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Maria Theresa
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Maria Theresa
Maria Theresa
Predecessor Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
Successor
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor
Empress consort of the Holy Roman Empire
Queen consort of Germany
Tenure
13 September 1745 – 18 August 1765
Queen of Hungary and Croatia; Archduchess of Austria
Reign
20 October 1740 – 29 November 1780 (40 years, 40 days)
Coronation
25 June 1741
Queen of Bohemia
Reign
20 October 1740–1741
1743 – 29 November 1780
Coronation
12 May 1743
Spouse
Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor
Issue
Full name
Maria Theresia Walburga Amalia Christina
House
House of Habsburg
Father
Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor
Mother
Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel
Born
13 May 1717 Hofburg Palace, Vienna
Died
29 November 1780 (aged 63) Hofburg Palace, Vienna
Burial
Imperial Crypt, Vienna
Signature
Religion
Christian (Roman Catholic)
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina[1] (German: Maria Theresia Walburga Amalia Christina) (13 May
1717 – 29 November 1780) was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of
Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia,
the Austrian Netherlands and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and
Maria Theresa
Holy Roman Empress.[2]
She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in October 1740. Charles VI paved the way
for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, as the Habsburg lands were bound by Salic law which
prevented female succession.[3] Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria and France repudiated the
sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of
Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. Maria Theresa would later
unsuccessfully try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years' War.
She married Francis Stephen of Lorraine and had sixteen children, including Queen Marie Antoinette of France,
Queen Maria Carolina of Naples, Duchess Maria Amalia of Parma and two Holy Roman Emperors, Joseph II and
Leopold II. Though she was expected to cede power to Francis and Joseph, both of whom were officially her
co-rulers in Austria and Bohemia,[4] Maria Theresa was the absolute sovereign who ruled by the counsel of her
advisers.[5] She criticised and disapproved of many of Joseph's actions. Although she is considered to have been
intellectually inferior to both Joseph and Leopold,[5] Maria Theresa understood the importance of her public persona
and was able to simultaneously evoke both esteem and affection from her subjects.[6]
Maria Theresa promulgated financial and educational reforms, with the assistance of Count Friedrich Wilhelm von
Haugwitz and Gottfried van Swieten, promoted commerce and the development of agriculture, and reorganised
Austria's ramshackle military, all of which strengthened Austria's international standing. However, she refused to
allow religious toleration[7] and contemporary travellers thought her regime was bigoted and superstitious.[8] As a
young monarch who fought two dynastic wars, she believed that her cause should be the cause of her subjects, but in
her later years she would believe that their cause must be hers.[9]
Early life and background
The second but eldest surviving child of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI and Elisabeth Christine of
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Archduchess Maria Theresa was born early in the morning of 13 May 1717, at the Hofburg
Palace, Vienna, shortly after the death of her elder brother, Archduke Leopold. She was baptised in the evening that
day. Her aunt and her grandmother, Empress Wilhelmine Amalia and Empress Eleanor Magdalene, were her
godmothers.[10] Most descriptions of her baptism stress that the infant was carried ahead of her cousins,
Archduchesses Maria Josepha and Maria Amalia, the daughters of Charles VI's elder brother and predecessor, Joseph
I, before the eyes of Joseph's widow, Wilhelmine Amalia of Brunswick-Lüneburg. It was clear that Maria Theresa
would outrank them, even though their grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I, had his sons sign the decree
which gave precedence to the daughters of the elder brother.[11] [12] Her father was the only surviving male member
of the House of Habsburg and hoped for a son who would prevent the extinction of his dynasty and succeed him.
