaerobic Intensity (VO2 MAX) – 36-48 hours
Anaerobic Speed & Power (Speed) – 40-60 hours
Strength Training – 48-72 hours
DAILY TRAINING PLAN GUIDELINES:
Understanding the recovery timeline for specific training tasks (as well as reviewing the Physiology
section by Peter Vordenberg and Sue Robson after this chapter) provides a rational for developing
daily training sessions. The following is a general template of how to organize a daily session:
Session Kick-off – Each practice should start with a brief team meeting that outlines the focus of the
session. Included within this brief meeting are: the general goals of the session, the time constraints,
a notification of which athletes are going with which coaches, and clear training location directions.
Be concise. Five minutes should be more than adequate. Develop an open line of communication
between coaches and athletes. Encourage questions.
Warm-up – The warm-up is a great opportunity to have the whole team in one place working together.
A warm-up does not have to be long. Approximately 10 to 15 minutes of relatively low intensity
activity should be adequate for low intensity training sessions. A longer warm-up may be necessary
for high intensity training sessions. The warm-up can be used as a valuable learning tool. The warmup should not only prepare the body for the more rigorous training in the main body of training, but it is
also an excellent opportunity to attune the mind and nervous system. Be creative with warm-ups.
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Build the warm-up so that it physically, technically, and tactically prepares the athletes for the main
body of the training session. This is an excellent chance to include some full-body fundamental
athletic movements to ensure their athletic foundation is strong. Create challenging and motivating
game-like skills and drill progressions that will awaken the mind and body for what is soon to come in
the session. This is a great opportunity for your skiers to model one another. Create an environment
for this to happen in a positive manner. Add variation, so athletes can advance to the next step if that
particular portion of the warm-up is too basic or lacks stimulation for them. Set the tone for a great
workout with a well thought out warm-up.
Main Body of the Session – Energy – both mental and physical – is a finite resource. Therefore, any
new technical or tactical skill should be done at the start of the practice after a good warm-up. This is
also true for high intensity physical activity, like a high intensity speed session or interval sessions.
The main body of training is where coaches need to be mindful of individual athlete needs. Be
creative to cultivate a team culture, yet address the needs of the individual athletes on your team. For
example, intervals can be started in the same location at the same time, but the more proficient
athletes may have longer intervals and shorter recovery, with the less proficient performing shorter
intervals with longer recovery. The main body of the training session can also be a good time for
athletes to head out on their own to focus on individual needs. Allowing athletes to train on their own,
at times, is of great value for them to cue into their intrinsic feedback (see Section 3).
Sometimes it is good to reinforce learned skills at the end of a training session, such as performing
short (~20 second) neuromuscular speeds, or demonstrating a technique. The focus should be on
fluid, efficient movement. The goal here is to reinforce and ingrain already learned motor patterns. A
good rule of thumb is to end on a good repetition. This can be conducted occasionally at the end of
the main body of the session or can be considered a portion of the cool down. Such neural speeds
should be planned in advance in most situations.
Cool Down – Have your athletes create a habit of an effective cool down with low intensity physical
activity and stretching. Other positive habits such as hydration, a light snack, and rapidly changing
out of workout clothing is excellent to include immediately after the cool down.
Session Wrap-up – Briefly summarize the training session and outline basic scheduling for the next
session. This can be done in small groups if the session length is diverse from one group to the next.
Make sure all the athletes made it back in safely. Make a mental note and evaluate how the athletes
executed today and then ensure the upcoming session complements this session.
BALANCING TEAM COHESION AND INDIVIDUAL TRAINING NEEDS WITHIN THE DAILY
SESSION:
Many coaches struggle with balancing the desire to maintain strong team unity, yet still support the
notion of each athlete getting better. Some think this is a polarizing decision, however, an artful coach
can do both. Much like training athletes, handling this balance does not have a “one size fits all”
answer. Below are general guidelines on handling this topic in an age-appropriate manner.
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For Youth Programming, it is often best to simply break into groups
of similar age groups, regardless of skill competency. At this age,
the primary goal is to develop a love of the sport. The best way to
do this is by allowing youth skiers to participate in sport with their
Creative, group core strength
friends and classmates. There are many skills to learn, but it’s best
training with junior athletes
to first build a safe, and comfortable group of skiers. There is little
(Bridger Ski Foundation Photo)
need to discuss technique or session goals in a youth program. The
most important attribute is to keep skiing fun and motivating. Youth learn movements rapidly, so it’s
important for a youth coach to understand basic movement progressions and implement creative
games into the training sessions to develop these. Allow the athletes to suggest games to play.
Always seek ways to motivate and challenge the group to cultivate the love of the sport.
Progress is critical for the retention of junior and young senior athletes. This requires that coaches
strike a balance of team unity and individual athlete needs in JUNIOR and YOUNG SENIOR
PROGRAMMING. The suggestion of having all athletes together for the team kickoff session
meeting, as well as during a mindful warm-up, is a great method to build team unity.
A team kickoff session meeting is also a good time to outline if there are any specific athlete groups
that may be training differently than other groups that particular day. This should be done in a manner
to notify all, and not to put particular athletes or groups on the spot or bring special attention to them.
An open and up-front dialog creates an open line of communication, and builds trust between the
coaching staff and the athletes. It establishes a policy that there are no secrets on the team, but also
establishes that each athlete is unique and sometimes has unique needs. Also, everyone is notified,
which encourages teammates to work together on specific individual goals toward common team
goals. Outline the overarching goals and seek ways all the teammates can work together to
contribute towards those goals.
Welcome questions. Encourage the athletes to provide feedback and allow them to develop and
create “favorite workouts.” Make sure all the athletes receive support and encouragement, and foster
collaboration on the team.
Senior Level Athletic Programs require the greatest athlete autonomy. The session kick off
meeting should be specific and concise. The most important aspect of the daily training session with
senior level athletes is to keep training sessions organized and progressing towards their goals. The
best manner to do this is ensuring training sessions are planned and organized well in advanced. That
way, athletes can seek out the best opportunities to work with and learn from their teammates, as well
as seek out windows of opportunity to focus on individual needs on their own. These individuals are
goal-driven and goal-directed, so collaborative feedback and collaborative input on training sessions
will greatly support progress. Be there to support their needs.
Unlike Youth programming, older skiers that join a Master’s Level Program typically want to know
the specific “what’s” and “why’s” of becoming a better skier. There are some master skiers that enjoy
the social aspect of skiing and consistently competing, but prefer to not take part in an organized
master’s program. This subgroup typically enjoys the sport, enjoys training in informal groups, and
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enjoys the outdoors. Those athletes that do direct their attention towards a Master’s Level Program
are seeking further guidance. An effective training structure, organized sessions, and clear path to
improvement is vital to them. Autonomy is less of an issue here, as the emphasis has often shifted
from peak performance to sharing a life-long love of training and competition in a group setting.
PLANNING, MEASURING, AND EVALUATING TRAINING
Performance planning can be measured in terms of energy management. Energy should be
evaluated as both physical effort and mental energy. Mental focus and concentration is a finite
resource, just like physical energy. Recognize that new activities consume higher amounts of
physical and mental energy; therefore, these activities should be conducted when the athlete is
mentally and physically fresh.
The Level 100 Manual outlined four (4) factors that need to be identified in designing a training plan
(Fish & Nolting, 2012):
How much – general training volume is typically measured in number of hours per week, month,
and year. Training volume increases with age and proficiency.
How well – the quality of execution and the importance of deliberate practice.
How hard – specific training efforts elicit specific demands on the body. Variation of training
intensities is appropriate to target specific systems and adaptations of the body.
Training type – ski training components, such as skill development, ski-specific techniques,
tactical pacing, neuromuscular speed, strength, endurance, intensity and recovery are examples of
training modalities.
The Level 100 manual defined Training Volume and Training Intensity (Fish & Nolting, 2012),
where training volume is synonymous with “How Much” training, and training intensity is
synonymous with “How hard” the physical effort is. Cross Country ski training has traditionally been
planned, measured, recorded, and evaluated in terms of training volume. The U.S. Ski Team
Recommended Hourly Progression (Fish & Nolting, 2012) outlines year-to-year progression in training
volume; additionally, the U.S. Ski Team Training Planning Excel spreadsheet document (provided
with the Level 100 materials) is based on training volume in hours.
The factor of “How well” speaks to skill development and quality of execution by the athletes – in
other words, using your time wisely. The factor of “Training type” also speaks to skill development
and the natural progression in the yearly training plan, with more general training modalities in the offseason, and then progressing towards more ski-specific modalities of training as the competition
season nears.
Using training volume as a planning guideline is good if it is effectively incorporated alongside the
other three factors (how well, how hard, and training types). The training factor that can easily derail
the training planning, measuring, recording, and evaluation process is training intensity (“How
hard”). Some sports, such as swimming or running, traditionally use units of measure like yards,
miles and kilometers to measure training volume. Strength coaches may measure volume in
kilograms lifted, or reps completed. It is particularly important that a strength coach fully understands
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how Training Volume progression is applied to a cross-country ski training if they are drafting strength
plans, so that the strength routine complements your athletes’ distance and intensity training. For this
reason, many coaches and clinicians use another form of measure called Training Load.
Training Load is described as a measurement of the cumulative amount of training stress on the
athlete. It evaluates training by multiplying the total volume performed (measured in hours) by the
intensity of training (using an intensity scale). The most common scale utilized is a “rate of perceived
exertion” scale ranging from 1 to 10, like the one listed below (Foster, 2001). Other intensity scales
can be used such as level 1-5 or using lactate approximation. Training load provides a value that is
often easier to understand for a coach, athlete or staff member outside of the traditional cross-country
skiing culture. It can provide a “back-up” to ensure training is indeed progressing and abiding by the
periodization process. The traditional cross country training plan utilizing training volume can still be
very effective, but simply adding a “training load” column to the current training plan template can
show both volume and training load.
Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale
Description
Rating
Rest
Really Easy
0
1
Easy
2
Moderate
3
Sort or Hard
4
Hard
5
Really Hard
7
Really, Really Hard
8
9
Sprint/ All Out
10
DIAGRAM 1 – (adapted from Foster, 2001)
Below are three common cross-country ski training sessions to provide specific examples as to how
training load works:
TRAINING SESSION
3 hr skate rollerski with 10X20sec speeds
8X20seconds
Remaining time L1
Total Volume Training Intensity Training Load (TL)
(TV) (hrs)
(TI) (1-10)
(TV X TI)
0.04
8
0.36
2.96
2
5.91
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6.27
TOTAL TL
TRAINING SESSION
2 hr classic - L3 threshold intervals (5 X 8
minute intervals with 3 minutes recovery)
5X8 minutes L3 intervals
Remaining time L1-2
Total Volume Training Intensity Training Load (TL)
(TV) (hrs)
(TI) (1-10)
(TV X TI)
0.67
4
2.67
1.33
2
2.67
5.33
TRAINING SESSION
1.5 hr run with L4 bounding with poles
intervals (5 X 5 minute intervals with 5
minute recovery)
5 X 5 minutes L4 intervals
Remaining time L1-2
TOTAL TL
Total Volume Training Intensity Training Load (TL)
(TV) (hrs)
(TI) (1-10)
(TV X TI)
0.42
8
3.33
1.58
2
3.17
6.50
TOTAL TL
Training load allows the athlete and coach to look not only at daily training sessions, but also weekly
and monthly cumulative training stress, to determine whether there is progression and periodization
from week-to-week and month-to-month. A common violation is that a “low volume easy week” can
easily be turned into a high-load week. For example, easy weeks have a great deal of recovery and
hence athletes or coaches can find it easy to add in a “fun 10 kilometer race” at the last minute. It is
easy to rationalize, since the volume of training has been low, recovery high, and the athlete’s body is
energized to get out and compete. The volume in training hours may remain low when adding in such
a race, but competition has the highest cumulative stress load on the body. Looking at both volume
and intensity in this situation will outline that this is no longer an “easy” week if that was the original
goal. Looking at weekly training loads is a means to mitigate common mistake like the example
above.
Date
Easy - Week 5
Medium - Week 6
Week #
Intervals –
Threshold
Speed
Strength
Intervals - VO2
Specific
Strength
Competition /
Test
5
6
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Week
Type
TV
TI
SK CL
(Hours) (1-5)
TV
TI
SK CL
(Hours) (1-5)
GOALS:
MONDAY
AM
OFF
OFF
Lunch
PM
TUESDAY
AM
(10X15 second technique
pick-ups) - fast but in control
0.08
5
skate distance w/ pick-ups
1.42
1
General Strength (Plan 1) - 2
sets
0.60
General Endurance
1.50
1
Skate Threshold Intervals - 5
X 8 min w/ 2 min. between
intervals
Distance skate - remainder of
the workout
0.67
3
1.30
1
1
Lunch
PM
WEDNESDAY
AM
General Strength (Plan 1) - 3
sets
(10X15 second technique
pick-ups) - fast but in control
Classic distance w/ pick-ups
0.75
0.08
5
2.07
1
0.15
5
1
1
Lunch
PM
OFF
Speed Intervals - Run &
Bound with Poles - (15 X 30
second intervals w/ 2
minutes recovery in
between)
Remainder of the workout Endurance run (warm-up -20
min - run & speeds, and cool
down - 20 min)
THURSDAY
AM
0.13
5
Classic Sprint Intervals -3 X
[6 X 30 sec] with 90 sec
recovery & 10 min between
sets (DP (1 set) & Diagonal
Stride (2 sets))
1.50
1
Remainder of the workout Classic distance
1.00
General Strength (Plan 2) - 3
sets
0.75
General Endurance (athlete
choice)
2.15
Lunch
PM
FRIDAY
AM
OFF
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1
Lunch
PM
Classic Threshold Intervals 3 X 7 minute intervals w/ 2
min recovery between
intervals
Distance classic (remainder
of the workout)
SATURDAY
AM
0.40
3
1.25
1
Running Intervals - 6 X 3
1 minute intervals w/ 3 minute
recovery in between intervals
Remainder of the workout distance run
0.30
4
1.00
1
3.00
1.00
Lunch
PM
SUNDAY
AM
OFF
General Endurance (athlete
choice)
2.20
1
1
Over Distance Skate
1
Lunch
PM
Volume total (hrs)
9.08
1
2
13.22
2
2
Below is a simplified way to evaluate both the training volume and training load of the two weekly
plans above.
WEEK 5
Level 5 –
Speed
Level 4 Anaerobic
(MaxVO2)
0.21
0.40
8
1.64
Level 3 - long
intervals,
threshold
0.00
Level 1&2 Ski
Specific
2.67
Level 1&2
General
Endurance
(running, etc)
5.20
General
Strength
0.60
4
2
1
6
1.60
5.34
5.20
3.60
9.08
Training Volume in hours (TV)
Training Intensity (TI) - (1-10
scale)
17.38
Training Load (TV X TI)
13.22
Training Volume in hours (TV)
WEEK 6
Level 5 –
Speed
0.23
Level 4 Anaerobic
(MaxVO2)
0.30
Level 3 - long
intervals,
threshold
0.67
Level 1&2 Ski
Specific
7.37
Level 1&2
General
Endurance
(running, etc)
3.15
General
Strength
1.50
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8
8
4
2
1
6
1.84
2.40
2.67
14.74
3.15
9.00
Training Intensity (TI) - (1-10
scale)
33.80
Training Load (TV X TI)
Evaluating training load does not account for outlining the specific energy systems, however, it does
provide a method of measuring the cumulative amount of training stress on the body. Performance
training plans with the use of training load can possess a more clear and detailed description of the
training session from the coach to the athlete.
RECORDING LOG
Like the training plan, the training log can be tailored to suit the needs of the athlete and team.
Determine what information you want the athletes to provide you. It is critical to keep the recording
log simple so that athletes will develop a habit to use it. A complex recording log may be great in
theory, but it is only as effective as the consistency in which the athletes use it. Items like training
volume, intensity, and workout descriptions are valuable as feedback to the coach. Notes as to how
they felt during the workout sessions are helpful to determine whether they are fresh, tired, motivated,
or bored. Recovery monitoring, such as recording morning heart rates may be added. Evaluating
training load may provide more detailed feedback from the athlete to the coach as to the actual level
of execution of training out in the field. A recording log SUPPORTS and COMPLEMENTS the line of
communication between athlete and coach. A recording log does create a better platform in which to
have effective face-to-face athlete to coach conversations on how training is progressing for the
athlete. A training log and recording log, however, cannot replace face-to-face coached training
sessions, as well as face-to-face conversations as to how training is progressing towards the outlined
goals.
The preparation and competition season should be closely managed. Competition generates the
greatest demand on an athlete hence requires a great deal of recovery. The performance planning
process should outline periods of training preparation not only during the off-season, but also during
the competitive season, so the athlete performs at their best for key competitions. Seek opportunities
throughout the year, even during the competition season, to focus on training to build capacity. The
intention is to build capacity like depositing money into the bank. This will provide the athlete future
opportunities to withdraw this added capacity for key competitions. The well-organized performance
training plan will guide an athlete and coach as to when to build capacity (focus on training) and when
to withdraw (key competitions).
In general, American culture places too much importance on competition and not enough emphasis
on skill development and physical conditioning. Both physical fitness and skill development can be
stifled with an overemphasis on competition. This can often result in negatively affecting long-term
performance gains. This is particularly true for youth and junior athletes that are competing in multiple
sports. Coaches need to take responsibility in trying to balance the athletic careers of athletes.
American culture will likely not significantly change, however, coaches can do what is best for their
athletes. Following are a couple suggestions:
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1. Be selective with competition. Athletes don’t need to race every race. This is especially
true for athletes that are coming off a competition season in another sport. Provide a plan
that allows these athletes to PREPARE. This will enhance skill development, long-term
performance, and minimize injury.
2. Individualize competition and training plans. One size does not fit all. Coaches may feel
that it is important that everyone do the exact same for “team” cohesion, but team identity
can still be fostered and cultivated while still maintaining individualized plans. The key is
communication. Build a team that relies on individual strengths to strive towards common
goals.
3. Be collaborative and flexible with other sports and their coaches. Do what is best for the
athlete. Think through what skills are already being developed in other sports and change
the plan to address the areas that aren’t being developed in the athlete in their other
sports.
4. Remain athlete-centered when creating policies for the team.
Creating an effective performance plan is far more involved than simply drafting a training plan. The
performance planning process has seven steps:
1. Quadrennial/ Annual Goal Setting meeting – Coach and athlete meet at the end of the
year to outline primary goals and the key competitions for the upcoming season. It is also
important to assess baseline fitness as well as individual strengths and opportunities to
improve. This process can be for a single year or a multi-year plan, for example an
Olympic quadrennial for elite athletes.
2. Annual Plan – a plan that outlines the general theme of the upcoming year. This plan is
developed directly from the major goals, key competitions, and major preparation camps of
the season. The annual plan is organized backwards in a stepwise process from these
target goals and events to the athlete’s current baseline level.
3. Monthly/ Weekly Training plans – Prioritizes overarching goals in particular phases of
the year, however, does not outline the detailed day-to-day training.
4. Daily Training plan – Detailed day-to-day training sessions directly built towards
achieving the goals outlined in the monthly plan. Each detailed training session should
have a specific objective. Daily sessions should take into consideration previous and
future training sessions, so the individual training sessions complement one another.
5. Training Plan Logging – athletes record their actual training. It is best to record each
session outlining the modality of training, training duration, training intensity, and feedback,
including how well the athlete thought the training session was executed, whether they
were overly tired, any illness, and recovery (resting heart rate as an example).
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6. Evaluation – A critical step of communication between coach and athlete to determine
whether the performance plan is eliciting a positive response. Observe and assess the
actual training execution in comparison to the original training plan. Evaluate whether the
plan is resulting in accomplishing the goals set for each month and are moving forward
towards the overarching annual goals. Field tests and competitions are often included to
support this evaluation process.
7. Adjustment or Maintenance of the standard plan – The evaluation process supports
this step to make slight adjustments to the individual performance plan. The overall annual
goals outlined in the annual plan are rarely adjusted however the detailed daily training
sessions, training methods, and training modalities to accomplish the annual goals may
require adjustments. Adaptation is individual and rarely does an athlete adapt exactly as
planned in every physical attribute. The performance training log becomes a highly
valuable tool for effective communication between athlete and coach as well as allows both
athlete and coach to reference back as how an individual athlete has adapted to specific
training sessions, modes and types of training. Use this as a guideline and recognize that
adaptation within every athlete is still somewhat variable.
The U.S. Ski Team Training Planning Excel spreadsheet document provided with the Level 100
materials is a good starting point for organizing an individual performance training plan. This
spreadsheet provides a general guideline in developing an effective annual performance plan. This
U.S. Ski Team Training Plan document uses a template that breaks out the year into 52 weeks with
13 equally sized months with 7 days in each week. This document outlines four main steps to help
the coach and athlete outline, organize, and prioritize an annual plan:
Step One: Identify the yearly training volume goal, which is based off personal athletic goals as well
as previous training accomplished in year’s past.
Step Two: Identify, prioritize, and place key camps and competitions into this plan. Prioritize and plan
training backwards from these major events.
Step Three: Identify the primary training goals for the month or phase of the year. Plan the modes
and quality of training coupled with total volume of training desired within that month/phase to provide
a framework to accomplish the specific physical adaptations. A coach can manipulate the training
percentages of the yearly volume during each month to accommodate the specific athletic goals. It is
important to remember that quality and professional execution of a plan overshadows the importance
of merely chasing training hours. In short, the goals of training outline the number of hours to train,
instead of the number of hours dictating the goals of training.
Step Four: Plan the four-week monthly cycles. The template uses a generic baseline that builds from
an easy week (week one), to a moderate week (week two), then to a hard week (week three), and
concludes the month with a rest week (week four).
This template is one example of how to effectively create an annual performance plan. There are
other methods to do so. For example, another popular method for executing step three above is to
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break the year into 6-week blocks or phases instead of 4-week cycles because of the physiological
principle of the “Six week adaptation plateau” (Level 100 Manual, pg. 33). Also, some plans use a 10day planning process instead of a 7-day weekly plan for step four. Another popular monthly volume
strategy (step four) is fluctuating an easy week followed by a hard week. For example, a monthly
training plan that has a monthly training percentage layout as follows – Week 1 (medium) = 28%,
Week 2 (easy) = 22%, Week 3 (hard) = 35% and Week 4 (recovery) = 15%. The goal here is utilizing
the supercompensation model not only from day-to-day but also week-to-week (Fish & Nolting, 2012).
The question that should drive this is what works best for the athlete and what fits within team
structure. Evaluate the overall monthly schedule for athletes on and off the ski trails and determine
what layout will fit best for the team.
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ANNUAL TRAINING PLANNING
Above are general examples outlining the overall goals of training throughout the year for the three
main training components (strength, endurance distance and intensity/neural speed training). These
three plans outline the “themes” of each block of training with respect to these main training
components.
It is appropriate for younger athletes to take part in numerous sports to develop general athleticism
and enjoy athletic play. However, sports generally introduce more competitions and the focus shifts
away from athletic play and overall athletic skill development around the fourth phase of development.
This is a natural progression in most sports in the US culture. It is important to note that the “annual
training theme” for a three-sport athlete lacks progression and periodization when athletics moves
away from a focus on athletic play and general skill development towards more competitions and
sport-specificity.
In this scenario, the annual training theme for three (3) sports clearly lacks opportunities during the
year for training and skill development. The reason for this “lack of opportunity” is due to the number
of months that the athlete is competing. Because of this, it is likely best to encourage your athletes to
narrow their focus to two (2) complementary sports once an athlete transitions from the stage of
GENERAL ATHLETIC PLAY into a MORE FOCUSED ATHLETIC COMPETITON stage of
development. This transition typically happens in Phase 4 or entering Phase 5 of development.
Narrowing the focus to two sports per year allows for adequate recovery, periodization of training, as
well as ample time to develop both general and sport-specific skill acquisition. We encourage
coaches and athletes to still enjoy and incorporate other sports into general training sessions,
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however we encourage full competition seasons limited to two (2) seasons once an athlete is in phase
5.
CONCLUSION OF EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE TRAINING PLANNING PROCESS
The most important aspect of creating an effective performance training plan is that individual athletic
goals drive the planning process. It is critical to understand the physiological principles outlined in
Level 100 and here in Level 200 and implement them appropriately. Monitor each athlete’s
adaptation to training. Each athlete is unique and therefore one training plan does not fit all. Critical
physiological principles to keep in mind during the performance planning process include
supercompensation, general physical adaptation timelines, six-week adaptation plateau, recovery
timeline and principle of training context (Fish & Nolting, 2012). Start with using a general template
and tailor this generic plan as you become more comfortable designing training plans for your
individual athletes. The more experienced the athlete, the more innovative their training plan can
become. No plan is perfect. Use the plan as a guideline. Evaluation and communication are critical
factors through the planning and execution process. Adjust training as necessary to accomplish the
athletic goals. Lastly, don’t underestimate the power of hands-on coaching, real-time feedback, and
frequent communication with athletes. A training plan compliments face-to-face daily coaching,
however it can never replace it.