Thus, the birth of Maria Theresa was a great disappointment to him and the people of Vienna; Charles never
managed to overcome this feeling.[13] [14]
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Maria Theresa replaced Maria Josepha as heiress presumptive to the
Habsburg realms the moment she was born; Charles VI had issued the
Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 which had placed his nieces behind his
own daughters in the line of succession.[16] Charles sought the other
European powers' approval for disinheriting his nieces. They exacted
harsh terms: in the Treaty of Vienna (1731), Great Britain demanded
that Austria abolish the Ostend Company in return for its recognition
of the Pragmatic Sanction.[17] In total, Great Britain, France,
Saxony-Poland, United Provinces, Spain,[18] Venice,[19] States of the
Church,[19] Prussia,[20] Russia,[19] Denmark,[20] Savoy-Sardinia,[20]
Bavaria[20] and the Diet of the Holy Roman Empire[20] recognised the
sanction. France, Spain, Saxony-Poland, Bavaria and Prussia later
reneged.
Little more than a year after her birth, Maria Theresa was joined by a
sister, Archduchess Maria Anna, and another one, named Maria
Amalia, was born in 1724.[21] The portraits of the imperial family show
that Maria Theresa resembled Empress Elisabeth Christine and
Archduchess Maria Anna.[22] The Prussian ambassador noted that she
had large blue eyes, fair hair with a slight tinge of red, a wide mouth
[9] [23]
and a notably strong body.
Neither her parents nor her grandparents were closely related to each other, making
Maria Theresa one of few members of the House of Habsburg who were not inbred.[24]
Archduchess Maria Theresa in 1727, by Andreas
Möller. The flowers which she carries in the
uplifted folds of her dress represent her fertility
and expectations to bear children in
[15]
adulthood.
Maria Theresa was a serious and reserved child who enjoyed singing and archery.[25] She was barred from horse
riding by her father, but she would later learn the basics for the sake of her Hungarian coronation ceremony. The
imperial family staged opera productions, often conducted by Charles VI, in which she relished participating.[26] Her
education was overseen by Jesuits. Contemporaries thought her Latin to be quite good, but in all else, the Jesuits did
not educate her well. Her spelling and punctuation were unconventional and she lacked the formal manner and
speech which had characterised her Habsburg predecessors.[27] Maria Theresa developed a close relationship with
Countess Marie Karoline von Fuchs-Mollard, who taught her etiquette. She was educated in drawing, painting,
music and dancing – the disciplines which would have prepared her for the role of queen consort.[28] Her father
allowed her to attend meetings of the council from the age of 14 but never discussed the affairs of state with her.[29]
Even though he had spent the last decades of his life securing Maria Theresa's inheritance, Charles always expected a
son and never prepared his daughter for her future role as sovereign.[30] [31]
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Marriage
The question of Maria Theresa's marriage was raised early in her
childhood. She was first engaged to be married to Leopold Clement of
Lorraine, who was supposed to visit Vienna and meet the Archduchess
in 1723. However, news reached Vienna that he had died of
smallpox.[32]
Leopold Clement's younger brother, Francis Stephen, was invited to
Vienna. Even though Francis Stephen was his favourite candidate for
Maria Theresa's hand,[33] the Emperor considered other possibilities.
Religious differences prevented him from arranging his daughter's
Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen at their
marriage to the Calvinist prince Frederick of Prussia. In 1725, he
wedding breakfast, by Martin van Meytens.
betrothed her to Charles of Spain and her sister, Maria Anna, to Philip
of Spain. However, other European powers compelled him to renounce
the pact he had made with the Dowager Queen of Spain, Elisabeth Farnese, as the marriage of heirs to the thrones of
Spain and Austria would have destroyed the European balance of power. Maria Theresa, who had become close to
Francis Stephen, was relieved.[34] [35]
Francis Stephen remained at the imperial court until 1729, when he ascended the throne of Lorraine,[36] but was not
formally promised Maria Theresa's hand until 31 January 1736, during the War of the Polish Succession.[37] Louis
XV of France demanded that Maria Theresa's fiancé surrender his ancestral Duchy of Lorraine to accommodate his
father-in-law, Stanisław Leszczyński, who had been deposed as King of Poland.[38] Francis Stephen was to receive
the Grand Duchy of Tuscany upon the death of childless Grand Duke Gian Gastone de' Medici.[39] The couple were
married on 12 February 1736.[40]
The Duchess of Lorraine's love for her husband was strong and
possessive.[41] [42] The letters she sent to him shortly before their
marriage expressed her eagerness to see him; his letters, on the other
hand, were stereotyped and formal.[43] [44] She was very jealous of her
husband and his infidelity was the greatest problem of their
marriage,[45] [46] with Maria Wilhelmina, Princess of Auersperg, as his
best known mistress.[47] [48] [49]
Upon Gian Gastone's death on 9 July 1737, Francis Stephen ceded
Lorraine and became Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1738, Charles VI sent
Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen, by Peter
the young couple to make their formal entry into Tuscany. A triumphal
Kobler von Ehrensorg.