KEY TAKEAWAYS:
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The performance training planning process should be athlete-centered
Establish the individual baseline fitness for each athlete as the starting point for generating an
individual training plan
Develop the training plan based on the goals of your athlete and determine what types of
training the athlete likes to incorporate into their plan
Each athlete is unique and therefore one training plan does not fit all
The goals of training outline the number of hours to train, instead of the number of hours
dictating the goals of training
The Planning Process should outline all four (4) factors of training (How Much, How Well, How
Hard, and Training Type)
Training adaptations happen at differing rates depending on the training task (Gambetta,
2007)
Some training tasks require full recovery and other activities can be trained with incomplete
recovery (Gambetta, 2007)
Ensure athlete clearly understand the goals of each training session and how these individual
sessions fit into the context of the weekly and monthly goals
Collaborate and cooperate with coaches in other sports in which your athletes take part in
Different training routines like endurance and strength routines should complement one
another. The performance training plan should be one cooperative, collaborative and
complete plan
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Maintain training context, meaning that what you do today in training should fit with what you
did yesterday and must flow into what you are doing tomorrow.
The number of total competitions an athlete takes part in throughout the year should be closely
monitored
Build flexibility into training plans. A written plan can rarely account for the nuances of life.
Unexpected incidents such as illness and adverse weather are difficult to predict.
Opportunities may arise that may not “fit” the written plan, however are advantageous for the
athlete to partake. Evaluate unexpected incidents and opportunities and evaluate what is best
for the overall athletic development of the athlete.
Evaluation and adjustment is a critical step in the planning process.
Prioritize training components
Eliminating any training attribute (endurance, speed, intensity, strength, or recovery) of an
athlete’s routine for a prolonged period of time is fundamentally unsound (Gambetta, 2007)
Educate athletes as to the goal and purpose for each training sessions, so they can best
execute
A training plan and recording log supports the line of communication between athlete and
coa
REFERENCES:
ch,
ho
Fish, B. & Nolting, J. (2012) United States Ski and Snowboard Association Cross Country Skiing Level 100 Coaches
Education Manual.
we
Foster, C., Florhaug, J.A., Franklin, J., Gottschall, L., Hrovatin, L.A., Parker, S., Doleshal, P., and Dodge. C. (2001). A
ver
new approach to monitoring exercise training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 15(1) (pp. 109115).
fac
eGambetta, V. (2007) Athletic Development: The art and science of functional sports conditioning Champlain, IL Human
Kinetics ISBN-13: 978-0-7360-5100-2
toOlbrecht, J. (2007) The Science of Winning: Planning, periodization and optimizing swim training Antwerp, Belgium –
fac
F&G Partners ISBN: 97890 7815 806 6
e
coa
ched training sessions as well as face-to-face conversations between athlete and coach as to
how training is progressing towards the athlete’s individual goals is paramount
USSA Level 200 Cross Country Coaches’ Manual - Training
97
Physiology
Peter Vordenberg, Former U.S. Ski Team Head Coach and Sue Robson, Former U.S.
Ski Team Physiologist
Introduction
To become the best in the world an athlete does not need to acquire a physiologist’s
understanding of the body. Rather, a basic overall understanding of physiology will help the athlete
and coach apply purpose to training. The U.S. Ski Team recognizes that its athletes gain more
from each workout when they understand why they are performing the exercise, rather than the
simple do-as-I’m-told method. This section focuses on the basic physiology associated with aerobic
and anaerobic training, organized methodically using the training zones as a framework. A basic
understanding of this information will assist a coach or athlete in creating an annual training plan,
and this knowledge will go hand-in-hand with the U.S. Ski Team Excel training planning document
available to all Level 100 coaches.
Many descriptors of training sessions are used throughout a wealth of coaching bodies, various
physiological papers, and between different countries. The following is not an attempt to rewrite
what is currently understood but to try to bring together some of the differences in terminology in
order to accurately describe the current training sessions being used by the U.S. Ski Team. Such
descriptions are also aimed at making it easier for the coach to identify the different sessions, their
main goals and the desired physiological adaptations they will have on the athlete. An overview in
the form of a table is given below. Following this is a description, main goal, some example
sessions, and pro’s and con’s of the different training zones. Also discussed is a brief review of the
physiological effects you can expect from these workouts and what the effects will show if you
have access to any physical testing.
Although, the emphasis of the training intensities immediately below is primarily described in
cardio-respiratory output (cardio-pulmonary); it is of critical importance to train ALL capacities of
training including technical, tactical, and psychological attributes. Every work-out should have a
contributing goal in all of these attributes.
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Table showing the different types of training sessions listed in order of intensity
Training type
Session
Descriptors
Lactate
(mmol/L)
Main goal(s)
Energy system
(Approximate)
Breathing
reference
Velocity reference
(Continuous
effort)
HR range
(% max HR)
HR range
(% La Thresh)
Distance /
Recovery
Level 1
Easy
A1 (Aerobic-1)
<1
Inc. aerobic efficiency
90 - 98% Aerobic
2 - 10% Anaerobic
Very easy
to talk
Slow
60 - 70
65 – 75
Distance /
Technique
Level 2
Moderate
A2 (Aerobic-2)
1–3
Increase aerobic efficiency
*Note: this is only a small contributor to
the volume of distance training - see
“pros and cons”
80 - 90% Aerobic
10 - 20% Anaerobic
Easy to
talk
Medium
70 - 80
75 - 90
3–5
Increase work capacity at Lactate
Threshold. Improve lactate metabolism
60 - 80% Aerobic
20 - 40% Anaerobic
Hard to
talk
50 Km race pace
80 - 90
90 - 100
5 - 10
Increase maximal aerobic capacity
40 - 60% Aerobic
40 - 60% Anaerobic
Very hard
to talk
5 Km race pace
90 - 100
100 - 110
> 10
Increase anaerobic capacity
10 - 20% Aerobic
60 - 90% Anaerobic
Cannot
talk
Sprint race pace
N/A
N/A
N/A
Increase time or biomechanical
efficiency at a specific velocity
2 - 10% Aerobic
90 - 98% Anaerobic
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Increase Max Velocity
2 - 10% Aerobic
90 - 98% Anaerobic
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
Threshold /
steady state
VO2 max
Tolerance &
Peak Lactate
Speed
Over-speed
Level 3
Steady
Lactate Thresh.
Level 4
Hard
Max Aerobic
Level 5
Very Hard
Supra-Maximal
Level 6
Pace/Max
velocity
Resisted speed
Level 7
Assisted speed
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AEROBIC TRAINING
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Level 1 – Distance/Recovery
Level 2 – Distance/Technique
Level 3 – Threshold/Steady State
Level 4 – VO2 max
Level 1 - Distance/Recovery
Description
Distance training: This zone involves medium to long workouts at a constant pace. The
athletes should get tired from the length of the session and not the intensity. If heart rate
zones are unknown and lactate checks impractical then breathing is an excellent way to
monitor and control the intensity of these sessions. Breathing should be relaxed and
rhythmical and it should be very easy to talk.
Main goals
 Increased endurance
 Increased cardiovascular and respiratory efficiency
 Decreased reliance on anaerobic metabolism at low intensity
 Active recovery (used with shorter workouts)
 Learn and ingrain proper technique
Physiological changes
These involve long-term structural changes to the heart, lungs and muscle, including:
 Increased cardiac efficiency, which is caused by increases in size, elasticity, and
contractility of the heart tissue. These changes in heart structure lead to a greater
stroke volume and cardiac output resulting in the typical decrease in heart rate both
at rest and at any given work load below lactate threshold.
 Increased blood volume (mainly plasma though with some increase in the total red
blood cell count)
 Increased capillarization of muscle and lung tissue
 Increased respiratory efficiency (increased tidal volume and oxygen transfer rates)
 Increased oxygen uptake capacity of muscle cells (increased myoglobin content)
 Improved mitochondrial size, number and function (increase in oxidative enzyme
concentration)
 Increased muscle fuel storage: glycogen (carbohydrate) and triglycerides (fat)
 Increased efficiency of fat relative to carbohydrate metabolism (glycogen sparing)
also resulting in the secondary effect of decreased subcutaneous fat storage if
calories are in deficit.
 Long-term neuromuscular adaptations resulting in habitual technique changes
Special notes
Pro: The extremely low intensity and therefore velocity of Level 1 aerobic training makes it
ideal for high-volume work. This will maximize long-term structural changes in the cardiorespiratory and muscular systems while minimizing the impact caused by residual muscular
fatigue on other training sessions.
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Con: The biomechanics of the activity need to be carefully considered to minimize the
transfer of “poor” mechanics. For example, roller skiing at Level 1 requires the use of slightly
different mechanical patterning than on-snow skiing. Due to the high volume of repetition of
this movement pattern it can be connected to the translation of poor mechanics into on-snow
skiing. The patterning is close enough to on-snow skiing to create reinforcement of poor
quality technique. Skiers training too slowly can ingrain poor technique. It should be every
skier’s aim to use proper technique (i.e. proper body position, mechanics, application of
power, and tempo) while training, especially while training in Level 1. While the aim is to
train all distance sessions in Level 1, some athletes will need to hit Level 2 at times (in
difficult terrain) in order to maintain proper technique. When this is the case the volume of
each ski or roller ski session will have to be slightly shorter to allow for the higher intensity.
Non-ski-specific workouts, such as running, hiking, biking can be done in Level 1 with less
concern for proper technique. Even with these modes, however, one should perform snappy
motions and always avoid sluggish movements.
Example session(s)
Intent: Aerobic training: Level 1: Distance/Recovery. Lactate < 1 mmol/L
Session Aims:
-Increased aerobic endurance and efficiency
-Gradually increase training volume and base for building higher intensity aerobic and
anaerobic sessions
PROGRESSION 1
Warm-up
Some light stretches
after the first 5 mins
SET
45min–3hr
continuous
Special notes
 Skiers should be able to comfortably handle the volume of training they perform. To
ensure this, raise the volume of training as gradually as is necessary within the year
and from year-to-year.
 Gradual cycles of increased loading and recovery need to be followed.
 Train to improve, not to accumulate training hours.
 Altitude will increase the intensity of the session. It is therefore very important to stick
to the identified heart rate levels whenever possible as breathing can be misleading.
Recording spot lactates occasionally if possible is helpful especially during the first
week of adaptation. Training easier is more effective during the acute acclimatization
phase of four to eight days.
 This type of training for distance skiers is done year-round, and makes up about 80
percent of a skier’s total training volume for the year. The volume of this type of
training for sprint skiers is more variable based on their specific needs and is more
often used as a recovery tool. Still, even the U.S. Ski Team sprinters utilize Level 1
training with frequency.
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Level 2 – Distance/Technique training
Description
Level 2 training, as with Level 1, involves medium to long workouts generally at a fairly
constant pace, though some introduction of carefully controlled intervals often in the form of a
fartlek or speed play session are also common. The athletes are stressed as a function of
volume rather than from the intensity of the session. A lactate level of 2 mmol/L (or the heart
rate tested to correspond with this value) is optimal for determining the training intensity,
however, breathing is also a good guide. Breathing should be relaxed and rhythmical so it is
easy for the athlete to talk. To maximize physiological changes athletes should aim to train
predominantly in Level 1 for all distance training. USSA cross-country recognizes that “Level
2 happens.” Level 2 happens mostly when athletes need to train faster to ingrain proper
technique. Elite skiers should be able to train in Level 1 using good technique. Level 2 also
happens in difficult terrain and during shorter distance sessions, as well as in warm-up and
warm-downs for intervals and racing. While some programs will avoid level 2 training within
their program, others will intentionally build it into various sessions. Regardless of the
method, Level 2 training should be intentional when used, and not mistaken for Level 1.
Main goals
 As stated for Level 1.
 As a part of distance sessions where technique is a focus (ski and roller ski
sessions).
 As a part of a warm-up and/or warm-down for intervals and races.
Physiological changes:
As given for Level 1.
Special notes:
Pro: Level 2 allows for better biomechanics with a range of motion closer to that used on
snow. However, due to the increase in intensity great care needs to be taken in the volume
selected and its potential to have a greater negative impact on other training sessions due to
residual fatigue.
Con: Care should be taken with the volume of this type of workout since the relative intensity
is twice that of a Level 1 session. It is very easy to overload an athlete with too much volume
when using this type of workout. Additionally, due to the added intensity, these sessions are
more likely to cause residual fatigue, which may adversely impact the quality of subsequent
training sessions.
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Example session
PROGRESSION 1
Warm-up
5 mins of light (HR<
Level 1) activity, plus
warm-up stretches.
SET
As the terrain and
technique demands
dictates in distance
training.
COOLDOWN
5 mins of light (HR< Level
1) activity, plus warm-up
stretches.
SUMMARY
Focus on technique –
not on training in
level 2.
*Note Level 2
“happens.”
Level 3 - Threshold/Steady state
Description
Threshold sessions are designed as sessions, which can span across a wide variety of sets
and reps. Level 3 intervals are executed at or below the anaerobic threshold (75 - 90 percent
of max heart rate). One is not supposed to accumulate lactic acid. The athlete should feel
like they could go faster and longer for every interval. Therefore, these intervals have built in
to them sufficient rest or slow work to allow recovery between reps or sets. This design
format ensures that there is no accumulated fatigue between sets or repetitions allowing
maintenance of quality rather than a reduction in performance caused by fatigue. Threshold
intervals reuire less recovery time in comparison to more intense (Level 4 & above) interval
training sessions since there is not an accumulation of lactic acid.
Main goals
The aim of these sessions is to get the body used to working intermittently above threshold
and practice recovering after each effort. Gradually this type of training stimulates improved
efficiency and increased recovery rates around threshold allowing the body to gradually
increase the work it can do without accumulating progressive amounts of lactate.
Ingrain proper technique from repetitive and correct biomechanical patterning.
Physiological changes:
The major goals of these sessions are to improve aerobic efficiency and aerobic capacity.
This is achieved by a combination of:
 Increasing cardiac efficiency and oxygen transport both from the lungs and into the
muscle cells. This leads to an increased aerobic efficiency around threshold and an
increase in aerobic work capacity at threshold (Level 3).
 Increasing cardiac output (both by increased cardiac efficiency and maximal
capacity).
 Decrease reliance on anaerobic metabolism at gradually increasing workloads.
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Example session(s)
These span the continuum between continuous to short interval sessions. Brief descriptions
and session details are given below:
Intent: Continuous work at threshold (Steady state sessions)
Training progressions are achieved by increasing the length of time at this load.
For example: 30 - 60 minutes non-stop skating or running. Lactates around four mmol/L the
whole time.
Intent: Longer intervals with controlled intensity (Level 3), and moderate rest.
For example: 3 x 10 minutes, 4 x 8 minutes, 3 x 15 minutes, ladder of long intervals. Rest 1 3 minutes.
Lactate at the end of each interval should be around three to five mmol/L.
Intent: Shorter intervals also with controlled intensity, with very short rest.
For example: 2 x 12 x 200 meters with 20 - 30 seconds rest, or 2 x 8 x 400 meters with 20 60 seconds rest. Lactate around three to five mmol/L at the end of the workout.
This sort of workout is important to learning a new speed while still keeping the overall
intensity of the session at Level 3.
Special Notes
Pro: A methodical and consistent approach throughout the dry land season and into the winter
with Level 3 training will successfully push an athlete’s threshold closer to their max HR. As
stated previously, this will cause harder workloads to be more sustainable.
Con: Because Level 3 intervals are not overly taxing on the body, athletes can show a tendency
to push this particular intensity too hard. A 5 x 5 minute Level 3 interval session can quickly
become a 5 x 5 minute Level 4 workout, and too much of this type of training can fatigue the
body or stimulate peak performance too early in the season.
Level 4 - VO2 Max training
Description
Level 4 intervals are executed at or above the anaerobic threshold, which is typically
between 85 - 95 percent of max heart rate. Note that these heart rate values can vary a lot
with training. The amount and direction varies with the athlete’s history as well as the volume
and intensity base of their training schedule. The reps and sets of these types of sessions
are designed in such a way that during each interval and during the workout there will be an
accumulation of lactic acid often between five to 10 mmol/L by the end of the session.
Main goals
 The main goal is to maximally challenge the aerobic as opposed to the anaerobic
system. To do this, the distance or time governing each rep needs to be a minimum
of three minutes and the athlete must be able to perform each rep at the same
velocity and with the same technique throughout the session. To control the overall
intensity of the session and place a high degree of focus and effort during the
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
interval, full recovery between intervals should be targeted. Recovery or rest is
usually equal to the length of the interval plus however long it takes for the athletes
to return to their Level 1 heart rate. This allows for good recovery under varying
physiological states, in addition to during periods when an athlete is at a significantly
higher or lower elevation.
Ingrain proper technique.
Physiological changes
The major physiological goals of these sessions are to improve VO2 max and maximal
aerobic work capacity. This is achieved by a combination of:
 Increased cardiac output (both by increased stroke volume and the efficiency of
cardiac output under maximal load)
 Increased maximal tidal volume of the lungs
 Increased maximal O2 transfer rates both from the lungs to the blood and from the
blood to the muscles.
Example session(s)
The Level 4 intervals will typically use four to five reps of three to six minutes, although the
rep length can be extended as far as 10 - 15 minutes with fewer rep numbers. These may be
categorized as time trials.
Special Notes
Pro: A methodical approach to Level 4 training throughout the dry land season and into the
winter can stimulate higher VO2 Max numbers.
Con: A Level 4 interval session should tackle race pace consistently throughout every interval.
Because these intervals can be as short as three minutes in duration, a tendency can be to go
too hard, thus causing the latter intervals to lose their quality as the athlete fatigues. This will
fatigue the athlete in the short term and fail to provide the same stimulus to increase the
athlete’s maximum VO2.
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ANAEROBIC TRAINING

Level 5 - Tolerance and Peak Lactate
Level 5 training is typically included in neural speed training, however we introduce Level 6 and
Level 7 in this manual to address neural speed training. For the purposes of this manual, we
will limit Level 5 training to a narrower window of anaerobic tolerance and peak lactate training.
The first question you need to ask is whether your athlete needs specific training of this energy
system or whether they will get an ample amount during competition. Many other forms of
training take precedent over this intensity of training. These sessions result in residual fatigue,
which will affect subsequent training sessions, particularly those requiring skill acquisition or
strength. This type of training encompasses a certain amount of risk. You may consider this
level for advance and elite level racers with a strong training background.
These workouts need to be planned carefully with proper respect and a purposeful goal to be
effective in an athlete’s overall development. These sessions when combined with a sound
aerobic base have the potential to further stimulate maximum aerobic capacity but can reduce
cardiac efficiency.
Level 5 - Tolerance
Description
Anaerobic tolerance sessions can span a wide variety of reps and sets. They are, however,
unlike the threshold sessions designed in that there is significant accumulated lactate and
fatigue during the workout so that the quality of each repetition reduces as the repetitions
and sets progress. Sometimes longer recoveries are given to maintain two to four sets of
equal quality, with fatigue occurring from rep to rep within each set. Anaerobic intervals are
of either such high intensity, or with such a short recovery time that the rate of production of
lactate is higher than the removal of lactate leading to its accumulation in the muscles and a
corresponding drop in pH. It is this drop in pH that eventually causes the muscle cells to stop
contracting. Hence a well-planned progression of repetitions and sets will challenge the
dynamics of the lactate production and removal mechanisms as well as pH control. Proper
technique should be maintained at all times.
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Main goals
 A progressive accumulation of lactate which will result in a substantial improvement
in enzymes responsible for lactate metabolism, both in terms of it’s production and
removal rate.
 Increased maximal anaerobic capacity.
 Improved capacity for physiologically coping with changes in terrain and velocity
during a race.
 Improved efficiency of movement both at higher velocities and under fatigue.
 Improved rate of recovery following an anaerobic challenge.
Physiological changes
 Increased anaerobic fuel storage (ATP, CP, glucose and glycogen).
 Increased glycolytic enzymes (those responsible for anaerobic metabolism).
 Increased pH buffering capacity.
 Improved lactate removal dynamics.
Special notes
The timing and utilization of any anaerobic sessions as well as their specific design is very
much determined both by the training experience of your athlete and their competitive goals.
The anaerobic training load of sprinters will be quite different to that of endurance based
skiers.
Due to the dependence of the anaerobic system entirely on carbohydrates as a fuel supply, it
is essential that athletes carbohydrate load and are well-hydrated for a minimum of 24 hours
prior to these sessions to get the training effects from them.
These sessions all have a specific warm-up to maximize the effect of the sessions and
reduce the risk of injury. Athletes are also educated well on food and hydration to maximize
the training session and improve the rate of recovery after the session.
Example session(s)
Anaerobic tolerance workouts are extremely eclectic in design with no one progression
providing the key to the development of this system in all athletes. Part of the reason for this is
that in designing a tolerance session you have four main variables available as tools to alter the
overall load of the session:
 Number of reps and sets.
 Recovery between those reps and sets (long enough to focus on reasonable
technique, short enough to ensure loading the anaerobic system in preference to the
aerobic system).
 Velocity of each repetition.
 Duration of each repetition should be <180 seconds.
These four variables allow for not only a huge variety of initial session designs, but also many
ways in which to develop appropriate progressions of load on the anaerobic system.
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All athletes have a different makeup of fast to slow twitch muscle fibers as well as different
potential for the trainability of the systems involved in the limits of this system, in addition to their
different racing goals. Hence, it is important to understand your athlete’s background and the
goals of your session in this area. Learn whether they are physically receptive to developing
better lactate recovery dynamics, better biomechanics at race pace for a longer duration, or
better maximal anaerobic capacity. These concepts will guide you as to the length of repetitions
and number of sets to use in training.
Example warm-up
15 - 20 mins of light (HR<Level 1) activity plus warm-up stretches.
2 - 5 mins steady (HR Level 2)
(15s hard: 1 min easy 15s hard) x 2
5 - 10 mins easy:
6 x 6s (short rhythmic efforts, or speed play)
Intent: Anaerobic Tolerance (short duration)
Session Aims:

Gradually increase number of reps at controlled velocity usually selected based on
movement patterns / race pace development.
PROG SET
RECOVERY-REPS
RECOVERY-SETS
1
2 x 6 x 30s
40s recovery between reps. Heart rate must drop below level 1
before you start the next set. A
minimum recovery between sets is 10
minutes.
2
1 x 10 x 30 s As above
N/A
3
3 x 5 x 30 s
As above
As above
4
1 x 12 x 30 s As above
N/A
5
3 x 6 x 30 s
As above
As above
6
2 x 8 x 30 s
As above
As above
7
1 x 15 x 30 s As above
N/A
8
2 x 10 x 30 s As above
As above
Intent: Anaerobic Tolerance (short - moderate duration)
Session Aims:



Gradually increase length of each rep.
Use 90 - 100 percent velocity for each rep.
Maintain overall quality of session by controlling recovery between reps.
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PROG
1
SET
3 x (2 x 30s HARD)
2
3
4
2 x (3 x 30s HARD)
6 x 30s HARD
6 x 40s HARD
5
2 x (3 x 50s HARD)
6
6 x 50s HARD
7
2 x (3 x 60s HARD)
8
6 x 60s HARD
RECOVERY-REPS
2 mins recovery
between reps. (HR
after 2 mins should be
less than threshold!)
As above
As above
3 mins recovery
between 40s reps.
4 mins recovery
between 50s reps.
4 mins recovery
between 50s reps.
5 mins recovery
between 50s reps.
5 mins recovery
between 50s reps.
RECOVERY-SETS
Heart rate must drop below level 1
before you start the next set.
However a minimum recovery
between sets is 10 minutes.
Intent: Anaerobic Tolerance (moderate - long duration)
Session Aims: Specific control of velocity in each repetition.
Example given for mixed terrain using classic skiing (elite athletes)
PROG
1
SET
3 x 1k in
3:30 mins
2
4 x 1k in
3:25 mins
4 x 1k in
3:20 mins
4 x 1k in
3:15 mins
3
4
RECOVERY-REPS
15 mins recovery between
reps.
HR after 2 mins should be less
than threshold!
As above
RECOVERY-SETS
Heart rate must drop below level 1
before you start the next set. However
a minimum recovery between sets is
10 minutes.
As above
As above
* Times and progressions are variable based on technique, terrain and conditions
Level 5 - Peak Lactate
Description
Peak lactate training sessions are a very specialized tool for elite sprint athletes who already
have a well-developed aerobic base (needed for recovery from this type of session), as well as
a well-trained anaerobic system. It is specifically designed to produce maximal lactate
production and accumulation, which will in turn produce a maximal pH drop. This pH drop is
caused by the release of H+ ions as a result of formation of lactate. The rate of pH fall during
maximal anaerobic work is determined by the buffering capacity (control of pH) of the athlete’s
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body. An improved buffering capacity is attained by improving the release and availability of the
predominantly bicarbonate ion (HCO3-). As dropping pH is the main cause of muscle dysfunction
during anaerobic activities, improving the buffering capacity of an athlete can quickly and
effectively slow pH drop and the increase both the amount of lactate which can be accumulated
and therefore the work capacity able to be performed.
Main goals
 Stimulate a maximal drop in pH.
 Improve the bicarbonate availability and release.
 Improve maximal production and tolerance of peak lactate.
 Improve maximal anaerobic work capacity.
Physiological changes
 Increase bicarbonate storage and release in response to an acute pH drop*.
 Increased pH buffering capacity*.
 Increased anaerobic fuel storage (ATP, CP, glucose and glycogen).
 Increased glycolytic enzymes (those responsible for anaerobic metabolism).
 Improved lactate removal dynamics.
Note: The changes marked with an asterisk (*) are major. The other anaerobic adaptations are
better attained using specific tolerance sessions.
Example session(s)
Intent: Maximal lactate accumulation and pH drop
Session Aims:

Improve buffering capacity of the anaerobic system to get a rapid response and
improvement in maximal anaerobic lactate production and work capacity.
SET
40s HARD – 100%
30s static
30s HARD – 100%
RECOVERY-SETS
FULL 20 MIN
RECOVERY ( See
details on anaerobic
recovery sessions)
SPECIFIC SESSION COMMENTS
The 40-30-30 session is run once or
twice in training session depending on
the athletes anaerobic response. If
one is doing 2 sets then we will use a
minimum set break of 20 minutes.
Special notes
 This session should be done roller skiing or skiing to facilitate technical adaptation
and maximal localized response in the muscles specific to skiing.
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


A long and specific warm-up building on intensity and load similar to that described
for the tolerance sessions is essential.
The key to this session is a 100 percent effort.
This session is extremely fatiguing. It is imperative that athletes performing this
training session carbo-load before and after it to optimize the session, as well as to
optimize recovery from it. If care is not taken in this department, training will be
negatively affected with fatigue for an extended period of time. Note that proper
carbohydrate intake and lack thereof has an effect on the body’s ability to produce
normal lactate levels.
SPEED TRAINING


Level 6 - Speed
Level 7 – Over-speed
Level 6 - Speed
Description
Speed sessions are designed as workouts that can span across a variety of techniques, all of
which are used to improve maximum velocity. To achieve maximum benefit, the athlete must be
fresh so that they are able to perform using proper biomechanics. All of these sessions are
performed either on roller skis or on snow in order to practice and improve ski-specific
biomechanical efficiency and facilitate maximal power application from both the lower and upper
body in the generation of forward propulsion.
Main goals
 Increase maximal velocity.
 Improve efficiency at sub-maximal and maximal velocity.
Physiological changes
 Improved pattern of neuromuscular firing.
 Improved muscular recruitment.
 Improved ATP/CP storage and replacement rates.
Example session(s)
General warm-up (10 - 20 mins aerobic based and movement specific).
Movement specific warm-up and basic movement pattern-based drills (five min).
Explosive flexibility (five min).
Drills based on achieving loaded range of motion at controlled intensity (five min)
Progressive intensity build with optimal technique patterning/drills or controlled velocity short
repetitions (five min).
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Intent: Technique - learning acquisition
Session: 5 - 10 x 8 - 10 secs at 90 - 95 percent max velocity.
Intent: learning adaptation repeated performance
Session: 8 - 10 x 8 - 10 secs at max velocity.
Intent: Resisted speed: Loaded technique - learning adaptation: Learning how to biomechanically and neuro-muscularly move close to max velocity with a load (95 - 99 percent max
velocity) - eg. pulley, weighted vest, up-hill, slower roller-skis.
Session: 8 -10 x 8 - 10 secs resisted.
Note: sets and reps vary with technique and terrain - alter load based on maintenance of perfect
technique.
Special notes
The key to this session is the quality of each repetition. Speed work is essentially repetitive
neuromuscular patterning. Remember to begin with a body and mind that is fresh. This
means at the start of the workout and before every repetition there must be plenty of
recovery in order to get the maximum gains and neuromuscular adaptations.
Level 7 - Over-speed
Description
Over-speed is terrain-assisted speed or speed-assisted sessions at 101 to 105 percent
maximum velocity. This type of speed training needs to be performed at or slightly above the
velocity of the skier’s own max velocity. Over-speed training can be accomplished by with the
added velocity generated by using gently down-sloping terrain or aided with speed-assisted
sessions with use of faster rollerskis as an example. The session is designed to facilitate
neuromuscular learning by giving the skier the biomechanical know-how and neural wiring to
generate a higher self-propelled maximum skiing velocity.
Main goals
The major goals of these sessions are progressive improvements in speed biomechanics and
neuromuscular recruitment, thereby culminating in faster skiing. Since maximum velocity is
reached within six to eight seconds, these speed drills use four to five reps of six to 10 seconds,
with three to four minutes rest between reps. The main focus is on building velocity and
technique, not the number of repetitions. The athlete should stop the speed workout when they
are unable to maintain the velocity and quality.
Physiological changes
 Neuromuscular learning.
 Improved muscular recruitment.
 Improved maximum velocity, biomechanics and efficiency.
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Example session(s)
Three sets of 5 x 8 - 10 seconds on gently sloping terrain, or on flatter terrain that follows a
downhill lead-in. Three minutes between repetitions and 10 minutes between sets. To properly
warm up to the session, at least 30 minutes of easy distance skiing should be performed.
Include within this window some dynamic stretching and basic speed play. This will help prevent
injury. Also, to adjust to this supra-speed workout and also to prevent injury, the sets can
progress through the following effort levels and recovery times:
Set 1: 90 percent effort, Set 2: 95 percent effort, Set 3: 100 percent effort
Strength Training For Cross Country Skiing
Michael Naperalsky
INTRODUCTION
A well-structured and properly developed physical training program is an integral component of
any successful athlete's sport participation. To see the best results, the program should include
proper coaching and cues, appropriate progression, organized periodization, and a continuity of
training. Any physical training program should seek to develop an individual's muscular
strength, endurance, and mobility/flexibility, while also fostering correct movement patterns,
improving balance and coordination, and encouraging physical activity for health benefits. The
primary goals of a training program are two-fold: improving performance and preventing or
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reducing injury. Implementing a strength training program (for our purposes, also synonymous
with weight training or resistance training) should produce a variety of positive physical
adaptations in the athlete: gains in muscular strength, increases in force output, development of
sturdy tendon structure, mobility improvements, more fluid coordination/quality of movement,
improved social skills, and a better-developed mental fortitude.
The purpose of this chapter of the coaching manual is to help educate cross country ski
coaches about the fundamental guidelines and principles of strength training and plyometrics.
The more knowledgeable and practiced a sport coach is with strength training, the better he/she
can implement a proper program at the club level. It's been said that "knowledge is power," and
coaches should frequently seek out new information about how to help their athletes get better.
It is also important to recognize and remember that the
best program a club can offer is the program that they feel
they can properly teach, coach, and practice with the
athletes. Coaches who are working with younger, novice
athletes should have a fundamental understanding of basic
weight training movements and programming. Coaches
who are working with elite athletes, however, will likely
have an extensive knowledge of resistance training and
Olympic weightlifting technique, or work with an
experienced coach who does. To put it a different way: "A
simple program done well works better than an advanced
Kikkan Randall training at the 2015
program done poorly." Ski coaches who write the strength
summer camp (USSA photo)
programs for their athletes have a duty to educate
themselves about strength training exercises and correctly perform them with their athletes.
Those without personal experience in weight training should seek out the experts in their
community, much as they would when utilizing the professional expertise of a massage
therapist or yoga instructor. Coaches are encouraged to seek out additional education or help
for areas that will benefit their athletes, and be willing to step outside their comfort zone to grow
and develop as a coach. This might include contacting a local strength coach to learn more
about program writing, reading books about resistance training principles, or starting a personal
journey to improve your own technique with the Olympic lifts.
The "Physiological Philosophy" of Training
The human organism is constantly seeking a state of homeostasis, striving for "normal ranges of
operation" for things like heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and levels of hormones,
electrolytes, and fuel sources. A bout of exercise causes a disruption in this homeostasis, often
increasing heart rate, metabolism, and skeletal muscle contraction. The physical activity
prescribed to an athlete disrupts homeostasis and, when performed in a progressive and
repeated sequence, creates a stimulus to change the physical organism. Cross country ski
coaches see this with frequent aerobic training sessions which result in cardiac hypertrophy,
increased capillary density, and increased enzymes for aerobic metabolism. These adaptations
allow increased efficiency for oxygen uptake and delivery, which (we hope) helps our skiers to
race faster and longer. Strength coaches see weight training sessions lead to improved muscle
hypertrophy and/or neural adaptations that allow an athlete to lift heavier weights. This is the
ultimate "training philosophy" for all coaches: homeostasis is affected by a physical stimulus
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followed by a recovery period that leads to adaptation. The amount, frequency, timing, and
nature of the stimulus and recovery determine the adaptations that occur.
Some Science Behind The Strength
Strength training results in greater muscular force output through two primary mechanisms:
1. Muscular Hypertrophy – the physical enlargement of muscle fibers and muscle crosssectional area; literally, bigger muscle size.
2. Neural Adaptation – improved effectiveness of motor units, muscle fibers, intermuscular coordination, and the central nervous system to better activate muscles for a
given task. Essentially, the nervous system develops a better pathway for firing muscles,
learns to activate more motor units, and does so in a coordinated, efficient manner.
During development, the combination of growth and maturation with resistance training often
results in varying degrees of muscular hypertrophy. This increased muscle mass allows for
greater force production and builds the "athlete's frame" for sport activity. Coaches should not
be overly concerned with body composition or weight during the adolescent and early teenage
years of development. A natural evolution of muscle growth should be seen as a positive trait,
not a hindrance to a preconceived "ideal" body type for cross country skiing. On the other hand,
the primary goal of most training, and specifically strength training during the late teens, is
neural adaption. For many developing athletes who have reached peak maturation, high
intensity-low volume weight training results in significant gains in strength and power output
without a resulting change in muscle size or bodyweight. Many years of research studies and
real-world examples have shown that appropriately designed training programs can increase
strength and improve performance without making an athlete "bulky" or over-sized.
The three primary measures or outcomes of training are:
1. Force – The Merriam-Webster Dictionary lists the following definition for Force:
"strength or energy exerted or brought to bear; cause of motion or change."
(Merriam-Webster, 2014)
From the standpoint of physics, Force = mass x acceleration. We often think of raw force
as an athlete's "strength," the ability to move a heavy weight.
2. Velocity – Merriam-Webster lists the following definitions for Velocity that might relate to
cross country skiing:
"1. (a): quickness of motion; speed. (b) rapidity of movement. (c) speed
imparted to something.
2. (a): the rate of change of position along a straight line with respect to
time; the derivative of position with respect to time.
3. (a): rate of occurrence or action; rapidity"
(Merriam-Webster, 2014)
Velocity is often interchangeably used with "speed," the distance traveled
divided by the time of travel. A coach might see this as the rate of
movement for an athlete or object.
3. Power – force x velocity, the combination of force and movement. This is often thought
of as the tempo of a weight lifting movement, the ability to accelerate or change
direction, or quite literally the ability to rapidly apply force.
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In terms of strength training for cross-country skiing, all three of
these factors are important to consider when planning goals and
measuring outcomes. Coaches often want an athlete that can
quickly produce power or create high quantities of speed, but
worry about an athlete who is more focused on producing high
force. It is important to remember, however, that force and velocity
work in concert to create power. Additionally, high power outputs
cannot exist without adequate force. An athlete needs a minimum
level of strength (force) before he/she can fully develop high levels
of power (force and velocity). A well-designed training program will
stress and stimulate all necessary components, with exercises
that are more force- or velocity-biased, and also ballistic and
power-focused.
Liz Stephan Olympic weight
training at 2015 summer camp
(USSA photo)
Many exercises will fall into one of three categories in regard to force and velocity:
1. High force-low velocity: usually loaded weight training, such as a heavy Back Squat
2. Medium force-medium velocity: usually ballistic actions, such as light-loaded jumping
actions or Olympic lifts
3. High velocity-low force: usually bodyweight running or jumping, such as depth jumps
or bounding.
When designing a training program, it is important to consider exercises that seek to develop all
three conditions, thus shifting the entire force-velocity curve up and to the right.
Different times of the year should also have an emphasis on training different qualities. This will
be discussed in more detail later in the chapter.
Plyometrics
The term "plyometrics" is often used interchangeably with "jumping" in the United States. While
it is true that many plyometrics (or "plyos") are in fact jumping exercises, plyometrics specifically
refer to a concentric muscle action that is immediately preceded by an eccentric muscle action
and a rapid stretch-reflex. This "myotatic reflex" creates a stretch-shortening cycle, whereby the
rapid stretch and eccentric action causes a reflex response that creates a greatly increased
concentric action. By definition this action must be incredibly quick, often 0.25 seconds or less.
A traditional countermovement jump, for example, is considerably slower, around 0.4 or 0.5
seconds. So while some jumping exercises might be too slow to truly induce the stretch reflex
and be plyometric in nature, jumping movements are great ways to develop coordination and
practice rapid force production into the ground (Lloyd, 2011). Sound similar to skiing? You bet!
Strength Training for Nordic Skiing
It has been suggested that coaches and strength coaches should "train movement, not
muscles" (Gambetta, 2002). The guiding principle here is that a training program that asks the
athlete to perform a specific action will naturally develop the strength, balance, and coordination
of the body for that movement. The old-school approach was more similar to a 1980s
bodybuilding program: using a variety of machines and dozens of exercises to specifically
increase muscle size and strength. Contemporary theory of athletic development training (and
current research) instead supports the concept that an athlete should be allowed and in fact
required to move freely and move with appropriate resistance loads. Strength training should
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utilize free-weighted implements such as medicine balls, barbells, or dumbbells whenever
possible, instead of machines. Movements should take place in all three planes of motion
(frontal, sagital, transverse) and often be multi-directional. This movement-based theme
develops muscle strength while also improving the important traits of coordination, balance,
mobility, and kinetic linking.
Another important concept of strength training for cross country skiing is the relative training
load and number of reps. Countless textbooks about strength and conditioning or exercise
physiology recommend training sets of 15-20 reps for "muscle endurance." While this idea is
correct in its context, and often very appropriate for younger athletes, it is important to
remember that an athlete's sport training provides hundreds and thousands of repetitions of a
very specific motor pattern. Traditional training for maximal strength, however, usually involves
training of 1-5 reps per set, which encourages maximal neural adaptation with the least amount
of muscle hypertrophy. To put it another way: lifting heavy makes you stronger without making
you bigger. Ski coaches can think of it this way: let the roller skiing train the muscle
endurance and use the gym to get stronger for future skiing.
Speaking of skiing, why strength train or do plyometrics at all? After all, cross country skiing
does not involve lifting heavy loads or jumping, at least not normally. The simple answer is this:
it all comes back to force. The biggest VO2max in the world isn't worth as much if you cannot
apply force into the ground to get moving. Veteran coaches and athletes probably know what
this feels like on a day when you didn't quite get the wax right. Every athlete wants as much of
his/her energy directed toward skiing farther and faster, so the primary objective of strength and
plyometric training is improved efficiency. Through a combination of heavy lifting (to improve
strength) and plyometrics (to improve muscle-spring stiffness), we hope to save valuable energy
to race faster. Research has shown that heavy weight lifting and plyometrics can improve
stiffness, the ability of the body's muscles and tendons to transmit force through a limb. By
directly applying more force into the ground the athlete is able to conserve metabolic energy
that can be used to go faster. Additionally, increasing an athlete's maximal strength will
decrease the required cost or effort of a given workload. By following an appropriate plan to get
stronger and produce power more efficiently, the athlete is able to save energy and push harder
than before (Paavolainen, 1999; Dumke, 2010; Foureé, 2010).
Correcting Some Errors
It is important to discuss some misconceptions about strength training and a cross country
skier's time spent in the gym.
1. Muscle hypertrophy and bulking. Many athletes are under the false impression that
lifting weights will make them physically bigger. While a bodybuilding program with high
reps, high intensity, and minimal rest can induce significant gains, an appropriate
strength program for XC skiing should not seek to do this. One analogy to use is this:
"Picking up a weight will make you Arnold Schwarzenegger like sitting on a bike will
make you Lance Armstrong." Massive bodybuilders and pro football players spend years
lifting weights and eating huge amounts of food to grow their muscles. Cross-country
skiers, on the other hand, spend years skiing, cycling, and running for their sport, with
some complementary strength work thrown in. The reality is that lifting heavy weights for
low volumes will improve strength levels without a corresponding change in size.
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2. Muscle-bound or tightness. Resistance training does not result in decreased flexibility.
In fact, a well-developed program often improves flexibility and helps strengthen postural
weaknesses.
3. Lightweight circuits or short rest periods to improve cardio. The primary goal of
lifting weights is to get stronger. Yet many coaches set up generic circuit training
sessions with very light weights (30-50% of 1-RM), very high repetitions, and short rest
breaks. This will result in athletes with more fatigue, more soreness, and not one
appreciable gain in strength. The gym and heavy weights are used to get strong, period.
Coaches should leave the fitness training for the roller skis, running shoes, and bicycle.
Another common error can be heavy weights and explosive plyometrics with inadequate
rest periods between sets or exercises. Rest periods that do not allow adequate
recovery only lead to tired athletes, which often results in poor technique, decreased
training quality, and an increased risk of injury. A simple rule of thumb that can be
applied is this: for every set, take three (3) times the duration for recovery. For example,
if 1 set of 4 repetitions of the Back Squat takes the athlete 45 seconds to complete, then
the next 2-3 minutes should be used for recovery. In short, the goal is full recovery
before starting the next set.
4. High-volume "core training" and trunk flexion. Many cross country skiers perform
high volumes of summer roller skiing, then head to the gym to perform hundreds of
repetitions of abdominal crunches/trunk flexion. This redundant practice can often result
in low-back pain, poor posture, poor mobility, and anterior tightness (abdominals, hip
flexors, quadriceps). Coaches should recommend postural stability training that
emphasizes the posterior chain, proper activation of the deep-muscle stabilizers (i.e.
Transverse Abdominus), and exercises that require resisting movement or rotation.
Postural stability and "core" training should also include movements while standing on
two feet as opposed to those exercises that are exclusively confined to the floor.
5. Emphasis on an arbitrary bodyweight number. The ultimate measure of a skier's
ability is his performance and health. At the end of the day, is she skiing faster and is
she healthy? This can include a multitude of factors, including diet, proper nutrition and
hydration, illness or injury, chronic health conditions, disease states, etc. However,
focusing on bodyweight alone does not provide valuable information to the coach or
athlete about either performance or health status.
6. Very high numbers of repetitions for "endurance training." While a traditional Back
Squat or Lunge can be an effective exercise for strength training, completing 50 or 100
reps with weight is incredibly taxing on the athlete, both physically and mentally. Long
durations of jumping exercises or high reps during strength work can degrade technically
as fatigue develops, resulting in poor quality of training and increased risk of injury.
7. "Sport-specific training." This one is a bit of a walk on eggshells. Making a training
program specific to the demands of the sport is important for success. Choosing
exercises and training modalities that are characteristic of the sport allow for better
improvements during sporting activity. However, attempting to replicate or mimic a
specific sport activity or precise motor pattern in dissimilar conditions might actually
degrade a finely tuned motor pattern. Example: A cross-country skier who competes for
35 minutes should not perform a dumbbell lunge exercise for 35 continuous minutes.
Another example: the exact conditions of an alpine skier's race (slope, snow, boots, skis,
temperature, foot angle, knee angle, joint torque, velocity of movement, etc.) cannot
possibly be exactly replicated on the flat floor of an indoor training facility. So attempting
to make strength training "sport specific" by taking it to the extreme will often be
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detrimental to the athlete's training. The best activity to improve an athlete's ski racing is
most likely skiing.
Strength Training and Plyometrics with Youth Athletes
Coaches are the backbone of athletic development, and thus coaching education is the
foundation for proper athletic development. Weight training, as well as sport training, has
benefits aside from improvements in muscular strength. Youth who participate in resistance
training have been shown to have improved aerobic fitness, blood lipid profiles, body
composition, and bone mineral density, as well as decreased blood pressure and better
development in psychosocial factors such as well-being, self-discipline, socialization
(Faigenbaum, 1993; Faigenbaum, 1995). While strength training is a vital component to the
overall athletic development program, it is important to remember that weight training is not
simply something else to be added to the daily routine of the athlete. Strength, power, aerobic
fitness, anaerobic fitness, flexibility, and sport-specific technique should all be considered
integral pieces of the athlete's sport development puzzle. This requires appropriate planning of
the athlete's training and common goals, especially among all parties involved (e.g. ski coach,
strength coach, parents, other sport coaches, the athlete him/herself, etc.). The plan should be
developed to act as one comprehensive training routine and not as multiple plans forced upon
the athlete. That master plan will then be communicated, maintained, and adjusted accordingly
with everyone involved.
An appropriately developed plan will provide for optimal adaptation without unnecessary or
potentially dangerous training. The increased prevalence of obesity in the United States
suggests that a well-structured training program and sport participation can be extremely
beneficial to the young athlete. But with decreased physical education programs and increased
sendentarism among youth, coaches should pay particular attention to the physical state of the
athletes that are beginning a new program of training and competition. Adequate recovery
during and between sessions is an important component of a well-planned training program.
Repeated submaximal repetitions coupled with poor technique can develop into overuse
injuries, and prioritizing competition over training can impair proper athletic development. While
it may be easier to focus on the prescribed components of a training program (sets, reps,
speed, intensity, exercises), other ancillary factors such as nutrition, hydration, sleep, time
management, and academic demands all have a cumulative effect on the athlete's overall
condition as well as his/her ability to adapt to a training stimulus (Faigenbaum, 2004).
Prepubescent athletes lack the level of circulating androgen hormones that are necessary for
large growth of muscle mass (hypertrophy) (Faigenbaum, 2009). Because of this, strength
training often results in improvements of motor unit recruitment, coordination, and firing. These
neurological adaptations provide the basis for improved strength performance before puberty.
Numerous studies with both adult and adolescent populations have found a synergistic effect
of plyometric and strength training, with the two combined methods showing better
results that either individual method used by itself. Plyometric training programs used with
youth populations have been shown to cause positive adaptations in vertical jump height,
running speed, and rate of force development (Lloyd, 2011). Some older recommendations
about plyometric training have suggested that young athletes be able to squat 1.5 times their
bodyweight before beginning a plyometric training routine. Given the nature of children to
perform activities such a jumping, skipping, hopping, and running, this notion seems off base
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and antiquated. Additionally, strength training with prepubescent youth has shown no greater (or
even less) risk for injury than other organized sports or recreational activities (Faigenbaum,
2009). Plyometric training routines should consider variables such as the volume of prescribed
contacts, the intensity of the jumps, and the number of training sessions, often 1-3 per week on
nonconsecutive days. Other considerations for plyometric training should include: the use of
proper footwear (athletic shoe), the use of an appropriate active dynamic warm-up, and the floor
or jumping surface available (rubber gym flooring, grass, or suspended-floor court hardwood)
(Faigenbaum, 2004). Low-intensity strength and plyometric training for younger athletes
(Phases 1-3) can utilize shorter rest intervals (60-90 seconds) than training for older athletes
(Phases 4-6, rest periods of 2-3 minutes). However, research also suggests that children
experience less muscle damage than adults, so monitoring muscle soreness, as a marker of
recovery is not appropriate. Plyometrics and strength training should include proper cues and
specific instructions for technical mastery. Cues such as "sit your hips back" or "jump as high
and fast as possible" give the younger athlete a better understanding of the expectation of the
activity (Lloyd, 2011).
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RESISTANCE TRAINING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
PHASES ONE THROUGH SIX OF TRAINING SYSTEM MATRIX
Strength and plyometric training will progress with the young athlete through his/her
development and according to movement proficiency. Exercises, technique, and drills for
younger athletes will be more general and low-intensity, while older athletes will complete
exercises that are more specialized and demanding. It is important to use exercises that are
appropriate for the individual athlete and progress these exercises only as ability allows.