arch was erected at the Porta Galla in celebration, where it remains
today. Their stay in Florence was brief. Charles VI soon recalled them,
as he feared he might die while his heiress was miles away in Tuscany.[50] In the summer of 1738, Austria suffered
defeats during the ongoing Russo-Turkish War. The Turks reversed Austrian gains in Serbia, Wallachia and Bosnia.
The Viennese rioted at the cost of the war. Francis Stephen was popularly despised, as he was thought to be a
cowardly French spy.[50] The war was concluded the next year with the Treaty of Belgrade.
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Accession
Charles VI died on 20 October 1740, at the Favorita Palace, Vienna,
probably because he had eaten poisonous mushrooms. He had ignored
the advice of Prince Eugene of Savoy who had urged him to
concentrate on filling the treasury and equipping the army rather than
on acquiring signatures of fellow monarchs.[16] The Emperor, who
spent his entire reign securing the Pragmatic Sanction, left Austria in
an impoverished state, bankrupted by the recent Turkish war and the
War of the Polish Succession;[52] the treasury contained only 100,000
florins, which were claimed by his widow.[53] The army numbered
only 80,000 men, most of whom had not been paid in months; they
were nevertheless remarkably loyal and devoted to their new
sovereign.[54] [55]
Maria Theresa's procession through the Graben,
22 November 1740. The pregnant queen is on
way to hear High Mass at St. Stephen's Cathedral
[51]
before receiving homage.
Maria Theresa found herself in a difficult situation. She did not know enough about matters of state and she was
unaware of the weakness of her father's ministers. She decided to rely on her father's advice to retain his councillors
and defer to her husband, whom she considered to be more experienced, on other matters. Both decisions, though
natural, would prove to be unfortunate. Ten years later, Maria Theresa bitterly recalled in her Political Testament the
circumstances under which she had ascended: "I found myself without money, without credit, without army, without
experience and knowledge of my own and finally, also without any counsel because each one of them at first wanted
to wait and see how things would develop."[31] [56]
She dismissed the possibility that other countries might try to seize her territories and immediately started ensuring
the imperial dignity for herself;[57] since a woman could not be elected Holy Roman Empress, Maria Theresa wanted
to secure the imperial office for her husband. However, Francis Stephen did not possess enough land or rank within
the Holy Roman Empire.[58] In order to make him eligible for the imperial throne and to enable to him to vote in the
imperial elections as elector of Bohemia (which she couldn't due to her gender), Maria Theresa made Francis
Stephen co-ruler of the Austrian and Bohemian lands on 21 November 1740.[59] However, it took more than a year
for the Diet of Hungary to accept Francis Stephen as co-ruler.[60] [61] Despite her love for him and his position as
co-ruler, Maria Theresa never allowed her husband to decide about matters of state and often dismissed him from
council meetings when they disagreed.[62]
The first display of the new queen's authority was the formal act of homage of the Lower Austrian Estates to her on
22 November 1740. It was an elaborate public event which served as a formal recognition and legitimation of her
accession. The oath of fealty to Maria Theresa was taken on the same day in Hofburg.[51]
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War of the Austrian Succession
Immediately after her accession, a number of European sovereigns
who had recognised Maria Theresa as heiress broke their promises;
Queen Elisabeth of Spain and Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria,
married to Maria Theresa's deprived cousin Maria Amalia and
supported by Empress Wilhelmine Amalia, wanted portions of her
inheritance.[53] Maria Theresa secured the recognition of King Charles
Emmanuel III of Sardinia, who hadn't accepted the Pragmatic Sanction
during her father's lifetime, in November 1740.[60]
In December, King Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia and
requested that Maria Theresa cede it, threatening to join her enemies if
she refused. Maria Theresa decided to fight for the mineral-rich
province.[64] Frederick even offered a compromise: he would defend
Maria Theresa's rights if she agreed to cede him at least a part of
Silesia. Francis Stephen was inclined to consider such an arrangement,
but the Queen and her advisers were not, fearing that any violation of
the Pragmatic Sanction would invalidate the entire document.[65] Maria
Theresa's firmness soon assured Francis Stephen that they should fight
for Silesia[66] and she was confident that she would retain "the jewell
of the House of Austria".[67]
Maria Theresa's lifetime enemy, King Frederick
II of Prussia, to whom she referred as "that evil
[63]
man", by Antoine Pesne.