A broad view of this progression might look like this:
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Figure showing potential training interventions which impact the force-velocity curve with combination of weight
training and plyometric training (Haff & Nimphius, 2012)
STRENGTH
•
•
•
•
1. Bodyweight
2. Endurance
3. Weights/resistance
4. Heavy max strength
PLYOMETRICS
•
•
•
•
1. Fun races and games
2. Low impact, bodyweight
3. Max effort, bodyweight
4. Max effort, with external resistance
CORE
•
•
•
•
1. Stabilization, floor-based
2. Endurance, floor- based
3. Stabilization, standing
4. Stabilization, walking/moving
Categories of Suggested Progression for Strength and Plyometric Training
Jumping/Plyometrics
**Note: similar progressions to the ones listed below may be used for single-leg plyometrics
Level 1 –
Low Impact, bodyweight, hopping-based activity (e.g. jump rope, hopscotch)
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Level 2 –
Medium Impact, bodyweight, single response, in-place (e.g. Standing Vertical Jump)
Medium Impact, bodyweight, single response, moving (e.g. Standing Broad Jump)
Level 3 –
Medium Impact, bodyweight, multiple response, in-place (e.g. Tuck Jumps)
Medium Impact, bodyweight, multiple response, moving (e.g. Triple Broad Jump)
Level 4 –
Medium Impact, bodyweight, single response, in-place with barrier (e.g. Jump on Tall Box)
Medium Impact, bodyweight, multiple response, moving with barrier (e.g. Stair Jumps)
Level 5 –
High Impact, bodyweight, single response, in-place with equipment (e.g. Depth Jumps)
High Impact, bodyweight, multiple response, moving (e.g. Bounding)
High Impact, weighted, multiple response, in-place (e.g. Dumbbell Weighted Jumps)
Strength Training – Lower Body
Level 1 –
Bodyweight, no equipment needs, light intensity, high reps (e.g. squats)
Level 2 –
Bodyweight, minimal equipment needs, medium intensity, medium reps (e.g. Medicine Ball
Lunge)
Level 3 –
Weighted, moderate equipment needs, moderate technique, medium intensity, medium reps
(e.g. Barbell Back Squat)
Level 4 –
Weighted, moderate equipment needs, high technique and/or ballistic action, high intensity, low
reps (e.g. Weighted Jump Squats, or Olympic lifts and variations)
Strength Training – Upper Body
Level 1 –
Bodyweight, no equipment needs, light intensity, high reps (e.g. push-ups)
Level 2 –
Bodyweight, minimal equipment needs, medium intensity, medium reps (e.g. pull-ups)
Level 3 –
Weighted, moderate equipment needs, medium intensity, high reps (e.g. DB Shoulder Press)
Level 4 –
Weighted, moderate equipment needs, high-skill action, high intensity, low reps (e.g. DB Split
Jerk)
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Core Training and Postural Stability
Level 1 –
Bodyweight, no equipment needs, stabilization, light intensity,
high volume (e.g. Front Plank)
Level 2 –
Bodyweight, no equipment needs, movement, medium
intensity, medium volume (e.g. Pike-ups)
Level 3 –
Weighted, moderate equipment needs, moderate technique,
medium intensity, medium volume (e.g. Cable Woodchops)
Box jump plyometric strength
training (Bryan Fish photo)
Level 4 –
Weighted, moderate equipment needs, high technique, high intensity, low volume (e.g. Barbell
Roll-outs)
PHASE 1—AGES 2-6
GUIDELINES AND EXAMPLES FOR STRENGTH AND PLYOMETRIC TRAINING
Encourage free play and all physical activity (run, jump, throw, kick, push, pull, wheel, balance,
climb, catch, roll/tumble, and stop); work to encourage physical activity and prevent
sendentarism. Play a variety of fun games and sport activities, explore nature, and enjoy
physical activity both indoors and outdoors.
PHASE 2—AGES 6-10
Encourage games and a variety of physical activity, with the formation of 2-4 organized sports;
emphasis on training instead of competition; teaching of rules, structure, and ethics;
fundamental teaching and emphasis on ABC'S of Athleticism (agility, balance, coordination, and
speed); strength activities using body weight and fixed-position bars (e.g. pull-ups or
gymnastics), and balance tools (e.g. balance beam); strength training should emphasize
completing more reps (endurance) instead of higher intensity (strength).
Suggested levels of progression are listed below, with example activities:
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Jumping/Plyometrics Level 1 and Level 2: games and activities that avoid monotonous drills,
such as an endless combination of running, jumping, and hopping (jumping rope, agility
courses, adding in low hurdles or cones, or relay races that include cutting and rotation).
Lower Body Strength Level 1: squats, lunging, supine bridging, standing on one leg.
Upper Body Strength Level 1 and Level 2: bodyweight push-ups, pull-ups, handstands, monkey
bars/jungle gym, climbing rope, throwing balls.
Core Training Level 1: exercises that test stability with short durations (front plank)
Example Session for Phase 2
(*Note: at this phase coaches should not define a session as "training" or focus on the
improvement of one particular physical characteristic)
10 minutes of active game activity to prepare for further exercise
Single Leg Standing Balance on the ground 3 x 30 sec each leg
Small Jumps in Place 3 x 20 sec
Standing Vertical Jump (CMJ) 3 x 5
Double Leg Bodyweight Squats 3 x 15
Handstand against a wall 3 x 20 sec
Bodyweight Forward Walking Lunge 3 x 10 each leg
Hanging from a Monkey or Pull-up Bar 3 x 10-30 sec
Front Plank 3 x 20 sec
Prone Bird Dog (opposite arm/leg extension) 3 x 10 each side
Stomach Squeeze (bracing) 3 x 10 sec
Cone Agility Running Relay Race
Walking Recovery
Static Stretching
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The Fast and Female program incorporates many creative exercises focused on basic motor skills, improving
ABC’s and inspiring passion for fitness and the sport (Tom Kelly photos)
PHASE 3—AGES 10-14
Multiple-sport participation and enjoyment in physical activity and outdoor recreation; emphasis
on training instead of competition; strength activities using body weight or light external
resistance (stability balls, medicine balls, and dumbbells, no large barbells, no machines);
introduction of Olympic lifting technique using dowel/broomstick only; Jumping/plyometrics
training should include teaching of proper landing mechanics, change of direction and body
control, and methods for deceleration; strength training should emphasize completing more reps
(endurance) instead of higher intensity (strength).
Suggested levels of progression are listed below, with example activities:
Jumping/Plyometrics Level 1 and Level 2: micro- and power-plyos using bodyweight or minimal
equipment (agility ladder, small hurdles of 6-12", jump rope, small boxes of 6-12"); ladder, cone
agility drills, single leg jump rope, light and quick box jumps.
Lower Body Strength Level 1and Level 2: broomstick Olympic lifts teaching progressions,
medicine ball lunge rotation, DB goblet squats, stability ball leg curl.
Upper Body Strength Level 1 and Level 2: push-ups, pull-ups, medicine ball throws, basic lifts
with dumbbells.
Core Training Level 1 and Level 2: Front plank, pike-ups, bridging for time.
Example "strength training" session – Phase 3
10 minutes of active game activity or cardio exercise to prepare for session
3-4 dynamic stretching drills
3-4 active movement drills (skipping, light jumps, shuffles, carioca)
Jump Rope 3 x 30 sec
Standing Broad Jump 3 x 5
Tuck Jumps 3 x 5
Double Leg Squat with dumbbells 3 x 15 Light
Push-ups 3 x 15
Lateral Lunge with medicine ball 3 x 10 each leg
Pull-ups or Horizontal Pull-ups 3 x 6-10
Double Leg Prone Bridging 3 x 20
Front Plank 3 x 30 sec
Ab Crunches 3 x 15
Side Plank 3 x 15 sec each side
Prone Bird Dog (opposite arm/leg extension) 3 x 15 each side
Light Jogging Recovery
Static Stretching
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PHASE
4—AGES
11-15
PHASE
4 –AGES
11-15 YEARS
Continue to play 1-2 other sports, with physical training 1-3 times per week. Once girls have
surpassed Peak Height Velocity (PHV), increase emphasis on strength training using both body
weight and external resistance (medicine balls, dumbbells, and light barbells). Boys should
continue previous recommendations. Heavier dumbbells can be included for upper body work,
and lower body strength training should
demand both double- and single-leg
exercises. Continue work with Olympic
lifting technique (broomstick/dowel) and
plyometrics, including microplyos,
power/explosive plyos off the ground, small
hurdles or boxes (6-18"), and refining of
landing mechanics. Strength training should
include both medium- and high-rep
exercises, with small increases in weight
and intensity. Jumping, speed, and agility
work can also include competitions and
Cones, ball, hurdles, and box – oh my! Fast and Female
games to challenge individual skill levels.
program (Tom Kelly photo)
Suggested levels of progression are listed below, with example activities:
Jumping/Plyometrics Level 2 and Level 3: changing patterns for jump rope, broad jumps, tuck
jumps, single leg landings, single leg hops over small hurdles.
Lower Body Strength Level 2 and Level 3: broomstick Olympic lifts teaching progressions,
single leg bodyweight squats, barbell back squats, DB lunges and step-ups, DB RDL.
Upper Body Strength Level 2 and Level 3: heavier weights for DB lifts (bench press, bent row,
shoulder press), bodyweight (pull-ups), challenge coordination (rings, bars, handstands).
Core Training Levels 1-3: Side plank, hanging knee raises, medicine ball or cable wood chop.
Example Strength Training session – Phase 4
10 minutes of active game activity or cardio exercise to prepare for session
3-4 dynamic stretching drills
3-4 active movement drills (skipping, light jumps, shuffles, carioca)
Quick Box Jumps (12" box) 3 x 20
Single Leg Jump Rope 3 x 20 sec each leg
Standing Triple Jump x 5
Olympic Lifting Teaching Progressions with dowel
Double Leg Squat with dumbbells 3 x 10 Medium
Push-ups with feet on box 3 x 15
Multi-directional Lunge with dumbbells 3 x 10 each leg Light
Pull-ups or Horizontal Pull-ups 3 x 8-12
Romanian Deadlift (RDL) with dumbbells 3 x 10 Medium
Stability Ball Hamstring Curl 3 x 12
Front Plank 3 x 45 sec
Standing Medicine Ball Twist Toss 3 x 10 each side Light
Side Plank 3 x 30 sec each side
Glute Ham Back Extension Hold 3 x 30 sec
Light Jogging Recovery
Static Stretching
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PHASE 5—AGES 12-17
Participate in other activities with an emphasis toward one sport season, allowing the others to
complement the primary sport. Encourage regular sessions of deliberate physical training (3-4
per week). Include higher volumes and intensity of strength training, emphasizing a set of
"primary lifts" that strengthen the entire body and consider movement instead of muscles. Boys
should begin squatting and Olympic lifting progressions with a light barbell, while girls can
continue progressing and increase loading. Continue the use of dumbbells and medicine balls
for the lower and upper body movements. Utilize plyometrics that demand maximal efforts,
including jumping onto a box, over a track hurdle, or for maximal distance. Measuring distance
jumped can provide feedback and motivation for practice.
Suggested levels of progression are listed below, with example activities:
Jumping/Plyometrics Level 3 and Level 4: jumping over a hurdle, stair jumps, single leg stair
hops, jump rope double-unders, triple broad jumps, single leg hops over small hurdles.
Lower Body Strength Level 2 and Level 3: broomstick or training bar Olympic lift progressions
and complexes, barbell deadlifts and front squats, DB Bulgarian split squats, DB lunges and
step-ups, DB single-leg RDL.
Upper Body Strength Level 3 and Level 4: DB and Barbell lifts (DB push press, DB alternating
bench press, barbell shoulder press) and challenging bodyweight movements (dips, handstand
push-ups, max pull-ups in 30 seconds).
Core Training Levels 1-3: Single leg front plank, hanging leg raises, cable no-rotation chops.
Example Strength Training session – Phase 5
10-15 minutes cardio exercise to prepare for session
4-5 dynamic stretching drills
3-4 active movement drills (skipping, light jumps, shuffles, carioca)
Quick Box Jumps (18" box) 3 x 15
Track Hurdle Jumps 4 x 6
Training Bar Hang Power Cleans 4 x 5
Barbell Back Squat 1 x 10 Light, 1 x 8 Medium, 1 x 6 Heavy
DB Chest Press 3 x 10
Bodyweight Single Leg Squats 3 x 12 each leg Light
Chin-ups 3 x 8-12
Romanian Deadlift (RDL) with dumbbells 3 x 10 Medium
Stability Ball Hamstring Curl 3 x 15
Stability Ball Roll-outs 3 x 8
Standing Cable Woodchop 3 x 10 each side Medium
Side Plank 3 x 45 sec each side
Glute Ham Back Extensions 3 x 15
Light Jogging Recovery
Static Stretching
Post-workout Snack
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PHASE
6 –AGES
16+ YEARS
PHASE
6—AGES
16+
Schedule regular physical training sessions for strength, power, and fitness, often 3-5 times per
week. Girls should feel competent and confident with heavy weight training and plyometrics to
improve strength and power. Boys should continue to increase both volume and intensity for
strength and power exercises. Olympic lifts should have prescribed loading zones and primary
lifts should have prescribed weights from a percentage of an estimated max. Plyometrics can
begin to include small-caliber depth jumps (~12-18"), bounding, and light weighted jumps
(adding 5-10% of bodyweight).
Suggested levels of progression are listed below, with example activities:
Jumping/Plyometrics Levels 3-5: tall box jumps, double-stair jumps, single leg lateral 6" hurdle
hops, bounding, depth jumps, DB weighted jumps.
Lower Body Strength Level 3 and Level 4: Barbell Olympic lifts, barbell squat jumps, barbell
squats and lunges, DB single leg squats, and barbell RDLs.
Upper Body Strength Level 4: Barbell push press, weighted pull-ups, DB Split Jerk.
Core Training Levels 1-4: Weighted front plank, hanging leg raises, Farmer's walks.
Example Strength Training session – Phase 6
10-15 minutes cardio exercise to prepare for session
4-5 dynamic stretching drills
3-4 active movement drills (skipping, light jumps, shuffles, carioca)
CMJ onto Tall Plyo Box 3 x 5
Bounding 4 x 20 meters
DB Weighted Jumps 3 x 5 Light
Barbell Power Cleans 4 x 4 Medium-Heavy
Barbell Back Squat 3 x 6 Medium-Heavy
DB Push Press 3 x 6
DB Split Squats 3 x 8 each leg Medium
Weighted Pull-ups 3 x 6
Barbell Stiff-leg Deadlift (RDL) 3 x 8 Medium
Stability Ball Single Leg Hamstring Curl 3 x 12 each leg
Hanging Leg Raise (toes to bar) 3 x 10
Standing Cable No-rotation Woodchop 3 x 12 each side Light
Single Arm Farmer's Walk 3 x 30 meters each side
Glute Ham Back Extensions 3 x 20
Light Jogging Recovery
Static Stretching
Post-workout Snack
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INTEGRATING STRENGTH TRAINING INTO THE NORDIC SKIER'S TRAINING
Annual Planning and Yearly Periodization
Strength training, mobility, and explosive power exercises will often mirror the overall flow of an
annual training cycle: general/fundamental preparation, followed by specific training, followed by
in-season maintenance and peaking, followed by a transition period of active rest during the offseason. Each of these phases should have a specific purpose, measurable goals, and means of
assessing how the athletes are adapting to the various training stimuli. Like any physical
attribute (endurance, speed, anaerobic intensity), strength should be an integral part of the
training plan ALL YEAR long. The specific priority of strength training may shift during certain
periods of the year, but strength training should be conducted throughout the entire year.
Organizing Training Blocks or Phases
Often consisting of four-to-six weeks at a time, the training "block" or "phase" will incorporate
exercises and sessions that follow one or two guiding themes. Although all physical
characteristics are always trained, each block should seek to improve a particular physical
attribute while also laying the groundwork upon which to build future training.
Listed below is an example of how a strength-training program for a high school or college
Nordic skier might be organized:
1) General Preparation Phase
i) Anatomical Adaptation – (approximately early May)
(a) 2-3 sessions per week on non-consecutive days
(b) 4-8 weeks in duration, low intensity and medium-high volume, low mental
energy required for sessions, short training sessions
(c) Emphasis on basic movements, bodyweight exercises, mobility/corrective
exercises, and start teaching more advanced movements
ii) Strength One (base strength) – (approximately June)
(a) 2 sessions per week on non-consecutive days
(b) 4-6 weeks in duration, medium intensity and high volume, moderate mental
energy demands, medium time demands for sessions
(c) Emphasis on technique and proficiency with primary exercises, upper and
lower body strength with hypertrophy when needed, increased physical
demands, and development of regular structure to dryland training
iii) Strength Two (max strength)
(a) 3 sessions per week on non-consecutive days
(b) 4-6 weeks in duration, high intensity and low volume, high mental energy
demands, longer rest periods between sets (might make sessions longer
even with low volume)
(c) Emphasis on heavy loading and high intensity exercises, high loading for
upper and lower body strength, very high physical demands
iv) Power One (fundamentals) – (approximately August)
(a) 2-3 sessions per week on non-consecutive days
(b) 3-5 weeks in duration, low intensity and medium volume, low mental energy
demands, medium rest periods between sets
(c) Emphasis on fundamental techniques for jumping and landing, balance, body
control, and coordination
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2) Specific Preparation Phase
i) Strength Three (specific strength) – (approximately September)
(a) 2-3 sessions per week on non-consecutive days
(b) 4-6 weeks in duration, high intensity and medium volume, moderate mental
energy demands
(c) Emphasis on single-leg strength and upper body pulling strength, lower
volume than the General Prep Phase
ii) Power Two (high intensity)
(a) 2 sessions per week on non-consecutive days
(b) 4-6 weeks in duration, high intensity and low volume, high mental energy
demands, long rest periods between sets
(c) Emphasis on power, explosiveness, and speed while maintaining optimal
body positions
3) In-season Program – (approximately December)
(a) 1-2 times per week, often 4-5 days out from competition
(b) Emphasis on maintenance of developed strength and power qualities with an
eye toward peaking for major competitions
(c) Weekly variation in program volume to avoid staleness or soreness
(d) Frequent stimulus of mobility and recovery sessions
4) Transition/Off-season – (April)
(a) Two-to-three week true "off-season" between sport seasons
(b) Emphasis on active recovery and recreational physical activity, especially
away from competitive or structured programs
With skiing, it is common to train with a certain emphasis that will follow and complement the
athlete's cardiorespiratory training of cross-country. For example, heavy strength training often
coincides with high-volume roller skiing, cycling, and running, while plyometrics and highvelocity explosive movements pair well with high-intensity speed ski work. While it may seem
contradictory to train heavy strength alongside high volume-low intensity endurance training, it is
important to remember the ultimate goals and recognize the impact that one training session
has another. Long duration cardiorespiratory sessions may leave some general fatigue, but this
will have mild to moderate impacts on heavy, low-volume strength training. The same
endurance session, however, may leave an athlete feeling "flat" or "heavy" when attempting
quick, explosive plyometrics. It is for these reasons that ski coaches need to make sure that all
components of training complement each other, that "all the pieces fit together," so to speak.
Weekly Planning and Periodization
Strength training should complement the cross-country training schedule and also consider
extraneous stressors. For example, coaches will often match weekly volume or intensity of all
training. Blocks or phases involving high volumes of low-intensity skiing could include strength
training with lower intensity and higher volume as well as technique work. Intensity blocks
should include higher-intensity weight training with lower sets and reps, and an attempt to
produce maximal power/speed of movement. A 4-week training block will often follow a pattern
of progressively more difficult weeks to induce a training stress, and the following training block
will repeat this pattern. This develops a structure where the athlete is under higher volumes of
stress for 3-4 weeks in a row, with a lighter week for recovery in between blocks.
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Daily Planning and Individual Sessions
Suggested template for strength training session:
1. Active Dynamic Warm-up
2. Plyometrics or explosive exercises
3. Multi-joint primary strength exercises
4. Multi-joint or single-joint secondary strength exercises
5. "Pre-hab" exercises to address individual weaknesses
6. "Core" and postural stability training
7. Recovery Cool-down
8. Foam rolling and static stretching
9. Review of the session for education and feedback
Principles of Strength Training
Any training stimulus an athlete undertakes will cause stress. The body will respond in kind by
trying to grow more muscle, further develop neural pathways, or develop means of supplying
more energy for activity. This positive adaptation to training can only occur when adequate
recovery is allowed. With this adaptation, further progression of the training stimuli is required
in order to see further improvements. This also requires consistency of training to build a
physical base without regression. The body will adapt to the exercises and demands imposed
upon on it, also known as specificity or the S.A.I.D. Principle (Specific Adaptation to Imposed
Demands).
Measuring and Assessing Daily Strength Training Sessions
In order for coaches to appropriately program and adjust training, coaches must know what their
athletes are doing and how the athletes respond to various stimuli. Coaches should invest their
time by monitoring training loads and using this information to influence the path of
development. In the weight room, for example, strength coaches typically measuring an
athlete's training load for each exercise by calculating the number of sets, repetitions, and
intensity, or put more simply: Sets x Reps x Load. Load can be counted as the actual weight
used (in pounds or kilograms), or more often, as the percentage of weight used in comparison
to the athlete's one repetition maximum, or 1-RM. For example, an athlete might perform 4 sets
of 3 repetitions each, at 80% of his/her 1-RM, which is calculated as: 4 x 3 x 80 = 960. Each
exercise load number is then added up to provide a number for the training day, and each
training day added up to provide a number for the week. It is important to mention that these
numbers provide the coach with a roadmap of monitoring the athletes, but that numbers do not
take into account the subjective feelings of the athlete or the perceived difficulty of the
prescribed training. Extraneous stressors at home or in school can also influence the health and
training status of the athlete. Additionally, coaches working with younger athletes might benefit
from prescribing "Training Zones" instead of specific weights from a measured One-Rep Max.
"Load Zone" training (e.g. light, medium, heavy) can direct the training while allowing for
individual variation and accommodating daily fatigue or readiness.
Cross-country skiers commonly measure their training load in time and intensity, often using
minutes or hours per session. More information about measuring Training Load is outlined in
the Level 100 manual. It is important to remember that both time and intensity are important to
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monitor, in order to acquire the cumulative effect. Remember that full recovery between sets
and exercises is needed to elicit and maximize the positive results of training.
Using training volume alone (hours) is challenging when evaluating and periodizing strength
routines. As discussed, the focus on strength training is on quality of movement with FULL
recovery between sets. To watch an athlete during a strength session, one would see that
much of the time spent in the gym seems "idle" because a majority of time is spent recovering.
We previously outlined the helpful hint that for every block of time spent actively lifting, an
athlete should recover for approximately 3 times. For example, an average set of squats takes
approximately 45 seconds of “on time,” and then should be followed by 2-3 minutes to allow for
full recovery. How would you plan this time? How would you progress and periodize your
strength routine in this fashion? Training volume in hours can be used with effective
communication between coach and athlete ONLY if all four (4) training factors are taken under
consideration. However, there may be better methods to plan and evaluate.
Cross-country ski coaches commonly work with strength coaches for
assistance with general strength routines. It is critical that there is an
effective line of communication between the strength coach, the crosscountry ski coach, and all the athletes. The strength routine needs to
complement and coincide with the sport-specific training plan to make
one succinct and comprehensive plan. Traditionally, a hard week of
training means that both the sport-specific training and the general
strength training sessions are high in volume and/or intensity, while easy
weeks mean both general strength and sport-specific training will be
easy. Also, the athlete needs to understand the objective of each strength
session and how it fits into the overall performance training plan. An
“increase” in the weight room might increase intensity, and can be
Jesse Diggins
strength training at
independent of time. An athlete might simply add more weight to a
2015 summer Camp
strength routine and an “easy” training session in the weight room may
(USSA photo)
have just become a medium or hard session. As discussed earlier in the
Effective Performance Training Plan Design section, training should be
measured in terms of energy management. It is important to look not only at total time but also
the effort required for each individual component of training. Energy management is also
specific to an individual athlete, and is relative to the amount of effort that the athlete must put
forth to execute the task. A particular amount of weight to lift for one athlete may be hard, while
the same weight may be easy for another.
Practical Examples of Measuring and Assessing Daily Strength Training Sessions
Let’s look at two methods of evaluating a general strength session with respect to the four main
factors in designing a training plan (How much, How well, How hard, and Training Type). First,
we will look at the classic method strength coaches use to plan strength sessions utilizing the
number of set, repetitions, and intensity (1-RM). Second, we will outline strength from a training
load standpoint.
Classic general strength training design, for the daily session:
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1.
2.
3.
4.
How Well – Quality of movement is paramount in strength training (remember, we
are training movements, not muscle). Practice makes permanent, and we need to
ensure that we are practicing the right movement and doing so correctly. This
places a premium on technique and ensuring full recovery prior to the execution of
the next set.
How Hard – Using Load Zones or percentages of 1-RM from previous testing.
How Much – Counting and calculating sets, repetitions, and exercises for each
session. Coaches should also consider the number of weight sessions per week.
Training Type – This will include the progression of exercises (general to specific,
slow to fast, simple to complex) and the selection of exercises for each individual
athlete.
Evaluating the general strength training daily session using Training Load:
1.
2.
3.
4.
How Well – Quality of movement is paramount is strength training (training
movements, not muscle). Practice makes permanent, and we need to ensure that
we are practicing the right movement and doing so correctly. Remember to place
a premium on technique and ensuring full recovery prior to the next set.