"She has, as you well know, a terrible hatred for France, with which nation it is most difficult for her to keep on good terms, but she
controls this passion except when she thinks to her advantage to display it. She detests Your Majesty, but acknowledges your ability. She
cannot forget the loss of Silesia, nor her grief over the soldiers she lost in wars with you."
[68]
Prussian ambassador's letter to Frederick the Great.
As Austria was short of experienced military commanders, Maria Theresa released Marshall Neipperg, who had been
imprisoned by her father for his poor performance in the Turkish War.[69] Neipperg took command of the Austrian
troops in March. The Austrians suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Mollwitz in April 1741.[70] France drew up
a plan to partition Austria between Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony and Spain.[71] Marshall Belle-Isle joined Frederick at
Olmütz. Vienna was in a panic, as none of Maria Theresa's advisors expected France to betray them. Francis Stephen
urged Maria Theresa to reach a rapprochement with Prussia, as did Great Britain.[72] Maria Theresa reluctantly
agreed to negotiations.[73]
Contrary to all expectations, a significant amount of support for the young Queen came from Hungary.[74] Her
coronation as King of Hungary took place in St. Martin's Cathedral, Pressburg (Bratislava) on 25 June 1741 after she
had spent months honing the equestrian skills necessary for the ceremony and negotiating with the Diet.[75] By July,
attempts at conciliation had completely collapsed. Maria Theresa's ally, the Elector of Saxony, now became her
enemy.[76] and George II declared the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg to be neutral.[77] The Queen was once
again in need of help from Hungary. In order to obtain it, she granted favours to the Hungarian noblemen and
flattered them without conceding to all of their demands. She had already won their support when she appeared in
Pressburg in September 1741, hoping to persuade the Diet to call a mass conscription and recognise Francis Stephen
as co-ruler. Upon achieving both goals, she showed her gift for theatrical displays by triumphantly holding her son
and heir, Joseph, before the Diet, thereby gaining sympathy of the noblemen.[6] [78] [79]
Maria Theresa
In 1741, the Austrian authorities informed Maria Theresa that
Bohemian populace would prefer Charles Albert to her as sovereign.
Maria Theresa, desperate and burdened by pregnancy, wrote
plaintively to her sister: "I don't know if a town will remain to me for
my delivery."[80] She bitterly vowed to spare nothing and no one to
defend her kingdom when she wrote to the Bohemian chancellor,
Count Philip Kinsky: "My mind is made up. We must put everything at
stake to save Bohemia."[81] [82] On 26 October, the Elector of Bavaria
captured Prague and declared himself King of Bohemia. Maria
Theresa, then in Hungary, wept on learning of the loss of Bohemia.[83]
Charles Albert was unanimously elected Holy Roman Emperor on
24 January 1742. The Archduchess, who regarded the election as a
catastrophe,[84] caught her enemies unprepared by insisting on a winter
campaign;[85] the same day he was elected emperor, Austrian troops
under Ludwig Andreas von Khevenhüller captured Munich, Charles
Albert's capital.[86]
7
Maria Theresa being crowned Queen of Hungary,
St. Martin's Cathedral, Pressburg.