How Hard – Define the effort put forth in the session using a 1-10 scale.
How Much – Coaches can look at the amount of “on-time” for an exercise. The
amount of time executing exercise is approximately 1/3 of the total time in the
weight room. Note: that this approximate measure of training volume, and is not
accurate when evaluating circuit strength sessions. Circuits often include much
less recovery as witnessed in the example below.
Training Type – This will include the progression of exercises (general to specific,
slow to fast, simple to complex) and the selection of exercises for each individual
athlete.
TRAINING SESSION
1.5 strength session - Full resting
recovery between sets
1/3 time exercising
Full resting recovery
TRAINING SESSION
3 X 15 minutes of Circuit Strength
with 10 minutes resting recovery
3 X 15 minutes circuit
Full resting recovery
Total Volume (TV)
(hrs)
0.50
Total Volume (TV)
(hrs)
0.75
Training Intensity
(TI) (1-10)
6
Training Intensity
(TI) (1-10)
7
Training Load (TL)
(TV X TI)
3.00
0.00
3.00
TOTAL TL
Training Load (TL)
(TV X TI)
5.25
0.00
5.25
TOTAL TL
Likely, the “best method” is to use both systems by providing athletes with daily strength training
sessions that outline the number of sets, repetitions, and amount of weight to lift for each
exercise. Then, coaches should incorporate strength sessions into the sport-specific plan and
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have the athletes log their general strength training in a consistent manner like training volume
or training load. Training load may be better for recording strength because it takes into
account BOTH time and intensity to measure the cumulative effort or stress. As pointed out
previously, training volume or duration in the weight room may or may not be an indication of
the overall exertion put forth.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Mobility
Adequate movement of muscles and joints through a proper range
of motion is important for sport performance and injury prevention.
"Flexibility" is usually defined as the length of a muscle at the end
range of motion, while "mobility" is usually thought of as the
movement of a bony joint. It is important for coaches to recognize
the difference between the two terms, and the ways that an
individual athlete might present each. For example, having a good
deal of hamstring flexibility will allow an athlete to perform a supine
straight leg raise past 90° at the hip, or flex forward to touch their
It is important to
toes without their knees in hyperextension. However, an athlete
incorporate flexibility and
with excessive mobility of the shoulder might find that it subluxes
mobility appropriately and
knowledgeably with strength
(dislocates) frequently and painfully. Coaches should be aware of
training – Jesse Diggins and
the distinction between muscle flexibility and joint mobility when
Erika Flowers at 2015
designing programs for their athletes. Adolescent females will
summer camp (USSA photo)
often present with hypermobility of various joints, while males will
often present with poor flexibility. Coaches should be cautious when providing exercises for the
back and shoulders, as these areas are often mobilized incorrectly or inappropriately,
sometimes resulting in pain or permanent injury.
Static Stretching, the practice of applying a minimal stretch to a muscle and holding for an
extended period of time (60+ seconds) is a great way to develop longer muscle length and
improved range of motion. This type of stretching is appropriate after training sessions, when
the muscle is physically warm and compliant. Static stretching should not be performed before
activity that requires strength, explosiveness, or high degrees of coordination, as static
stretching has been shown to decrease force and power output in the short-term.
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With cross country skiers, the condition of kyphosis (rounded back) is frequently stimulated with
roller skiing, cycling, and the typical American lifestyle of hunching over a computer screen and
sitting with poor posture. This leads many athletes to have an almost permanent posture of the
shoulders forward, the upper back rounded, and the anterior compartment (abs to thighs) in a
shortened position. This leads to athletes with very tight quads, abdominals, and hip flexors, and
often weak or under-utilized low back and posterior chain muscles (glutes and hamstrings). For
these reasons, it is recommended that almost all nordic skiers pay particular attention to
stretching their hips and quadriceps while strengthening their glutes and hamstrings. Walking
and sitting with a tall, upright posture is also recommended.
The USSA Sport Science staff performs the Functional Movement Screen™ (FMS) on all
athletes named to the national team roster, usually 2-3 times per year. While not necessarily a
diagnostic tool, the FMS provides the strength coach with a general overview of "functional
limitations and asymmetries" (FMS website), which can provide information that assists with the
development of training programs. It is important to note that USSA coaches work closely with
qualified Sports Medicine staff to evaluate athlete movement patterns and address existing
injury concerns, and that the FMS does not diagnose injuries or suggest treatment for physical
ailments. The Overhead Deep Squat, Shoulder Mobility, and Active Straight-Leg Raise
assessments can provide valuable information about a cross country skier's overall mobility
status. U.S. Ski Team athletes who have improved their squatting mechanics, shoulder mobility,
and hamstring range of motion have seen improved strength training technique and decreased
certain painful problem areas.
Technique
In the weight room as on the ski course, technique and proper movement mechanics are an
integral part of optimal performance. Proper jumping and landing mechanics, proper Olympic
lifting and squatting technique, and appropriate coaching and instruction will allow the athlete to
see the most benefits from his/her time in the gym.
Strength training is a neural training component (like technique and speed), which requires fluid
and efficient movement patterns. Because the athlete will engrain these movements, it is the
role of the coach to ensure that all exercises in the strength routine are indeed “accurate.”
Quality of movement is critical, and therefore strength sessions should be well coached and well
supervised by competent coaches.
Cross-country ski coaches are encouraged to establish and develop their own personal
technique in the weight room, as experience is often the best teacher. Coaches who frequently
lift weights not only develop their own personal health, but set the example for their athletes and
better develop a personal sense of how an exercise is performed or how it feels. Coaches who
wish to include the highly beneficial Olympic lifts and their progressions (snatch, clean, jerk)
should seek out a qualified Olympic weightlifting coach for personal instruction. USA
Weightlifting-certified coaches are highly recommended.
Postural Strength and Stability
"Core training" was popularized in the early 1990s with the development of various exercise
equipment, videos, classes, and late-night infomercials designed to sell the American public an
exercise product. In reality, the "core" consists of 29 pairs of muscles that stabilize the spine,
pelvis, and hips, and connect the weight-bearing lower body to the highly specialized upper
body. Essentially connecting and controlling everything between the ribs and the knees, these
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postural support and stability muscles allow standing posture, walking and running gait, change
of direction, and a stable platform for the application of force from the ground through the upperbody extremities. It is important for ski coaches to remember (and communicate to the athletes)
that the "core" is constantly being used, whether intentionally through abdominal exercises, or
more functionally, through sport activity or strength training. The erroneous concept that supine
abdominal crunches properly develop the "core" for skiing only reinforces the misconception of
training isolated muscle actions while lying on the floor. In reality, skiing and the majority of sport
activity takes place while standing on one or two legs, and often resisting movement or rotation.
The frequent prescription of hundreds of flexion reps (e.g. sit-ups) exposes the athlete to the
potential for muscle imbalances (anterior to posterior) and low-back pain. Postural stability
exercises should seek to develop all muscles used for sporting movements, especially those
that provide stability at the hips and torso. Athletes who improve stability can stay stacked over
REFERENCES:
"Force." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2014. <http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/force>.
"Velocity." Merriam-Webster.com. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 12 Aug. 2014. <http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/velocity>.v
Dumke, C.L., Pfaffenroth, C.M., McBride, J.M., & McCauley, G.O. (2010). Relationship between muscle strength, power
and stiffness and running economy in trained male runners. International Journal of Sports Physiology and
Performance, 5(2), 249-61.
Faigenbaum, A.D. (1993). PREPUBESCENT: Strength Training: A guide for teachers and coaches. Strength &
Conditioning Journal, 15(5), 20-29.
Faigenbaum, A.D. (1995). Psychosocial benefits of prepubescent strength training. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 17(2),
28-32.
Faigenbaum, A.D., & Schram, J. (2004). Can resistance training reduce injuries in youth sports? Strength & Conditioning
Journal, 26(3), 16-21.
Faigenbaum, A.D., Kraemer, W.J., Blimkie, C.J., Jeffreys, I., Micheli, L.J., Nitka, M., & Rowland, T.W. (2009). Youth
resistance training: updated position statement paper from the National Strength and Conditioning Association.
The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23, S60-S79.
Fouré, A., Nordez, A., & Cornu, C. (2010). Plyometric training effects on Achilles tendon stiffness and dissipative
properties. Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(3), 849-854.
Gambetta, V., & Radcliffe, J.C. (2002). Gambetta Method: Common sense guide to functional training for athletic
performance. Gambetta Sports Training Systems.
Haff, G.G. (2012). Training principles for power. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 34(6), 2-12.
http://www.functionalmovement.com/fms, "What is FMS?"
Lloyd, R. S., Meyers, R. W., & Oliver, J. L. (2011). The natural development and trainability of plyometric ability during
childhood. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 33(2), 23.
Lloyd, R.S., Meyers, R.W., & Oliver, J.L. (2011). The natural development and trainability of plyometric ability during
childhood. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 33(2), 23-32.
Paavolainen, L., Häkkinen, K., Hämäläinen, I., Nummela, A., & Rusko, H. (1999). Explosive-strength training improves 5km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. Journal of Applied Physiology, 86(5), 15271533.
a ski, produce more force into the ground without wasting energy, and maintain optimal posture
for efficient skiing at the end of a race.
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"SUGGESTED YOUTH-BASED PLYOMETRIC EXERCISE MODEL"
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"Although a number of publications have suggested appropriate plyometric guidelines for
children (9), it was deemed necessary to formalize a more comprehensive progression model
(Figure 1), which corresponds with developmental stages aligned with the LTAD model (1). It is
intended that this progression model will provide coaches with a more strategic approach to
youth plyometric program design. Specifically, the model is designed to give coaches clear and
simple guidelines to follow based on scientific theory and evidence, without being overly
prescriptive, thus allowing coaches to implement the information in a way specific to the needs
of individual athletes" (Faigenbaum, Kraemer, Blimkie, Jeffreys, Micheli, Nitka, & Rowland,
2009).
"It is the current position of the NSCA that:
1. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program is relatively safe for youth.
2. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can enhance the muscular
strength and power of youth.
3. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can improve the
cardiovascular risk profile of youth.
4. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can improve motor skill
performance and may contribute to enhanced sports performance of youth.
5. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can increase a young
athlete’s resistance to sports-related injuries.
6. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can help improve the
psychosocial well-being of youth.
7. A properly designed and supervised resistance training program can help promote and
develop exercise habits during childhood and adolescence."
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The Bridge Between Performance and Rehabilitation
The next two sections Common Ski Injuries & Proactive Measures (Tara Fontenot) and Safe,
Specific Core Conditioning for Nordic Skiing (Kurt Jepson) bridge the gap between strength
training for sport performance and rehabilitation training. Rehabilitation training may be
categorized as “return to sport” as a result of an injury or may be targeting a common
biomechanical deficiency (like valgus knee or a shoulder impingement) that has not caused an
athlete to stop skiing, however is limiting performance and has a high likelihood for an overuse
injury in the long term.
Rehabilitation training and sport performance training are indistinguishable. They are, for all
practical purposes, one in the same. Effective performance training teaches efficient movement
patterning which, in turn, will address athlete deficiencies that can later cause injury. In reverse,
rehabilitation training strengthens the athlete back to the arena of sport and competition. Many
of the exercises in “rehab” will be continued and progressed into an athlete’s performance
training routine. This is exactly how the strength department and rehabilitation department work
side-by-side in the USSA Center of Excellence. It is not coincidental these two departments are
located side-by-side one another in our facility.
The intent of the next two articles is to do the following:
1. Outline common deficiencies in Cross Country skiers.
2. Provide proactive measures through exercises and exercise progressions to address
these specific issues.
3. Provide exercises and exercise progressions that enhance performance and minimize
injury.
Michael Naperalsky’s exercises can be utilized as the main body of strength training routines.
Then Tara and Kurt’s exercises can be implemented to augment Michael’s routines to address
individual biomechanical or rehabilitation needs. Furthermore, Mike Bahn’s writing in Section 3
– Technical & Tactical Emphasis on developing GENERAL PHYSICAL COMPETENCY will
directly support Michael’s, Tara’s, and Kurt’s writings and outlines a functional movement
assessment (FMA) process to assess whether an athlete has any potential deficiencies. As a
coach, you need to be observant of each athlete’s individual needs. This is particularly true with
motor learning and developing efficient movement patterns.
Kurt Jepson’s article on core conditioning is from the perspective of a physical therapist and is
clinician-based in nature. We encourage you, as a coach, to not get bogged down in the
medical terminology. Instead, we hope you get a general understanding that core training or a
better term (as just used by Michael Naperalsky), “postural stabilization,” can have pitfalls if
done improperly. Kurt’s exercises and progressions at the end of his section provide an
excellent guideline how to incorporate age-appropriate core training into your strength routine.
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Following is a simplified explanation of what the “core” is, what the fundamental functions of the
core are, and a generalized training sequence of the core.
WHAT IS THE CORE?
The term “core” itself is nondescript and the term “core training” has been replaced, in all
practical settings, with “postural stabilization training.” The term “core” is a non-scientific name
for the trunk of the body. More specifically, the core is the proximal (near the center) portion of
the body, not including the arms and legs.
There are many definitions to answer what the core is, however we, as coaches, should not get
mired in the term core or the various detailed definitions of core. Always remember that the
body works as a whole. To affix to any single part, or segment of the body does a disservice to
our athletes when learning full athletic movement patterns.
With that preface, according to Kibler, the core includes the region of the spine, hips, and pelvis,
proximal lower limb and abdominal structure (2006). The musculature of the core includes the
muscles of the trunk and pelvis that are responsible for the maintenance of stability of the spine
and pelvis and help in the generation and transfer of energy from large (proximal) to small
(distal) body parts during sport activities.
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE CORE?
The primary role of the core is respiration and secondly, to control movement. We will focus on
the role of movement control primarily but will speak briefly about respiration towards the end of
this section.
Kibler states that the core's function is to stabilize, and control the position, and motion of the
trunk over the pelvis (2006). This is to allow optimum production, transfer and control of force
and motion to the extremities during active movement such as running, throwing, and skiing. A
primary core functions is to connect the lower and upper limbs to integrate and synchronize
multiple body parts into whole body athletic movement (kinetic chain). Hodges and Richardson
examined the sequence of muscle activation during whole body movement and found that some
of the core stabilizers were consistently activated before any limb movements (1997). Their
findings support the theory that movement control and stability are developed in a CORE-TOEXTREMITY (proximal-distal) and cephalocaudal (head-to-toe) manner (Hodges et al., 1997;
Cook, 2001).
According to Dr. Stuart McGill, the job of the inner core is to stabilize and allow for segmented
movement of the spine, while the job of the outer core in conjunction with the inner core is to
prevent flexion, extension and rotation of the spine (Shveyd, 2014).
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Function of the Core as it relates to Athletic Performance:





Respiration (breathing)
Postural Control
Joint/segment stabilization
Movement generation
Energy Generation and Energy transfer for (Okada, 2011):
o Optimal production of force
o Optimal transfer of force
o Optimal control of force and motion to the terminal segments of the body during
an integrated kinetic chain activity
The first function of the core is breathing. There is a great deal of controversial information
discussing the deliberate tensioning of the abdominals defined as "bracing, " hollowing,"
"drawing-in," or "setting" the abdominals as an initial step in athletic movement, especially when
addressing core strengthening. Our viewpoint is that such cueing is unnecessary. An athlete
will naturally ready themselves for athletic movement by first placing themselves in a natural
athletic stance. Consider if an athlete “readies” himself or herself in preparation to catch a chest
pass in basketball. They will natural acquire an athletic stance and apply the appropriate
amount of tension to the lower body, core and upper body in preparation to safely decelerate
and catch the ball.
The concern we have is that by placing focus on actively bracing the abdominals, we affix the
attention of our athlete's to one region of the body or one muscle group. The result of whole,
full, fluid, and interconnected movement of the body may be compromised.
Clearly, there is a need for rhythmic breathing for the obvious reason of providing oxygen to the
brain and working muscles. Athletes can hold their breath for extended periods of time during
intense concentration in exercise. This is prevalent when learning new activities. A common
example is when athletes are learning new core bracing exercises (for example, prone
plank). An intentional cue to an athlete "to breathe" is often all that is needed to remind them to
naturally breathe. In summary, there is no need to cue the attention of your athletes to brace
their core as the first step in conducting an exercise, and the only time that breathing needs to
be addressed by the coach is when your athlete is so focused that their breathing is erratic or
they are holding their breathe.
WHAT ARE THE SEQUENTIAL STEPS TO TRAIN AND STRNEGTH THE CORE?
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The core consists not only of the active joints, bones, and muscles but also includes the passive
tissues of the region. Often forgotten, but critically important, to the function of movement is the
neural elements. Stability of the spine is dependent on muscular strength as well as
proper sensory input that alert the central nervous system about interactions between the body
and the environment (Akuthota, 2008).
Therefore core strength routines must include the active joints, bones, fascia, and muscles as
well as the neural (sensory and motor) components to train efficient and effective movement.
Gary Cook outlines four main developmental positions that provide a logical progression for
core conditioning (Shveyd, 2014).
 Supine (lying face-up)
 Prone (lying face down
 Quadruped (kneeling on all four’s)
 Standing
Dr. Stuart McGill’s “Big 3” or “Big 4” exercises directly supports Gary Cook’s four main
developmental positions. McGill’s “Big 4 exercises are (Akuthota, 2008):



Curl-up
Side-bridge
Bird Dog (quadruped position with alternating arm and leg)
Later McGill added/ replaced the curl-up with the PRONE PLANK. The reason for this is that
curl-ups have a negative orthopedic cost, which is a major premise of Kurt Jepson’s writing.
Note that Michael Naperalsky has curl-ups in his
strength routines at early stages of development,
however removes them as the phase of athletic
development shift from general athleticism to skispecific training. As our authors state, Cross
Country skiers do hundreds even thousands of
trunk flexion when double poling. The focus in
general strength should be to balance this
repetitive movement.
Execution is critical – Sadie Bjornsen at 2015
summer camp (USSA photo)
Remember execution is critical, so following are important steps in the execution and
progression of these core exercises:
1. Find neutral spine position. What is “neutral?” Neutral is joint-neutral or halfway in
between the full range of joint motion (Akuthota, 2008; Shveyd, 2014). It’s not forward
or back. It’s in the middle. Consider the analogy of neural on your manual automobile
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
or motorcycle. Neutral is not engaged forward or reverse. It is your starting point
before the initiation of movement.
As McGill’s popular statement goes, “train the motion not muscle,” the focus should be
on efficient movement patterns, which means that your athletes should remain mindfully
aware (intrinsic feedback) of their body position and movements.
Strengthen and stabilize the four main developmental positions by including exercises
that transition from one developmental position to the next (Shveyd, 2014). For
example, one could add a transitional exercise that moved from prone plank to side
plank. Be creative.
Develop balance and coordination with various movements in all three planes.
Develop stability, balance, and coordination of movement before progressing to strength
and power development.
Progress the speed of movement and add acceleration, deceleration and dynamic
stabilization (Akuthota, 2008).
Add explosive movements such as jumps with two legs and then progressing to one leg
hops. Ensure athletes focus on postural control (Akuthota, 2008).
To conclude this intermediary piece, one can see that the steps for “core training” are virtually
the same as the steps Michael Naperalsky outlined in his general strength piece. That is not a
coincidence. Most traditional strength training exercises train both the proximal (“core”) and
distal (extremities) of the body together, which is the ultimate goal of fundamental athletic
movement. It is important to build your strength and rehabilitation programs with this very end
goal in mind. Tara and Kurt’s exercises and progression added to Michael’s strength routines
REFERENCES:
Bergmark, A., (1989) Stability of the lumbar spine. A study in mechanical engineering. Acta Orthopaedica Scandinavia 230(60)
(Supp.):20-24
Shveyd, L., (2014) Core composition and function: the core of 2014 part 1 and 2. Retrieved April 10, 2014 from
http://www.functionalmovement.com/articles/Fitness/
Kibler WB, Press P, & Sciascia A (2006). The role of core stability in athletic function. Sports Med 2006. 36:3, 189- 198
Okada, T., Huxel, K.C., and Nesser, T.W., (2011). Relationship between core stability, functional movement, and performance. J
Strength Cond Res 25(1): 252–261.
Akuthota, V., Ferreiro, A., Moore, T., & Fredericson, M. (2008) Core stability exercise principles. Current Sports Medicine Reports.
Vol. 7, No. 1, Feb; 7(1):39-44. doi:10.1097/01.CSMR.0000308663.13278.69.
Hodges PW, Richardson CA (1997) Contraction of the abdominal muscles associated with movement of the lower limb. Physical
Therapy 77: 132±144
Cook, G. (2001) Baseline sports-fitness testing. High Performance Sports Conditioning. B Foran, ed. Champlaign, IL: Human
Kinetics Inc., pp19-47.
will guide you to that end goal.
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Common Ski Injuries & Proactive Measures
Tara Fontenot
Cross country skiing is a unique sport in that it requires high demand of both the upper and
lower body systems. The classic ski technique mimics a reciprocal gait pattern that is engrained
as a central motor pattern very early on, enabling classic skiing to be taught at a young age.
This upper and lower body involvement, however, means that cross country skiers are
vulnerable to a wide variety of injuries, both chronic and traumatic.
Traumatic injuries can be catastrophic and often are unavoidable, like when Petra Majdic
suffered four broken ribs and a collapsed lung when she fell off the course in training at the
2010 Olympics. For the purposes of this discussion we will focus primarily on chronic injuries,
which make up the majority of injuries seen in cross country skiers and which often times are
avoidable. Many chronic injuries are the result of movement pattern dysfunctions or muscles
imbalances. Often these develop early in an
Postural Muscles
Phasic Muscles
athlete’s career and are unfortunately re-enforced
Shoulder/Arm
as they rise through the ranks.
Pectorals
Trapezius (middle)
To better understand the dynamics between
dysfunction and injury it is helpful to know more
about the different muscles in the body. Muscles
can be put into one of two categories, postural or
phasic. The main role of a postural muscle is to
sustain the body’s upright position (posture), and to
maintain your center of balance within gravity’s
field. Postural muscles are composed primarily of
slow twitch muscle fibers; they have greater
capacity for sustained, low intensity work and are
often prone to hyperactivity. Think of the muscles
in your body that you often complain of being tight
and sore. Typical ones include the upper trap (top
of your shoulders and behind your neck), hip
flexors, and calves. These are all postural muscles.
Levator Scapula
Trapezius (lower)
Trapezius (upper)
Triceps
Biceps
Deltoid
Wrist/Finger Flexors
Rotator Cuff
Trunk
Cervical Erector Spinae
Thoracic Erector Spinae
Lumbar Erector Spinae
Rectus Abdominus
Quadratus Lumborum
Tranverse Abdominus
Hip/Thigh
Hamstrings
Quad
Hip flexors
Gluteal muscles
Hip adductors
Piriformis
Lower leg/foot
Gastrocnemius
Tibialis Anterior
Soleus
Peroneals
Phasic muscles are more important for movement, and contain mostly fast twitch muscle fibers.
They fatigue easier and are also more prone to inhibition. The glut muscles are a good example
of phasic muscles. They are capable of producing a significant amount of power and are
important in stabilizing the hip when attempting any forward motion. These muscles are prone
to inhibition (or not working properly) in the face of fatigue or pain though, leading to hip drop
when running or skiing (this occurs when the hip opposite the weight bearing side drops each
time it is unweighted). These muscles are more likely to become weak, especially in the case of
injury. Imagine a joint with a bunch of tight, hyperactive muscles on one side and weak,
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inhibited muscles on the other side. This joint will likely not move as intended, and will be prone
to pain and injury.
Another important concept to consider when talking about injury is the role that loading plays in
injury. Imagine that injury/pain is a threshold, and to reach that threshold you need some
combination of both an abnormal movement pattern or muscle imbalance, and a load on that
body part. For example, picture an individual with extremely flat feet. If this person is
sedentary, they may never be injured or experience pain, because their load plus their
movement abnormality does not reach the threshold for injury. Now picture a world cup skier
who trains hundreds of hours a year. A much less significant movement abnormality is
necessary for this individual to become injured.
If you are reading this it is because you are interested in how to prevent injuries and optimize
performance in your athletes. There is no set of exercises or stretches prescribed that can
guarantee that an athlete does not get injured. However, by training the right muscles and
stretching/recovering appropriately, you can significantly reduce the risk of injury and improve
performance. In this section we will look at some common injuries that
skiers face and later we will discuss some common exercises to help
prevent these injuries.
Upper back/Neck pain
Many cross country skiers will complain of pain/tightness across their
mid/upper back. This is caused by several factors. Consider the body
position and the muscles used when double poling. Although proper
poling involves keeping the elbows in line with the trunk, too often we
see the shoulders rounded and the elbows forward (Fig 1). This
posture is also seen in an individual who is “slumped”. You will see
rounded shoulders, an excessive curve in their mid-back, and their
head is jutting forward. (Fig 2). This leads to tight and dominate
anterior (chest) musculature and weak mid back musculature. In
addition, the thoracic spine will become hypomobile, and in severe
cases over time the front part of the thoracic vertebra can actually
develop a wedge
fracture,
causing that
excessive
curve to be
irreversible
(Fig 3). This can
also be a
contributor to poor
lung function.
Figure 1
Figure 2
Figure 3
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Shoulder impingement
Shoulder impingement occurs when the bone at the top of the shoulder blade (the acromium)
and the end of your arm bone (the head of the humerus) hit each other when the arm is raised,
pinching the structures that live between those two bones, namely the tendons of the rotator cuff
and the biceps tendon (Fig 4). In less severe cases this can lead to tendonitis, while in more
severe, chronic cases it can lead to tearing of the rotator cuff. This is another injury easily
prevented by improved postural awareness and “setting” of the scapula. If the shoulder blade is
tilted forward, it will decrease the space for those tendons to move in. When the scapula is “set”
(by pulling the shoulder blades down and in towards your opposite pockets), there is more
clearance space for the tendons to slide as they work to raise the arm over-head. Take home
message – in order to have full/proper mobility of the shoulder, there must first be stability of the
shoulder blade (because the rotator cuff muscles live on the shoulder blade).
Figure 5
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Another
contributing factor
to shoulder
impingement is
weakness of the
muscles of the
rotator cuff. The
rotator cuff is
actually four
muscles that wrap
around the front
and back of the
shoulder blade to
attach on the head
of the humerus.
One of their primary
jobs is to keep the
head of the
Figure 4
humerus properly
aligned in the shoulder socket (think keeping a golf ball properly aligned on a tee). Another
main function of the rotator cuff is to help elevate the arm. As the arm is lifted, the rotator cuff
actually pulls down on the head of the humerus to maintain the alignment, helping assure that it
does not bump into the acromium. If those muscles are weak or compromised, as the arm
elevates so will the head of the humerus, causing impingement (Fig 5).
Low back pain
Low back pain can come in many forms. Common low back injuries seen in cross country
skiers include disc pathologies (herniations, bulges, tears, etc.), strained musculature, and the
dreaded “nonspecific low back pain” (which means we’re not 100% sure why your back is
hurting, but it is). Low back pain is one of the most difficult things to treat because of the
interaction between the low back, pelvis and hip. (Fig 6)
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One of the most common postural issues that contribute to low back pain is what is known as an
excessive lordosis, or arching of the lumbar spine (think Beyoncé – rear sticking out). This
causes the pelvis to rotate forward. On a muscular level, these individuals will have tight low
back muscles and weak gluts in the back, and tight hip flexors and weak abdominals in the front
(Fig 7).
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Poor core control is another huge factor in low back pain. We hear the term “core” thrown about
often now, but what does the “core” really refer to? The core is a group of muscles that
surround the vital organs to form a cylinder, starting down at the pelvic floor, running up to the
ribs and wrapping from the spine around front. These muscles include (but are not limited to)
the transverse abdominus (front of the cylinder), internal/external obliques (sides), pelvic floor
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muscles (bottom), multifidi (back of the cylinder, and diaphragm (top of the cylinder (Fig 8).
These muscles help with power transfer, giving your body a stable platform to work from when
doing anything with either the upper or lower extremities. Of all of these muscles, the
transverse abdominus is the largest yet is usually the most under-utilized and over looked.
Proper recruitment of the transverse abdominus can be difficult (in one pre-season screening of
the named World Cup athletes, only one was able to do it properly before instruction), yet is one
of the most significant factors in preventing low back pain.
Anterior knee pain
Anterior knee pain, or pain in the front of the knee, is a common complaint of cross country
skiers. Often this will be seen in the summer time, when the athlete’s cross training involves
more running and biking. This often occurs because of the patella tracking improperly in the
groove of the leg bone, the femur (Fig 9). This can be due to tight structures on the lateral side
of the knee, namely the IT band and the lateral quad. Another contributing factor is the knee
“falling in” to what is known as a valgus position during skiing or other activities (squatting,
running) (Fig 10). This is often due to weak hip musculature. When the hip muscles, primarily
the glut medius, are weak, the hip internally rotates and adducts (moves in toward the body),
causing the knee to collapse in (while the tight lateral structures are pulling the patella towards
the outside of the knee). Knee valgus position is also one of the number one risk factors in ACL
injury. While we do not see a lot of these in cross country skiers, it is a risk for athletes who are
playing other sports or playing games during cross training.
Figures 9 and 10
An individual who is skiing in this valgus position is likely skiing less efficiently as well. With
cross country skiing you want as much of the motion as possible to be directed forward (in the
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frontal plane). Any excess motion up or down (saggital plane) or side to side (transverse plane)
will lead to wasted energy that could be put towards moving forward. When an individual is
skiing and the knee is falling in you will likely see the opposite hip drop as well. The body needs
to then expend energy to right that position with each “step” in the form of muscle work. In
addition, when the knee is in valgus the ski is more likely to be on the inside edge of the ski,
increasing friction and reducing glide.
Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome (CECS)
One of the most challenging injuries a cross country ski racer will face is chronic exertional
compartment syndrome. Poorly understood and difficult to treat, this injury has cut short the
career of many athletes. The lower leg consists of four compartments that house the muscles,
nerves, and blood supply of the leg. These compartments are separated by fascia, a thick
substance that does not have any elastic properties (think really thick saran wrap).
Compartment syndrome occurs when the pressure in one or more of these compartments
increases beyond its normal threshold, often due to swelling of the muscles within that
compartment. The individual will experience pain out of proportion to what is typically expected
that increases with exercise duration. They may also have numbness or tingling in the lower
leg, or in extreme cases, muscular weakness. They will often complain of a “sausage” type
feeling in their leg.
Some anatomical causes of CECS include tight and hypertrophied
leg musculature, excessive pronation of the foot (causing the
muscles in the lower leg to have to work harder to balance and
stabilize the leg), as well as weak hip musculature. Yes, weak hip
muscles can have an impact as far down as the foot. As we talked
about in the last section, weak hips can lead to the knee falling into
a valgus position. When the knee is in that position the foot is
more likely to become pronated (Fig 11). This again will lead to
the muscles of the lower leg having to work harder to stabilize the
leg and to balance. Take home message – hip musculature
plays an important role in helping to control most movement
patterns of the entire lower extremity.
Figure 11
Some ski related issues have also been found to increase the risk of CECS. Any time there is a
significant increase in training volume, time or intensity, an individual is more prone to this. We
often also see it during a change from snow skiing to roller skiing, or vice versa. Stiff boots that
do not allow ankle motion or boots that are too tight can contribute. From a technique
perspective, posture that is too far forward or steep shin angles in V1 can also lead to a higher
risk of CECS.
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INJURY PREVENTION
The most important lessons we can teach children at this age are to enjoy activity and enjoy
being outdoors. At this age children should be participating in a variety of activities to learn
PHASE 1—AGES 2-6
athleticism. Too often we see skiers (or participants in other sports) who have been playing
only that sport from such a young age that they lack the basic athletic ability to, for example,
recover from a loss of balance when going down a steep hill on skis. Children should play
games that involve balance, hopping, skipping, and basic developmental skills appropriate for
their age level. In addition, to help with upper and lower extremity coordination, they should
PHASE 2—AGES 6-10
participate in other activities such as swimming that involve reciprocal arm and leg patterns.
Again, at this age “practices” or “training” should involve more games than drills. Children at
this age can learn the basics of warming up and cooling down before and after activity. Prior to
activity, they should engage in an active warm up that “wakes up” the muscles and prepares
them for activity, such as jogging, skipping, butt kicks, and/or Frankenstein walking (Figs 12
&13). Static stretching should be saved for after the activity is over, as recent studies have
shown that static stretching can actually inhibit musculature strength & power for a period of
time. In addition, activities should
focus on the fundamental skills
necessary for cross country skiing:
speed, power, agility, and balance.
Speed is easy enough to accomplish
with simple foot races or a game of
tag. Power is best developed with
jumping activities. Agility again can be
done with a game of tag, or with
obstacle courses that involve cutting
Figure 12
Figure 13
and dodging. Balance activities on
one foot can be done by playing games such as hopscotch, or by playing four-square where
everyone has to stand on one leg.
PHASE 3—AGES 10-14
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At this time workouts may be taking on a more, well, workout type quality. This is a good time to
re-enforce the principles of active warm up and cool down, as well as proper recovery
techniques. Two of the most common and effective recovery techniques are contrast baths and
foam rolling.
Contrast bathing is a common technique used by athletes to enhance recovery. We still don’t
understand the exact mechanism of how/why it works, but studies have shown that contrast
bathing can help increase circulation, decrease creatine kinase levels (a marker of
inflammation) and decrease blood lactate levels. There are many methods of contrasting. A
typical protocol would be to spend 3-4 minutes in hot water (100-104 deg) and 1 min in cold
water (59-70 deg), beginning and ending on heat. This can be repeated for up to 30 minutes
total. More is not necessarily better in this situation. Excessively hot temperatures should be
avoided, and some studies show that cold temperatures (70 deg) are just as effective as near
freezing temperatures. Athletes do not have to torture themselves with the ice bath!
Foam rolling is another great recovery technique. When using a foam roller for recovery, the
focus should be on using the foam roll as a form of self-massage. For the long muscle groups
such as the quads and calves, the foam roll should be used in long sweeping strokes along the
length of the muscle. For smaller, shorter muscles such as the gluts and hip flexors, a more
targeted pressure with small force will be beneficial. Foam rollers can also be used as a form of
self-release to trigger points (hyper irritable areas within the muscle), although caution should
be used when trying this technique with younger children. Foam rolling can also be used as
part of an active warm up. This is because foam rolling can help increase range of motion
without inhibiting musculature, as opposed to stretching which also helps improve range of
motion, but often at the expense of muscle activation/strength temporarily. Recent evidence
suggests that foam rolling before an activity may be effective because it allows for improved
movement patterns (due to decreased muscle tension and increased joint range of motion).
PHASE 4—AGES 11-16
This is a great age to start introduce athletes to the weight room. In my humble opinion, the first
year an athlete is in the gym doing strength work they should focus on target muscle
development, such as the scapular and core musculature (using their own body weight when
possible) , before getting into machines and large, multi-joint lifting. An athlete will likely do
more harm than good trying to do complicated strength workouts if they don’t first understand
their body and the positions it should be in when doing these workouts. A great example would
be the shoulder press. An individual doing a shoulder press with improper scapula (shoulder
blade) positioning leaves themselves vulnerable to shoulder impingement. They must first learn
the proper position of the scapula (down and in towards the opposite butt cheek), and what
muscles to use to achieve that position (mid and lower trapezius), before trying a more complex
strengthening motion. For specific exercises, please see the last phase.
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Another great focus during this age is proper recruitment of core
musculature, namely the transverse abdominus. Ideally, this
muscle should be utilized, or “on” during any activity such as
bending, lifting, or simply moving an arm or leg. However, often
Figure 14
times we lack the neuromuscular connection to this muscle that
we have with many others. You don’t have to tell the brain what to do in order to pick up the
glass of water next to you, or to walk, however, especially after any episode of low back pain;
we have to train the brain how to engage the transverse abdominus. To do this, begin by lying
down with your knees bent up and your feet flat on the floor. Find your hip bones and place two
fingers about 2 inches down and in from these bones. Now draw your belly button up and in,
imagining it going under your rib cage. You should feel the transverse abdominus tighten under
your fingers. This is not a large muscle that is going to “bulge” the way a biceps would, so do
not try too hard! It is a gentle, subtle contraction (Fig 14). Athletes should begin by learning to
activate the muscle in this position, and then try it sitting, standing, walking, and with other
upper/lower extremity movements. Eventually with a lot of practice, this muscle should activate
before movement without being “told” to, providing a nice, stable base for movement and
activity.
A third focus during this time frame should be on watching knee movement patterns during
skiing, running, and jumping activities. A great screening tool is doing a landing activity from a
height (usually 18-24 inches is enough). Have the athlete begin on the platform/box; step off
with one foot and then land on the ground with two feet. This can be video-taped and then
watched by the athlete and coach in slow motion. If the knees collapse in “valgus position”
when landing, it is a good indicator that the athlete needs to work on knee
positioning/movement patterns. This is done both by training with feedback (jumping and
landing activities either watching themselves in a mirror, or having someone else watch them to
cue them when their knee falls in) and you guessed it - by hip strengthening (remember – the
hip controls the knee valgus). One possible verbal cue may be “keep your knee, ankle and 2nd
toe aligned/even.”
PHASE 5—AGES 12-17
By this time many athletes are focusing their training on just one sport, in this case cross
country skiing. It is still appropriate for athletes in this phase to participate in various sports and
activities that compliment athletic development, instead of cross country skiing on snow all
winter and roller skiing on pavement all summer, while still prioritizing cross-country skiing as a
main focus. We are seeing an explosion of overuse injuries in young and adolescent children,
because they spend all year training the same muscles the same way, instead of varying sports
and activities. Appropriate pre-and post-season transitions should be a priority for long-term
athletic development and injury reduction. We have also witnessed a spike in injuries with
athletes that lead directly into one competitive season to the next without ample preparation.
An individual’s chances of sustaining high performance in a sport long term (especially a sport
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such as cross country skiing where the age an individual “peaks” is older than in most other
sports) is much higher if they wait longer to specialize in that sport.
Regardless of the activity the athlete is participating in, this is a great age to start putting the
pieces together. Every workout should begin with an active warm up and end with appropriate
cool down and stretching activities so that this becomes a lifestyle. When in the gym, the skiers
should be balancing both the more aggressive and multi-joint strength work with targeted
activities such as scapular strengthening, hip strengthening, and core stabilization work. The
athletes should be encouraged to look at these activities as an essential part of success in their
PHASE 6—AGES 15+
sport, as important as the hours that they spend training. They
wouldn’t dream of skipping the day’s on snow workout if they are
trying to be the best, and like-wise they shouldn’t skip the warm
up and recovery work.
By this time the athletes should be spending a least a 2/3 days a
week in the weight room,
building strength to support the
demands of their sport. In this
section we are going to review
some exercises that should be a
part of their program, and why
they are helpful in preventing
injury.
Foam rolling/thera-ball
stretching:
As discussed earlier, the foam
roll can be used as part of an
active warm up or for muscle
recovery. The foam roll can
also be used to help stretch
targeted areas or to selfmobilize the spine. In Fig 15,
the athlete is lying vertically on
the foam roll and moving her
arms up and down as if making
a snow angel. This can help
stretch the anterior chest and
shoulder musculature, helping
Figure 15
Figure 16
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Figure 18
Figure 19
Figure 20
157
Figure 21
to prevent both shoulder impingement and upper back/neck pain. In Fig 16, the athlete is lying
with the foam roll horizontally across the mid back, helping to self-mobilize the thoracic spine.
This helps prevent hypo-mobility of this area, and reverses the position that the athlete is
usually living in (with an excessive forward curve of the spine). To perform this properly the
athlete should roll slowly up and down the spine, and stop in areas that feel particularly tight.
Fig 17 demonstrates another way to stretch the anterior musculature, using the thera-ball.
The foam roll can also be used to target areas that are typically tight in individuals with low back
pain, primarily the hip flexors (Fig 18) and the lumbar spine paraspinals (Fig 19). For an
individual complaining of knee pain, targeting the hip flexors, quads (Fig 20) and IT bands (Fig
21). If someone is in pain, doing these stretches/foam rolling will be helpful before the workout,
as it may increase pain free range of motion in the joint. They can also then be repeated after
the workout to help with recovery.
Stretching
As discussed earlier, stretching is usually now completed after a workout, as recent studies
have shown that stretching can actually temporarily inhibit musculature, causing a decrease in
muscle output. However, for an individual in pain or dealing with an injury, stretching may be
applied before a workout to help decrease pain and improve mobility/range of motion. This will
help the person perform the activities that the workout demands with improved form, rather than
with compensations due to pain or limited mobility.
Figure 22
Figure 23
Figure 24
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Figures 22 and 23 show different ways to stretch tight lumbar paraspinal musculature, and Fig
24 demonstrates an effective hip flexor stretch. The gluts, which are typically targeted as an
area for strengthening, can also be stretched to help an individual with low back pain. Fig 25
and 26 demonstrate good piriformis/glut stretches.
For an individual with knee pain, hip flexor stretching as well as quad (Fig 27) and IT band
stretching should be incorporated. Finally, for an
individual with symptoms of compartment syndrome, a
lot of calf (Fig 28) and anterior tibialis/peroneal
Figure 25
Figure 27
Figure 26
stretching (Fig 29) should be employed, both before and after workouts.
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Strengthening
In earlier sections we discussed the importance of strengthening the scapular stabilizing
muscles to help position the scapula properly for activity. The primary muscles to be
strengthened are the mid and lower trapezius. This can be done with an exercise known as “Is,
Ys, and Ts”. To do this, an individual can be on a thera-ball, as seen here, or off the edge of the
bed. The athlete should lift his arms straight up overhead first (forming an I), then up and out to
the side at about 45 deg (Y) and final straight out to the side (T). It is important to note that
when doing this exercise, the focus should be on the shoulder blade itself and feeling it pull
down and in, the arms just follow the shoulder blade. If done correctly, you will feel this exercise
in between the shoulder blades. Do not worry about how high the arm raises, focus on the
shoulder blade. If you feel it in your upper traps, your form is either wrong or your mid/lower
traps have simply fatigued and your body is compensating with the upper traps. (Fig 30-32).
Figure 30
Figure 31
Figure 28
Figure 32
Figure 33
Figure 29
For an individual with neck/upper back pain, this exercise can be coupled with a chin tuck. This
helps strengthen the deep neck flexor muscles (the “core” of your neck) and help encourage
proper posture, reversing the forward head position usually seen in athletes. To do this
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exercise, the athlete simply takes their chin and tucks it back towards their ears, keeping their
head in a neutral position (do not let it tilt up or down). This will create a “double chin”. This can
also be done on the stomach as seen in Figure 33, or can be done while the athlete is
performing the Is, Ys, and Ts.
The role of the rotator cuff was also discussed in the prevention of shoulder impingement.
Figures 34-37 show the basic rotator cuff strengthening activities. In the first two pictures, a
band is secured in a doorway on the opposite side of the arm being trained, and the athlete
pulls the band out across their body. This is external rotation. For internal rotation, the band
should be secured on the same side of the arm being trained, and the athlete should pull in
across the body. Figures 38-41 show how to make this exercise slightly more difficult by
having the athlete perform the rotations with the arm away from the body.
Figures 34 and 35 – External Rotation
Figures 36 and 37 – Internal Rotation
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Figures 38, 39, 40, 41 (L to R)
Transverse abdominus activation and it’s
role in preventing low back pain has already
been discussed. To help progress this
training the athlete can attempt transverse
abdominus activation while in the
quadruped position (hands and knees).
They can then attempt to keep the
contraction while lifting one arm (Fig 42),
Figures 42 and 43
one leg (Fig 43), or one arm and the
opposite leg at the same time. This will also engage the multifidi, another important core
muscle.
Glut strengthening is an important part of both low back and knee pain prevention. With these
exercises form is important, as it is easy to compensate and use bigger, stronger muscles while
performing these activities. The first gluteus medius exercise is the clam. To perform the clam
the athlete should lie on their side with the hips “stacked” on top of each other. The hips should
be flexed up to 60 deg and the knees flexed to 90 deg. The top hip should rotate up/out, lifting
the top knee off the bottom knee but keeping the heels together. An alternate way to train the
gluts is with lateral band walks. The athlete should place an elastic band around the ankles and
walk from side to side, always keeping tension on the band. Finally, a standing hip abduction
can be performed. To do this, the athlete can stand on a block with a band attached to one
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ankle and then secured to the wall opposite the leg the band is on. The athlete should then kick
their leg out away from their body (abduction). The athlete will feel this both on the side doing
the kicking, and the leg that all the weight is on.
Training the glut medius is one of the primary ways to prevent knee valgus (knees collapsing
in). Along with other activities discussed earlier, you can train the glut med by engaging in
functional activities such as jumping and landing activities with visual feedback such as a mirror
so the athlete can watch if their knee falls in or not. In addition, training the athlete to have
proper knee tracking can help prevent excessive foot pronation, which will help prevent
compartment syndrome.
As was mentioned earlier, the hip musculature is probably the most important piece in
controlling movement patterns of the entire lower extremity. An ability to strengthen the gluts
and maintain hip stability during the glide phase of skiing will lead to increased frontal plane
(forward) motion. When hip stability is lost, energy in the form of muscle work must be
expended by the athlete to right the position of the lower extremity (pulling the opposite hip up,
the weight-bearing knee out, and flattening the weight-bearing foot from it’s pronated position)
with each transition from one ski to the next. While the amount of energy each time is surely
minimal, it will add up over the course of even the shortest sprint race, and could mean the
difference in a race that is often decided by a ski tip.
Summary
Hopefully the contents of this section were not too overwhelming. The good news regarding
injury prevention is that a few simple exercises and stretches can go a long way in helping
prevent multiple types of injuries and aches/pains. Nothing is more important, however, than
coaches that are attuned to the signs and symptoms of a developing injury, both in the way their
athlete is acting (wincing, limping after workouts) and in the form they are using when
performing an activity, whether it is running, skiing, or weight lifting. More is not always better,
especially if more activity is just reinforcing improper movement patterns/poor habits. Five
repetitions of an exercise performed properly are going to be more effective than 30 of an
exercise performed improperly. Remember – we want to reinforce normal movement
patterns – not abnormal ones.
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“Understanding the
concepts put forward
in this section will help
you help your athletes
enjoy lifelong, pain free
participation and
optimize their
performance in their
sport.”
Liz Stephen in dynamic skating stride (Bryan Fish photo)
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Safe, Specific, and Effective Core Conditioning for Nordic
Skiing
Kurt Jepson PT, SCS
No one would argue the importance of specifically conditioned core and hip regions in order to
implement and master modern cross country skiing technique. The expansive amount of “core
conditioning” literature, videos, and the revived interest in Pilates and Yoga, is testimony to the
acknowledgement by the athletic community of how vital core fitness is to skill advancement.
There are however potential pitfalls when introducing some of these exercise techniques into
one`s pre season and maintenance conditioning programs. There may be relative orthopedic
“costs” to performing some commonly utilized core and hip exercises, particularly over time.
The frequency of episodic (or worse) back pain within the adult athletic population sufficient
enough to interrupt training or competition at least once in a carrier parallels the general
population at approximately 85% (McGill, 1998).
The following article will examine the “cost- benefit” of some typical core exercises and their
value will be critically accessed. Suggestions on how to adapt these exercises to lessen any
adverse mechanical inputs, particularly to the spine will also be presented.
ANATOMY AND FUNCTION OF THE SPINE AND PELVIS
To begin we must first review some basic anatomic and arthrokinematic characteristics of the
human form, specifically the spine and pelvis. The spine provides a structural foundation for
attachment of ligaments and tendons, muscles, as well as an axis for core and hip movements
(Magee, 1992). Most importantly, it provides bony protection for the spinal cord and it`s laterally
projecting nerves. Each of the 24 plus vertebral bony segments is specific in its structural
characteristics based on location, load bearing responsibilities, motion contributions and its
relationship to neighboring extremities. For example, our Lumbar vertebrae, discs and
ligaments are much larger and have a denser construct than their cervical counterparts because
of the gravitational load on our trunk and exposure to powerful movements of our lower
extremities. Each functional grouping (2+ vertebrae) of segments must balance movement,
stability, and protection of sensitive neural structures contained within their boundaries. Your
body considers your spinal cord to be quite vital, and would never encourage excessive
vertebral movement or induced instability as this would likely endanger your nervous system.
A key structure helping to maintain the balance between segmental movement and stability is
the intervertebral disc. It may be compared to a jelly donut. It is composed of fibrous tissue
peripherally called the annulus (donut), and has a viscous center (jelly) called the nucleus.
Collectively it is composed of 80%+/- water based material depending on one`s age. Discs
degrade and dehydrate with age, hence our relative loss in stature from our second to seventh
decade. The disc is the main connection between adjacent vertebral segments and as such
functions as a ligament by connecting bone to bone via an endplate. It must therefore have all
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required tensile strength and load bearing characteristics, yet be subtle enough to allow
mutliplaner movements of the axial spine. It accomplishes this feat through a complex system of
annular fiber matrix design and nuclear hydraulics.
REASONS TO BE CAUTIOUS WITH “CORE” STRENGTH TRAINING
The disc however is not perfect and can sustain focal or generalized failure zones, particularly
within the annular ring (Birrer & Jepson, 2003). Cyclic loading in excess of its mechanical
tolerances can lead to annular wall compromise, nuclear bulging, frank herniations of the
nucleus, fragmentation, and/or nuclear enzymatic leakage into the adjacent tissue space. The
resultant irritation of nerve or soft tissue causes pain, muscle spasm, and dysfunction. The
posterior wall of the disc is at highest risk of failure due to overstretching of its fibers via
aggressive, repetitive flexion movements of the trunk coupled with nuclear pressure gradients
directed to the rear resultant of the same postures (Bogduk, 1990). The best analogy is one of
stepping on one end of a fast food ketchup packet and observing which direction to “nucleus”
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migrates and at what point the “annulus” fails.
"Disc mechanics" drawings - Paul Plumer. They are from a local PT practice patient education manual called "Taking
Care of Your Back" produced in 1984.
Excessive posteriorly directed forces can occur traumatically, but typically involve years of bad
posture and “well intentioned” but poorly executed exercises inducing adverse loading and
heightened intra discal pressures. This cyclic loading eventually leads to structural compromise.
Undampened excessive trunk rotation is particularly stressful to lumbar structures, especially
the annular tissue matrix. Structural fatigue and thus stability compromise of the disc can lead to
“buckling” of the spine under load. The analogy of a stack of children`s building blocks arranged
with characteristic spinal curves probably best exemplifies the relative instability of an
unsupported vertebral column. It takes very little unopposed directional force to destabilize the
blocks. Our discs, interspinous ligaments, and musculature all help oppose and negate
directional forces encountered during sport and daily activities. Such structures surround the
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spine and when acting in concert provide what McGill refers to as “hoop forces” (2001). The
analogy of a tent with balanced guy lines lending to the central structural support provides a
good visual.
Symptoms of structural instability and damage may include; sciatica, central or lateralizing back
pain, local or global muscle spasm, extremity weakness, numbness or tingling, and functional
loss. The unfortunate pathophyisiologic cycle is one of core muscle inhibition, compromised
axial load dispersion, less force dampening and subsequent discal compromise. Research has
repeatedly demonstrated that core strength and postural coordination aids in the dispersion of
potentially injurious forces traveling inward toward the spine (Parkhurst & Burnett, 1994;
Ekstrom & Osborn, 2008; Cholewicki & Van Vliet, 2002; Cholewicki & Greene, 2002).
So how do we best target the core musculature that serves a protective and functional
role in spinal mechanics?
STEP ONE: First we must abandon some of the training concepts employed over the years
recognizing that some may not be scientifically based, but rather have served a marketing
purpose, or anecdotal opinion.
STEP TWO: Second we must acknowledge that extremes of trunk
motion during core exercise serves no functional purpose and may
indeed be injurious. The standing “athletic position” so often referred
to in coaching demonstrates no extremes of trunk flexion or
extension, and is in fact “neutral”, stable and balanced. We should
perform core exercises with equal focus to this position. In
rehabilitation this posture is often referred to as “neutral spine”. It is
best described as the midpoint position ones spine can attain while
on hands and knees, neither maximally arched to the ceiling nor
sunken to the floor. This quadruped neutral position is then
transposed to a standing lumbar posture.
“Neutral Spine” is a midway position of these two extremes.
STEP THREE: - Third we need to recognize that isolating specific muscles around the core is
difficult and we should as McGill says, “Train the motion not the muscle” (1998). Physiologists
have long known that muscle fiber types are recruited based on need not speed, and
functionally the core recruits fibers and groups of muscles based on the task at hand. Focusing
on safe introductory conditioning first and then increasing the complexity, intensity and
functionality of the ski specific core program.
(See appendix A for supporting information on, “So how does one define safe core
load?”)
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FOUR RECOMMENDED EXERCISES – ABDOMINAL EXERCISE WITH RELATIVELY HIGH
MUSCLE ACTIVATION AND LOW SPINAL LOADING
As discussed in the explanation of safe core loading located in the appendix, not all adverse
postures can be avoided completely during on or off snow training. We would like to select
those exercises with high muscle recruitment and functionality as well as relatively low spinal
loading. Ekstrom analyzed more than 15 common core, hip and thigh muscle exercises and
graded their muscle recruitment with respect to same spinal loading (2007). It follows that four
exercises should be included in every skier`s dryland training program during the preparatory
phase AND in season. They are the; side bridge, Bird Dog, bridge with SLR, and front
planks. Attention to neutral spine is paramount even with these relatively “low cost” exercises.
Coaches and athletes are encouraged to add variations to these in the form of incremental hand
or leg weight, reps, duration, alternating limb motions (to increase rotational challenge),
frequency, etc. It should also be noted that excessive deviation from a neutral spine posture
may increase axial loads to an injurious level over time. Other “higher cost”, more traditional
core exercises may be completed periodically, but the athlete and the coach should consider
the relative cost benefit to the individual. Age, level of fitness, coordination, and a history of back
pain, are just a few of the considerations when planning a core conditioning program.
Coaches are encouraged to be creative and match the physical challenge of the core and
gluteal exercise program to the USSA Cross Country Training System algorithm of chronologic
development. When working with prepubescent and adolescent athletes, adequate supervision
and attention to lumbar postures during the activity cannot be overemphasized.
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When utilizing outside loads for exercise, form and movement patterns should be the focus of
the session, not the amount of weight lifted. When in a gym setting, free weights are preferable
to machines as their design dimensions tend to be adult specific in terms of load distribution. It
is also important to not base your decision to start utilizing outside weight sources for training
solely on chronologic age, but rather biological age.
To maximize one`s potential for efficient skiing and injury prevention, core and proximal lower
extremity conditioning out and in season is a must. Every athlete and coach should design the
program to be utilized with attention to individual needs, assessment of athletic competency and
development, athlete goals, and consideration of the potential “cost” of some exercises over the
career of the athlete.
Some examples of targeted core activities utilizing body weight are listed below and are
intended to be low cost, high on recruitment and entertaining to younger participants. These are
age-appropriate “suggestions,” however an athlete should provide an adequate demonstration
of competency with control and good tolerance prior to moving forward to the next step.
PHASE 1—AGES 2-6
-Hands and knees
-Crawling races with a book placed on low back which may not fall
PHASE 2—AGES 6-10
-Crab soccer
-Hydrants
PHASE 3—AGES 10-14
-Partner Wheelbarrow races while maintaining good plank postures
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-Single leg balance squats, facing with “patty cake” palm touch
-Partner back-to-back Chair sits with lateral walking
PHASE 4—AGES 11-15
-Partner as bench, decline push-ups
PHASE 5—AGES 12-17
-Partner leg press, push up plyo`s
-Jump lunges, facing with medball pass
PHASE 6—AGES 16+
-Mirrored Turkish Getups
-Mirrored, foot to foot, single leg Glut bridges in supine
REFERENCES:
Adams M, Dolan P. Recent Advances in Lumbar Spinal Mechanics and their Clinical Significance. Clin Biomech. 10 (3) p 3, 1995.
Axler CT, McGill SM., Low back Loads over a Variety of Abdominal Exercises: Searching for the Safest Abdominal Challenge. Med Sci
Sport Exer. 29 (6), pp 804-810, 1997.
Birrer R, Jepson KK. Low Back Pain: A Focused Approach. Consultant. July: 993-1035, 2003.
Bogduk N. Pathology of Lumbar Disc Pain. J Manual Medicine. 5: 72-79, 1990.
Cholewicki J, Greene HS., et al. Neuromuscular Function in Athletes Following Recovery From a Recent Acute Low Back Pain Injury. J
Ortho Sports Phys Ther. 32; pp 568-575, 2002.
Cholewicki J, McGill SM, et al. Lumbar Spine Loads during Lifting Extremely Heavy Weights. Med Sci Sports Exer. 23 (10); pp 1179-1186,
1991.
Cholewicki J, Van Vliet JJ. Relative Contribution of Trunk Muscles to the Stability of the Lumbar Spine During Isometric Exertions. Clin
Biomech. 17; pp 99-105, 2002.
Cripton P, Berlemen U, et al. Response of the Lumbar Spine due to Shear Loading. Injury Prevention Through Biomechanics. Detroit.
Wayne State University. p 111, 1995.
Ekstrom RA, Donatelli RA., et al. Electromyographic Analysis of the Core Trunk,Hip, and Thigh Muscles During 9 Rehabilitation Exercises.
J Ortho Sports Phys Ther. 37 (12); pp 754-762, 2007
Ekstrom RA, Osborn RW, et al. Surface Electromyographic Analysis of the Low Back Muscles During Rehabilitation Exercises. J Ortho
Sports Phys Ther. 38; pp 736-745, 2008.
Magee DJ. Orthopedic Physical Assessment. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Company; p 467, 1992.
McGill SM. Low Back Exercises: Evidence for Improving Exercise Regimens. Phys Ther. 78, pp 754-765, 1998
McGill SM. Low Back Stability: From Formal Description to Issues for Performance and Rehabilitation. Exer and Sport Sci Reviews. 29; 2631, 2001.
Parkhurst TM, Burnett CN. Injury and Proprioception in the Lower Back. J Ortho Sports Phys Ther. 19 (5); pp 282-295, 1994.
Plumer, Paul. 1984 Taking Care of Your Back
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Sports Nutrition
Rebecca Rick, BBA and Stacie L. Wing-Gaia, PhD, RD, CSSD
Introduction
Nutrition not only impacts general health status and quality of life, but also plays a major role in
supporting sport performance. Understanding and applying appropriate food choices to maintain
good health status, fuel training and competition, and recover quickly will help to optimize sport
performance. This section will cover basic nutrition guidelines for cross-country skiing, including
an explanation of energy systems, macronutrients, fluid and hydration, micronutrients, fueling
for training, and supplements. You will also find practical tips and tools to help you put these
nutritional principles into practice.
Energy and Energy Balance
Energy is defined as the ability to perform work. Energy is often measured in calories or joules.
A calorie, by definition, is the heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1
degree C. This is equivalent to 4.18 joules used in the metric system. Because this is a small
amount of energy, energy is expressed in larger units of kilocalories and kilojoules. Although
1,000 calories are contained in one kilocalorie, nonscientific writing (including this manual) uses
these terms interchangeably. Nutrients that contain calories, referred to as energy-yielding
nutrients, include carbohydrate (CHO), protein, and fat. Carbohydrate and protein each yield 4
calories per gram (kcal/g) and fat yields 9kcal/g. Alcohol also yields energy at 7kcal/g and
should be included when calculating total energy intake.
Energy Balance
Energy balance is the concept that when energy intake is equivalent to energy expenditure,
body weight is maintained. Positive energy balance occurs when more calories are consumed
than are expended, leading to an anabolic (building) state resulting in increased mass.
Negative energy balance occurs when fewer calories are consumed than are expended, leading
to a catabolic (breaking down) state resulting in
decreased mass. Total daily energy expenditure
(TDEE) includes three main subgroups: basal
metabolic rate, the thermic effect of food, and the
thermic effect of exercise. Basal metabolic rate
represents the minimum amount of energy needed
to sustain life at complete rest, and is the highest
contributing factor to TDEE in most adults (nonathletes). The thermic effect of food accounts for
the energy needed to digest, absorb, and transport
consumed food. For a typical mixed diet, this
Kikkan coming to refueling station during
competition (USSA photo)
accounts for ~10% of TDEE. The final subgroup,
the thermic effect of exercise, is a combination of
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energy expended in spontaneous physical activity (i.e., fidgeting, shivering) and planned
exercise. The thermic effect of exercise accounts for ~20% of TDEE in sedentary adults and up
to 80% of TDEE in athletes. This is ultimately reflected in the vastly higher amount of total
calories needed to maintain body weight and support activity in athletes. Because crosscountry skiing is a high-energy demanding sport, sufficient energy intake is necessary to
support optimal sport performance.
Energy Production During Exercise
The ability of the body to convert CHO, fat, and protein to chemical (ATP) and mechanical
energy is fundamental to muscle contraction. ATP is the main energy currency of the body. The
body uses three energy systems to regenerate ATP during exercise. These three systems work
simultaneously during exercise (see Figure 1). However, the intensity and duration of exercise
determine the predominant energy system, and consequently the predominant substrate (fuel)
for exercise (see Figures 2 and 3). The three energy systems are creatine phosphate (CP),
anaerobic glycolysis, and oxidative phosphorylation (also known as ‘aerobic’). CP is used for
very high intensity, very short duration exercise (~5-10 seconds). This system predominates in
maximal effort lifting, powerful bursts of activity, and short sprints. The primary substrate for CP
is creatine. Therefore, fatigue is associated with depleted creatine phosphate stores. Anaerobic
glycolysis is used for high intensity, short duration exercise lasting up to two minutes. This
system predominates during longer sprints, interval training, and submaximal weightlifting
repetitions. The primary substrate is glucose (mainly from glycogen stored in the muscle) and
fatigue is associated with acidosis. The final system, oxidative phosphorylation, is used for low
to moderate intensity, long duration exercise. The main fuel source for aerobic (with oxygen)
exercise is CHO (< 1 hour), fat (> 1 hour), and to a small extent protein. Fatigue for the aerobic
system is associated with glycogen depletion. Protein is mainly used during recovery to repair
muscle damage incurred during exercise, but can be used to supply glucose during endurance
exercise when glycogen is depleted or the diet is insufficient in carbohydrate.
Key Points:
-Although the three energy systems (CP, anaerobic, and aerobic) work in conjunction with one
another, exercise intensity and duration determine the predominate system.
-A greater proportion (percentage) of fat is used for energy at rest and during exercise of low to
moderate intensity or longer duration.
-Carbohydrates are the primary energy source for anaerobic, high intensity exercise.
Energy Expenditure and Requirements of Cross-Country Skiers
Cross-country ski athletes have some of the highest energy requirements of all sports, and the
highest among winter sports. Studies report estimates between 4800-6000 kcal/day during the
preparation phase of training and an additional 1,000-2,000 kcal/day during training camps.
Research has shown Nordic male and female skiers need to consume as much as 80kcal/kg
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body weight/day during a training camp to maintain body weight. This is equivalent to 5,100
kcal/day for a 140-lb skier. Of nutritional concern, cross-country ski athletes also report
consuming considerably less calories than required to match their increased energy
expenditure. There are potential problems with self-reported dietary intake including
underreporting actual intake or altering food intake on days diet is recorded. Nevertheless, we
know that calorie needs are high for cross-country skiers and that consuming adequate calories
to maintain energy balance may be challenging. TDEE also varies with each training cycle,
further complicating energy requirements. The quality, composition, and timing of calorie
consumption throughout the day impacts training, competition, and recovery; these topics will be
addressed in detail throughout this manual.
Key Points:
- TDEE can be calculated using numerous methods, and the resulting TDEE will be different
with each cycle of training periodization. A sports dietitian can offer specific individualized
recommendations.
-To maintain body weight, caloric intake should be equivalent to caloric output using this simple
equation: TDEE= BMR + TEF + TEE, where TDEE= total daily energy expenditure,
BMR=basal metabolic rate, TEF=thermic effect of food, and TEE=thermic effect of exercise.
Figure 1. Effects of exercise duration on energy systems.
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Figure 2. Effect of exercise duration on substrate use.
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Figure 3. Effect of exercise intensity on substrate use (adapted from Romijn et al., 1993).
MACRONUTRIENTS
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This section will cover the major energy-yielding macronutrients—carbohydrate, fat, and protein.
A macronutrient is defined as a nutrient needed in relatively large amounts. Providing
macronutrient recommendations in grams per kilogram of body weight is standard sports
nutrition practice as it offers more accurate recommendations than a percentage of total
calories, which may or may not be sufficient for meeting daily requirements.
Refer to Appendix B for a detailed description of macronutrient classifications, food
sources, and functions.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the primary energy source for the body. Carbohydrates are not only the
main source of energy for high-intensity exercise, but they are also the only energy source for
the brain. This makes the availability of CHO crucial for optimal brain function, which is
imperative for a competing athlete to optimize
concentration and reaction time.
Carbohydrate Intake and Recommendations for
Athletes
Educating athletes on appropriate amounts and types
of carbohydrate for meeting their needs is key in
achieving performance goals. Because athletes may be
over or under their estimated calorie needs, specific
CHO recommendations are given in grams relative to
body weight to ensure adequate CHO intake. The
amount of carbohydrate required is determined by
Athletes refuel during a training session
exercise intensity and duration (see Table 1). The
(Bryan Fish photo)
following chart provides daily recommendations of
CHO intake based on level of training. Refer to the Fueling During Training section below for
specific CHO recommendations pre-, during, and post-exercise.
Training
Carbohydrate Recommendation
≤ 90 minutes of training on consecutive days
5-7 g/kg body weight (BW)
90-120 minutes of training on consecutive days
7-10 g/kg BW
>120 minutes or highly intense
training/competition
10-13 g/kg BW
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Table 1. Carbohydrate recommendations based on training intensity and duration.
For a 140 pound athlete, this equates to a minimum recommended amount of 318 grams of
CHO per day, or ~1300 kcal/day from carbohydrate on a training day lasting < 90 minutes.
However, a high intense training day or competition lasting > 2 hours would require 830 grams
of CHO per day, or 3,300 kcal/day from carbohydrate. To achieve these goals, athletes need to
fuel frequently throughout the day and tailor carbohydrate consumption to their current training
regimen. It is important to be mindful of this variance when selecting food choices. The
Athlete’s Plate Model is a good visual representation of the influence of training on carbohydrate
requirements (see Figures 4 – 7).
Key Points:
-Achieving adequate CHO intake is important for maintaining both mental and physical
performance.
-CHO stores are limited and must be replenished daily.
-CHO recommendations are calculated by body weight based on intensity and duration of
training.
Athlete Tip:
Although the recommended daily amount of CHOs per day for cross-country skiers may
seem high, achieving optimal intake is possible! Fuel frequently and focus on nutrientdense CHO foods such as:
-Fruits (dried, whole, juices)
-Nuts, seeds, legumes
-Breads, cereals, other grains
-Starchy vegetables (potatoes, corn, yams)
-Dairy products (milk, cheese, yogurt)
-Other CHOs consumed in energy drinks, bars, gels, recovery beverages, and even
sweets contribute to overall carbohydrate intake.
-Consuming adequate CHOs during meals, taking in CHO sources pre-, during, and postexercise as well as incorporating them into snacks can quickly add up to achieve daily
needs.
-When choosing packaged CHOs, the ingredients label should list the grain as the first
ingredient. The remaining ingredients should be minimal. Another rule of thumb is if
there is less than 2-3 grams of fiber per serving, the food is most likely low in whole
grains.
Protein
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Proteins are made of amino acids, which contain nitrogen as part of their basic structure.
Proteins are found in animal and plant foods, which contain different amounts and types of
amino acids. There are 20 amino acids used by the body, 9 of which are indispensable
(formerly known as essential) meaning we need them from our diet since the body cannot
manufacture them. All dairy, meats, grains, and vegetables contain the essential amino acids,
but in varying amounts. Individuals following a vegetarian diet should consume 10% higher
protein than the standard recommendation to make up any difference in the quality and content
of the amino acid profile between animal and plant proteins. Consumption of a vegetarian diet
can meet the body’s protein needs when attention is placed on consuming a variety of grains,
vegetables, and dairy sources (unless vegan) of protein.
Protein Requirements for Athletes
Pertinent to athletes, protein is responsible for rebuilding and repairing tissue damage as a
result of exercise. Although an athlete has higher protein needs than the average sedentary
adult, protein needs can easily be met by consuming a healthy, balanced diet sufficient in CHO
and fat with small amounts of protein spread throughout the day. As with CHO, protein needs
are generally calculated in terms of grams per kg of body weight.
Athlete
Protein Recommendation
Adult Endurance Athlete
1.2-1.6 g/kg BW
Vegetarian Athlete
1.3-1.7 g/kg BW
Adolescent Athlete
1.5-2.0 g/kg BW
Maximizing Protein Synthesis
Unlike carbohydrate and fat, protein is not stored in the body for later use. As a result, protein
intake in amounts greater than the body needs is then used for energy or converted to fat and
stored. The optimal amount of protein intake per serving is ~20g for an average size individual.
In order to maximize protein synthesis, an athlete should consume smaller amounts of protein
with meals and snacks throughout the day. This is especially important post-training as
discussed below.
Real Foods versus Protein Supplements
Although an athlete has slightly higher dietary needs for protein, the increased needs can easily
be met through consuming real foods. Current research does not indicate a benefit of
consuming protein or amino acid supplements such as powders or shakes. Given the high cost
of protein supplements, lack of research supporting their benefit over real food, and potential for
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contamination (see Supplement section), protein supplementation is not recommended over the
consumption of readily available protein foods in the diet.
Athlete Tip:
Include a protein source of ~20g during each meal and snack to maximize muscle
building and repair.
Examples of portions containing ~20g of protein include:
-2 ounces deli meat on 2 slices whole-wheat bread
-1 slice whole-wheat toast with 2 Tbsp. peanut butter and 1 cup milk
-3/4 cup cottage cheese
-1 cup Greek yogurt
-1 cup Greek yogurt or 1 cup regular yogurt with 1 oz mixed nuts
-1/4 cup black beans with 1 whole-wheat tortilla and ¼ cup shredded cheese
-2 eggs with 2 slices whole-wheat toast or 1 large potato
Fats
Fat Oxidation during Exercise: Effects of Intensity, Duration, and Training
As previously mentioned, fat is a fuel source for exercise, and supports low to moderate
intensity and long duration exercise. Endurance training enhances fat use during exercise so
that a trained individual can tap into fat stores for fuel more quickly and more efficiently than an
untrained individual. This ultimately allows an athlete to train and compete at a higher level for
a longer duration since glycogen stores are depleted at a slower rate when the body is more
efficiently using fat to fuel the activity.
Fat Recommendations
Because carbohydrate and protein needs are high in athletes, ideal fat consumption tends to be
slightly lower than for an average healthy individual. Since fat intake is vital to health, focus
should be placed on healthy fats found in sources of unsaturated fats and essential fats.
The recommended daily intake for fat is 0.8-2.0 g/kg body weight for endurance athletes.
Athlete Tip: Choose healthy fat sources, like those found in plant oils, avocados, nuts,
and fatty fish to meet your body’s daily needs.
Establishing a Baseline
Athletes should aim to include a basic nutritional screening at the start of the year in conjunction
with a general physical examination. Performance nutrition is similar to training in that a
baseline level should be established prior to outlining goals, which will assist the athlete in
optimizing both performance nutrition and general health. Goals for weight gain, weight loss,
and screening for common deficiencies such as iron or Vitamin D are examples of parameters
that require an established baseline before appropriate goals can be recommended and
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implemented for the individual athlete. For an individualized diet prescription, refer athletes to
the team sports dietitian.
Nutritional Periodization
Nutritional periodization is a complex title with a simple concept. It is defined as periodizing the
athlete’s nutrition plan to compliment the individual training plan throughout the year. Modifying
the athlete’s daily food intake to meet the current demands of training can provide optimal fuel
for the targeted training of the athlete. An effective periodized nutritional plan will also take into
account additional demands on the athlete such as travel, altitude training, tapering, illness, and
other life stressors.
In an effort to better visualize and simplify some of these recommendations, the USOC has
provided a model, the ‘Athlete’s Plate’, distinguished by Easy, Regular, or Hard
Training/Competition Days (See Figures 4-7). This plate is an adapted version of USDA’s
MyPlate, and serves as a great reference tool for picturing what an athlete’s plate should look
like based on the type of training day. Keep in mind this tool is generalized, and more
individualized recommendations can be extrapolated from the specific grams per kilograms
recommendations offered in the macronutrient sections.
Athlete Tip: Use the Athlete’s Plate as a simple visual for energy needs based on level of
training. See Appendix B for Plate Models.
Fluid and Hydration
Water accounts for approximately 45-75% of an individual’s body weight. Muscle holds much
higher amounts of water than fat, so athletes tend to have increased total body water compared
with non-athletes. Water is considered the most essential nutrient, and its functions include
temperature regulation, distribution of nutrients, removal of waste products, involvement in
chemical reactions and acid-base balance, and joint lubrication. Therefore, monitoring hydration
status and creating an individualized hydration plan are necessary to ensure optimal levels of
water and electrolytes.
The primary reason to maintain appropriate hydration levels during exercise is due to the critical
role that fluid plays in thermoregulation (maintaining proper body temperature). As exercise
increases core body temperature, the body releases salt and water in the form of sweat in an
effort to maintain an optimal core temperature. If fluid is not replaced, exercise performance will
decline. Physiologic changes that contribute to impaired exercise performance due to
dehydration include increased body temperature, increased cardiovascular strain, increased
glycogen use, and possibly alteration in the central nervous system function. Negative mental
and physical performance effects have been shown with > 2% body weight loss when
performing aerobic endurance exercise in the heat. However, performance effects are minimal
with 3% body weight loss while training in the cold.
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Sweat Rates
The rate of sweat loss varies by individual, and is dependent on factors like gender, age, body
size, exercise intensity, and environmental conditions. Cross-country skiers may experience
greater sweat losses due to heat during dry-land training. Additional fluid losses also occur as a
result of increased ventilation and urinary output that skiers experience in high altitudes and dry,
cold climates.
Hydration can be measured in several ways including total body water, plasma osmolality, urine
osmolality, urine specific gravity, and body weight. Self-monitoring hydration status is a
relatively easy and practical method. In addition to monitoring the color of urine (See Figure 8),
calculating weight change during exercise provides an estimated sweat rate and determines
whether too little or too much fluid was ingested during exercise. This is accomplished by
weighing pre- and post-exercise, taking the difference of the two figures and adding back the
amount of fluid consumed during exercise, then dividing by exercise duration (See Table 2).
This number is the individual’s estimated sweat rate, which can be used to determine fluid
needs during exercise.
Sweat Rate Calculation:
(Pre-exercise weight—Post-exercise weight) + Fluid consumed during exercise
Duration of exercise
Example:
(120 lbs pre-ex—118 lbs post-ex) + 32 oz (~2 lbs) fluid during exercise
1.5 hours (90 minutes) exercise
(2) + 2 = 2.7lbs (43.2oz)/hour
1.5
Since 16oz = 1lb, about 64oz have been lost during exercise, and should be replaced through
recovery in order to return to pre-exercise hydration status.
Table 2. Calculating Sweat Rates
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI): Application for Athletes
Water loss (and subsequent need for replacing loss) in healthy adults averages 2-3 liters per
day. The DRI for adults ranges from 2.3-3.7 liters per day. This value is not relevant for
athletes, however, since fluid needs significantly increase to support training. Exact fluid
requirements vary based on several factors including environment, exercise intensity and
duration, training status, acclimatization, gender, and body composition. Endurance athletes
have been shown to consume more than 10 liters of water a day to replace fluid losses.
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Fluid Intake and Recommendations for Athletes
Thirst is not commonly an effective mechanism for maintaining hydration during exercise. Since
an athlete is already becoming dehydrated once the thirst mechanism kicks in, it is important to
be proactive in maintaining hydration status by periodically consuming fluid pre-, during, and
post-training.
Fluid needs should be individualized as sweat loss vary among athletes. However, there are
some general recommendations that can be applied. First, athletes should begin a training
session or competition in a hydrated state. Second, athletes should consume fluid throughout
training, with added carbohydrate and electrolytes if exercise is greater than an hour. Lastly,
rehydrating after exercise is a key component of recovery. By monitoring hydration status
through the color of urine output and calculating sweat rates, athletes should rehydrate based
on individual needs.
Athlete Tip—Fluid Consumption Guidelines (derived from ACSM Position Stance on
Exercise and Fluid Replacement):
-Consume 5-7mL/kg BW 4 hours prior to exercise
-If no urine output or urine is dark in color, consume an additional 3-5mL/kg BW
for 2 hours following
-Consume 13-27oz/hour throughout exercise
-Consume 150% of fluid losses post-exercise
-Include electrolytes and carbohydrate in fluid source as lined out in ‘Fueling During
Training’ section
The composition of sweat includes electrolytes (mainly sodium) and water. When substantial
amounts of sweat are lost during exercise, fluid consumption should include electrolytes in order
to re-establish body water and maintain fluid balance. During exercise, electrolyte replacement
can be accomplished by consuming a sports drink or drinking water with a sports gel or bar.
Post-exercise, electrolytes can be replaced through consuming salt snacks or a sports drink.
Negative health and performance effects can also occur from overdrinking only water during
exercise, termed hyponatremia. Hyponatremia is defined as low blood sodium levels
(<135mmol/L), and can lead to negative health consequences such as convulsions, pulmonary
edema, cessation of breathing, heart failure, and even death. Hyponatremia most commonly
occurs during long duration exercise in hot weather when more water is consumed than is
needed without replacing the electrolytes lost in sweat. This can be avoided by consuming
adequate amounts of dietary sodium, ingesting sodium during training or competition in the form
of sports foods, and avoiding overconsumption of water during and after training or competition.
One benefit of consuming a sports drink during exercise is increased likelihood of maintaining
fluid balance.
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Figure 8. Self-monitoring hydration status using urine color. Aim for a 3 on this chart, or
a light lemonade shade of urine.
Athlete Tip: Don’t wait until you feel thirsty to consume fluids! Maintain optimal
hydration status by going into your training hydrated, consuming fluid through training
sessions, and focusing on rehydrating as a part of your recovery routine.
Micronutrients
Micronutrients are nutrients needed in smaller amounts by the body. They include vitamins,
minerals, and trace minerals. Micronutrients are needed to support proper functioning of the
body, which includes: regulating fluid and electrolyte balance, providing antioxidants to fight
oxidative stress, and optimizing bone and blood health. Since the rate of energy turnover in
muscle is much higher during exercise than at rest, athletes may have higher vitamin and
mineral requirements than non-athletes. These requirements can be met through selection of
micronutrient-rich foods. In addition to maintaining proper function in the body, adequate
micronutrient intake in the athlete helps to ensure immune health and a quick training recovery
time along with avoiding fatigue.
Fluid Balance
As discussed in detail in the hydration section above, maintaining appropriate fluid balance
during exercise is essential for performance. The main minerals involved in regulating fluid
balance include sodium, potassium, and chloride. These electrolytes are important in
maintaining proper hydration status. Typically, Americans consume more sodium than is
recommended, and considerably less potassium than is recommended. Because sodium is
added to many foods, a deficiency is unlikely to occur. Potassium, however, is less frequently
consumed in our diets. Americans consume an average of only 50% of the recommended daily
intake of potassium. A general recommendation to achieve fluid and electrolyte balance is to
avoid processed foods (examples include frozen meals and snacks, packaged meats, canned
soups) as these contain high amounts of added sodium. However, higher amounts of sodium
may be needed due to prolonged exercise where sweat losses are high.
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Antioxidants
The main micronutrients that function as antioxidants are Vitamins A, C and E, and the minerals
zinc, magnesium, and selenium. These antioxidants are found naturally in fruits, vegetables,
whole grains, legumes, wine, and beer. Fortified grain products like breads and cereals are also
a good source. Antioxidants protect against cell damage by neutralizing the effects of free
radicals. Free radical exposure increases during training as a result of increased oxygen
utilization, metabolism, and inflammation in addition to other mechanisms. Free radical
production further increases when training at altitude secondary to low oxygen availability
(hypoxia), ultraviolet exposure, and increased energy expenditure. An additional antioxidant
function critical to athletes is immune function. The antioxidants Vitamin C, zinc, and selenium
help support the immune system, though excessive levels of both zinc and iron are associated
with impairing the immune system.
Although adequate antioxidant intake is necessary for general health, antioxidant
supplementation in athletes is a topic of controversy. Because an overabundant amount of
antioxidants (through supplementation) may actually suppress the physiological process of
training adaptation, antioxidant supplementation is not recommended for athletes consuming a
diet rich in fruits and vegetables is followed. Antioxidant supplementation may be appropriate
for an athlete who is unable to consume a well-balanced diet or is training at altitude. Athletes
should be referred to their sports dietitian to ensure adequate intake of antioxidants.
Bone Health
The micronutrients involved in bone health are calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and Vitamin
D. Both calcium and Vitamin D are commonly low in athletes, increasing the risk for low bone
density and stress fractures. Adults absorb only ~30% of the calcium contained in consumed
foods, and an even lower amount in a state of Vitamin D deficiency. Certain factors either
enhance or inhibit calcium absorption. Enhancers include a high need of calcium (during times
of growth, pregnancy, and lactation), adequate blood levels of Vitamin D, the presence of
lactose in the diet, and an acidic environment of the stomach. Inhibitors of calcium absorption
include large amounts of phytic acid and fiber from grains (in the case of high fiber diets),
tannins (found in tea), older age, and some medications.
Vitamin D has been shown to act as an important regulator of both inflammation and immunity
within the body, and may play a key role in protein synthesis and cell proliferation in skeletal
muscle. Vitamin D needs can be met by direct sunlight exposure of 5-30 minutes between the
hours of 10am-2pm several times a week, but this is often difficult to achieve year-round.
Factors such as age, skin pigmentation, fat malabsorption, kidney or liver diseases, sunscreen
use, inadequate sun exposure and inadequate dietary intake can lead to impaired Vitamin D
status. Sun exposure is the best source of Vitamin D. Although Vitamin D can be stored in the
liver and fat tissue, dietary sources and possibly supplementation as advised by your dietitian
are recommended to optimize Vitamin D status particularly during winter months.
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Blood Health
For athletes, blood health is essential for delivery of oxygen throughout the body. Several
micronutrients help to maintain blood health, including Vitamin K, folate, Vitamin B-12, iron,
copper, and zinc. The individual functions of these micronutrients are listed in Table 3.
One particularly important blood health nutrient of concern in Nordic skiers is iron. Iron functions
to carry oxygen; its role in exercise holds clear significance in that the body cannot perform
optimally with limited oxygen supply to working muscle. The severity of iron deficiency is defined
by three stages: iron depletion, iron deficiency non-anemia (IDNA), and iron deficiency anemia.
Athletes with iron depletion do not show clinical symptoms of anemia but may experience
impaired athletic performance. Iron depletion is highly prevalent in endurance athletes, and
may often go undetected unless serum ferritin is measured. Iron depletion can occur from
inadequate dietary intake of iron, GI bleeding, menstruation, excessive sweating, a state of
trauma, or poor iron absorption.
Blood testing is the best way to monitor iron status and screen for deficiency. The minimum
tests to determine iron status are complete blood count (CBC) and serum ferritin, but ideally
include CBC, serum ferritin, serum iron, transferrin saturation, total iron binding capacity,
reticulocytes, and transferrin receptors. If serum ferritin is <35 mcg/L, iron supplementation is
necessary. Consult with a sports dietitian or sports medicine professional to develop a plan.
Iron levels can be increased through adequate dietary intake and optimization of iron
absorption. Because several enhancers and inhibitors of iron exist, maximizing iron absorption
is a challenge. Sources of iron include heme and non-heme. Heme iron comes from animal
products such as beef, poultry, and fish, whereas non-heme iron comes from both animal and
plant products such as beans and grains. Non-heme iron, however, is less bioavailable for the
body to use, and is best absorbed when eaten with a source of heme iron. Additional
enhancers of iron absorption include foods high in Vitamin C (i.e., fruits and vegetables),
fermented foods, and alcohol. Iron absorption is inhibited by factors such as tannins (found in
coffee, tea, and cocoa), phytates (found in cereals, legumes, and soy products), and calcium
(milk, yogurt, and cheese).
Supplementation
A ‘food first’ approach is recommended for reaching daily micronutrient needs. Before choosing
to use a vitamin and/or mineral supplement, consult with a sports dietitian to evaluate current
dietary intake. Blood work should be completed to assess for existing micronutrient deficiencies.
If micronutrient intake is insufficient, a dietitian can work with the athlete to organize a plan that
may include supplementation along with dietary intervention and education. Keep in mind that
not all supplements are created equal; therefore, it is important to use the assistance of a sports
dietitian in selecting certified supplements.
Athlete Tip: Consume a varied diet of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts, legumes,
lean meats, dairy, and fortified grain products to ensure adequate micronutrient intake. If
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diet is restricted in total intake, intolerances, allergies, or food preferences, consult with
a sports dietitian to work out a plan to meet micronutrient recommendations. Never
supplement without first consulting with a dietitian.
See Appendix B for a table on micronutrient functions and food sources.
Fueling for Training
Choosing foods to support work during exercise and optimal recovery can have a positive
impact on performance by allowing the athlete to enter the next training bout or competition at
the highest level.
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Athlete Tip: Consume ~1g CHO/kg body weight per hour for up to 4 hours prior to a training
session or competition. Add 10-20g of protein. Limit fiber and fat.
Examples:
-Oatmeal with fruit and orange juice
-Sandwich or bagel with egg or deli meat
-Pasta or rice with sauce
-Cereal with milk
-Toast with honey
-Banana with peanut butter
Fueling Before Training
The primary goal of fueling before training or competition is to maintain blood glucose levels and
maximize glycogen stores that will be used to fuel exercise. Since the body has a relatively low
storage capacity for carbohydrate (~400-500g as glycogen) and a limitless storage capacity for
fat, focus is placed on carbohydrate for a pre-training meal or snack. Moderate protein intake of
10-20 grams pre-exercise has shown to benefit protein synthesis. Additionally, fat consumption
should be limited before training since it has a longer digestion time than CHO and can cause
GI distress if consumed prior to exercise. The amount recommended for a pre-training meal or
snack depends on the timing of the meal in relation to the training session. A good rule of thumb
is to consume 1g CHO/kg BW per hour for up to 4 hours leading to the training session. For
example, a meal consumed 3 hours before a training session should consist of ~3g CHO/kg
BW; a snack consumed 1 hour before a training session should consist of ~1g CHO/kg BW.
Because fiber can also cause GI distress during exercise, pre-training carbohydrate choices
should consist of easily digestible carbohydrate. Another key is to choose foods that are familiar
to the athlete. Training is an excellent time to test different meal and snack choices so the
athlete is confident in a fueling regimen for competition.
Hydrating prior to training or an event should be initiated with fluid consumption several hours
before training or an event. Consumption of added sodium or salty snacks helps retain fluids
and stimulate thirst. Current recommendations suggest slowly consuming fluid in the amount of
~5-7 mL/kg body weight at least 4 hours prior to exercise. If urine is not produced or is dark in
color, this process should be repeated in the range of 3-5mL/kg body weight approximately 2
hours prior to exercise.
Fueling During Training
The benefit of consuming water and carbohydrate during training depends on the duration of
training and the pre-training meal. Fluid losses during exercise are unlikely to impact
performance if exercise duration is <60 minutes, although consuming water during this time is
not harmful. Carbohydrate consumption, however, is unnecessary since water intake will
support optimal performance. For training or competition >60 minutes in duration, fluids should
be replaced to keep losses under 2% of body weight. The exact amount should be
individualized, but is typically between .4-.8 liters per hour (or 13-27 ounces). Sodium should be
included in fluid intake when exercise duration is 2 hours or greater. For exercise lasting
between 1-2.5 hours, consuming 30-60g CHO/hour is recommended based on research and the
maximal glucose oxidation rate of 1g/minute. For training lasting greater than 2.5 hours, up to
90g CHO/hour is recommended as tolerated. The most beneficial effects of carbohydrate
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ingestion are noted when carbohydrate is consumed within the first 15 minutes of exercise and
at 15-20 minute intervals for the duration of exercise. Additionally, research has shown that a
combination of glucose: fructose in a 2:1 ratio provides enhanced carbohydrate absorption.
Since glucose and fructose utilize different pathways in the body, increased digestive and
absorptive efficiency is observed when these carbohydrates are consumed together.
Optimal Sports Drink
Ingesting a sports drink containing 6-8% CHO has been shown to be the optimal concentration
of CHO that an athlete can digest and absorb with little to no GI discomfort. Sipping on a sports
drink of this nature every 15 minutes throughout exercise will help the athlete maintain hydration
and electrolyte balance while also supplying fuel to the body. Most popular sports drinks
include a combination of glucose and fructose due to the increased absorptive capacity as
described above. It should be noted that too much fructose could cause gastrointestinal
distress. Training sessions longer than 2.5 hours may require the consumption of higher
concentrated CHO products, like gels and bars, in addition to a 6-8% CHO sports drink to meet
the energy demands. A lower CHO concentration (2-4%) sports may be beneficial in the
following circumstances:
•
•
where an athlete experiences GI digress with a 6-8% CHO solution
for training in the heat (dry-land training) where sodium and fluid needs become the
priority over CHO replacement.
Athletes should be encouraged to practice training with a sports beverage so they can find one
that is tasty and well tolerated. Sports beverages can be purchased or homemade; the key is to
find one that works for the individual athlete.
Athlete Tip: For training or competition lasting more than an hour, consume ~15g CHO
every 15-30 min to equal 30-60g per hour. Fluid intake is individualized, but should likely
range between 13-27 ounces.
Examples:
-12 ounces Gatorade (21g CHO)
-1 pack Gatorade chews (24g CHO)
-1 sports gel (24g CHO)
-1/2 pack Clif Shot Bloks (24g CHO)
*Consume water with gels and chews to meet fluid needs and aid in digestion of CHO.
Recovery After Training
The importance of adequate recovery nutrition after training is partially dependent on the timing
of the next training session or competition. If more than 8 hours are allotted for recovery,
glycogen stores can be repleted by following the daily recommendation. If less than 8 hours are
allotted, a strict glycogen replacement regimen should be implemented to optimize the athlete’s
ability to enter the next training session with fully repleted glycogen stores. In this scenario, the
athlete should consume 1-1.2g CHO/kg/hour for the first 4 hours following training to maximize
glycogen repletion. This amount of carbohydrate can be spread out hour-by-hour or consumed
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in 1-2 larger snacks depending on the time constraint and preference of the athlete. Protein
should be consumed as immediately as possible after exercise to stimulate muscle protein
synthesis and repair, preferably within 1-2 hours and not exceeding 3 hours. An appropriate
post-exercise amount of protein is 15-20 grams, and should be combined with the CHO
recommendations for post-exercise. Post-exercise snacks that meet the protein requirements
include low-fat chocolate milk, fruit with yogurt, a bowl of cereal with low-fat milk, a sandwich
with peanut butter or deli meat, or a sports drink formulated for post-exercise.
Replacing fluid losses is also a key component of recovery after training. Recommendations
suggest consuming 150% of fluid lost during exercise as part of a recovery plan. Thus, each
pound (16 ounces) lost during exercise should be replaced with 24 ounces of fluid. Monitoring
sweat rate and fluid loss during training will allow the athlete to have an individualized recovery
plan for fluid replacement.
Athlete Tip: Consume 15-20g PRO preferably immediately but within 1-2 hours after
training or competition.
-See examples of foods with ~20g PRO listed in protein section above.
Rehydrate by consuming 24 ounces of fluid for each pound lost.
-Gatorade, chocolate milk, and water are all good options, depending on CHO and
electrolyte needs.
Pre-Event Nutrition
A fueling strategy prior to an event should follow the guidelines set above in the ‘Fueling Before
Training’ section. Aim for a pre-event meal high in CHO, moderate in protein, and low in fat and
fiber. Keep in mind that pre-race fueling should be rehearsed during training so the athlete is
comfortable and confident in the strategy. This will avoid any surprises with GI distress and
other similar issues that could interfere with performance.
Importance of Timing
The specific CHO recommendations noted above for pre-, during, and post-training and
competition should be followed to optimize performance. For example, low energy availability
and early fatigue can occur when CHO intake is too low prior to exercise. On the other hand, GI
distress and consequent impaired performance may occur when CHO intake is too high prior to
exercise. Following the 1g/kg/hr up to 4 hours before exercise is a useful practice to establish.
Carbohydrate Loading for Endurance Performance
A landmark study was conducted in the 1960’s that found that glycogen stores could be doubled
with a carbohydrate loading protocol. In this classic carbohydrate loading study, athletes
exercised to exhaustion to deplete glycogen then limited CHO intake while training for days 4-7
prior to an event. Athletes then would eat a high CHO diet for days 0-3 prior to the event.
Although this protocol was successful at super-compensating glycogen stores, athletes found it
difficult to follow and the risk of injury and GI upset was increased. Current strategy focuses on
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increasing CHO intake leading up to an event while also tapering training and highlighting rest.
This method is well tolerated and yields similar results to the classic carbohydrate loading
protocol. The specific recommendation for carbohydrate loading in preparation for an event >90
minutes in duration is to consume 10-12g CHO/kg body weight/24 hour period for 36-48 hours
leading up to the event.
Food Selection
Daily nutrient needs should be met by consuming a nutrient-dense diet high in variety. Because
foods that may be best to support fueling for training are not typically high in variety or nutrientdensity, it is important to select a variety of nutrient-rich foods at times when fueling for training
(before and during exercise) is not the priority. Food selections during snacks and meals not
surrounding the training session should include whole grains, fruits and vegetables, lean
proteins, and healthy fats.
Outlined Fueling Strategy for a Training Day
Breakfast (~3 hrs pre-training) = 1 cup granola with 1 cup milk or yogurt
Pre-training snack (~1.5 hr pre-training) = toast with banana and honey, peanut butter
sandwich, or a granola bar with piece of fruit
During training = sip on sports drink every 15 minutes (if prefer to use gels or other sports food,
sip on water)
Immediately post-training = CHO + PRO snack in ~ 3 or 4:1 ratio (chocolate milk, milk with
honey, or a fruit and yogurt-based smoothie)
Within 2 hours post-training = Well-balanced meal (whole wheat pasta with red sauce, add
chicken, avocado, and veggies of choice; sandwich with whole grain bread and lean meat
(turkey, chicken), quinoa side salad made with mixed veggies, fruit, and yogurt; brown rice with
tofu or chicken, veggies, and nuts)
2nd workout of the day = repeat steps above (post-training meal for 1st workout can serve as the
pre-workout meal, depending on timing)
Keep in mind that this is an example, therefore the amounts and timing will vary based on the
individual’s needs and training schedule. Refer to the specific grams per kilogram
recommendations listed in this section for an individualized plan.
Travel Foods
Food selections are often limited during travel. Preparing ahead of time and packing snacks
and foods to bring from home keeps the fueling plan in the hands of the athlete as opposed to
being limited to foods available during travel. Because fueling during travel often warrants
compromise, adhering to an optimal fueling plan while home allows for a bit more flexibility
during travel. For this reason, processed sports foods such as bars, shakes, and drinks should
be limited while at home. These foods, however, offer convenient options for fueling athletes on
the road.
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Athlete Tip: Establish a fueling strategy for travel by planning ahead. If possible, travel
with convenient, easy-to-prep, shelf-stable snacks such as:
-Peanut butter sandwich
-Dry cereal
-Trail Mix
-Bars and Powders for recovery
-Fruit
-Granola Bars
-Sports Drinks
Supplements
Supplements can be divided into three main categories: dietary, sports, and ergogenic aids.
The Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) defines a dietary supplement as “a
product taken by mouth that contains a ‘dietary ingredient’ intended to supplement the diet”.
These ingredients can include vitamins, minerals, herbs or other botanicals, amino acids, and
substances such as enzymes, organ tissues, glandulars, and metabolites. This encompasses
vitamins, minerals, pre and probiotics, and the like. A sports supplement is similar to a dietary
supplement in that it is used to meet an individual’s dietary needs, but different in that it is
targeted to meet an athlete’s needs. Sports supplements can include sports drinks, bars, gels,
and other products used to meet an athlete’s dietary needs including use during exercise.
Ergogenic aids are products specifically targeted to improve an athlete’s performance.
The supplement industry is not strictly regulated, posing a risk for the athlete in drug testing.
Even if a given supplement appears “clean” and safe, issues such as cross-contamination exist.
Further, supplements do not need to be “proven” safe or effective prior to sale. For this reason,
discuss any desired supplement program with a sports dietitian to ensure use of only certified
supplements and avoid potentially harmful outcomes.
Keep in mind that a balanced, nutrient-rich diet should provide most, if not all, the nutrients an
athlete needs for optimal performance. Supplement use should always be discussed with the
sports medicine team, specifically with the sports dietitian.
To access a current list of banned substances and for guidance interpreting the rules, visit:
World Anti-Doping Agency: http://list.wada-ama.org/
US Anti-Doping Agency: http://www.usada.org/substances/prohibited-list/athlete-guide/
Athlete Tip: Consult with your sports medicine team and sports dietitian prior to use of
any supplement. Check the certification and safety of specific supplements online
through the anti-doping agencies WADA or USADA.
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PHASE 1—AGES 2-6
-Basic understanding of food groups
-Able to distinguish between basic, common healthful foods versus less healthful foods
-Focus on drinking water during practice and throughout the day
PHASE 2—AGES 6-10
-Build a foundational understanding of well-balanced meal and snacks
-Continue hydrating throughout the day
-Develop a habit of having a snack or meal before and after practice
PHASE 3—BEFORE GRWOTH SPURT
-Encourage selection of a variety of foods and trying new ones
-Develop a basic understanding of foods that support performance
-Athletes should be selecting foods that support performance most of the time
PHASE 4—DURING GRWOTH SPURT
-Begin to hydrate based on training (knowing when to consume plain water versus sports
beverage)
-Build an understanding of additional needs during growth and altering food intake to
accommodate growth
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PHASE 5—AFTER GROWTH SPURT
-Acquire an understanding of individual fuel needs
-Continue to stress the importance of food intake to support performance
-Utilize the Athlete’s Plate model to alter food intake based on level of training
-Continue optimizing individual needs to meet training and competition schedule (nutrition
PHASE 6—FULL MATURATION
periodization)
-Know individual sweat rates and how to replace electrolytes along with fluid appropriately
-Stress importance of consuming a varied diet that meets micronutrient needs in addition to
macronutrient recommendations
-Build a knowledge base of signs and symptoms related to common nutritional concerns and
seek appropriate assistance when risk is present
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-Seek nutrition expertise for advice on individual supplement recommendations
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