The Treaty of Breslau of June 1742 ended hostilities between Austria and Prussia. The Archduchess soon made the
recovery of Bohemia her priority.[87] French troops fled Bohemia in the winter of the same year. On 12 May 1743,
Maria Theresa had herself crowned Queen of Bohemia in St. Vitus Cathedral.[88] [89]
Prussia became anxious at Austrian advances on the Rhine frontier, and Frederick sacked Prague in August 1744.
The French plans fell apart when Charles Albert died in January 1745. The French over-ran the Austrian Netherlands
in May.[90]
Francis Stephen was elected Holy Roman Emperor on 13 September 1745. Prussia recognised Francis as emperor,
and Maria Theresa once again recognised the loss of Silesia by the Treaty of Breslau in December 1745.[91] The war
dragged on for another three years, with fighting in northern Italy and the Austrian Netherlands. The Treaty of
Aix-La-Chapelle, which concluded the eight-year conflict, recognised Prussia's possession of Silesia and Maria
Theresa ceded the Duchy of Parma to Philip of Spain.[92]
Seven Years' War
Frederick of Prussia's invasion of Saxony in August 1756 began the Seven Years' War. Empress Maria Theresa and
Kaunitz wished to exit the war with possession of Silesia.[93] Austria was aligned with France and Russia; Great
Britain with Prussia and Portugal. Giving Austria huge subsidies came back to haunt France. It could not bolster
defences in New France; the British easily captured Louisbourg in 1758, and went on to conquer all of New
France.[94]
Maximilian von Browne commanded the Austrian troops. Following the indecisive Battle of Lobositz in 1756, he
was replaced by Prince Charles Alexander of Lorraine, Maria Theresa's brother-in-law.[95] Frederick was startled by
Lobositz; he eventually re-grouped for another attack in June 1757. The Battle of Kolin that followed was a decisive
victory for Austria. Frederick lost one third of his troops, and before the battle was over, he had fled the scene.[96]
Maria Theresa openly bemoaned French losses in 1758. France, having secured the Anglo-Hanoverian neutrality for
the rest of the conflict,[97] in September 1757, lost it in January of the next year. France suffered a crushing defeat at
Krefeld that June. French forces withdrew to the Rhine.[97]
In 1759, peace negotiations at The Hague came to nothing.[98] The series of Franco-Austrian losses were reversed
until, in 1762, the Empress Elizabeth of Russia died. Her successor Peter III greatly admired Frederick, and at once
withdrew Russia's support from the French coalition. Prussia proceeded to kick the Austrians out of Saxony, and the
French out of Hesse-Kassel. Naturally, it was feared that Frederick would now invade Austria and France,[99] and
Maria Theresa
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they capitulated. The peace treaties, Hubertusburg and Paris, exacted harsh terms on France, as it was forced to
relinquish most of her American colonies. For Austria, though, it was status quo ante bellum.[99]
Family life
Over the course of twenty years, Maria Theresa gave birth to sixteen
children, thirteen of whom survived infancy. The first child, Maria
Elisabeth (1737–1740), was born a little less than a year after the
wedding. Again, the child's gender caused great disappointment and so
would the births of Maria Anna, the eldest surviving child, and Maria
Carolina (1740–1741). While fighting to preserve her inheritance,
Maria Theresa gave birth to a son, Joseph, named after Saint Joseph, to
whom she had repeatedly prayed for a male child during the
pregnancy. Maria Theresa's favourite child, Maria Christina, was born
on her 25th birthday, four days before the defeat of the Austrian army
in Chotusitz. Five more children were born during the war: Maria
Elisabeth, Charles, Maria Amalia, Leopold and Maria Carolina
(1748–1748). During this period, there was no rest for Maria Theresa
Maria Theresa with her family, 1754, by Martin
during pregnancies or around the births; the war and child-bearing
van Meytens.
were carried on simultaneously. Five children were born during the
peace between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven
Years' War: Maria Johanna, Maria Josepha, Maria Carolina, Ferdinand and Maria Antonia. She delivered her last
child, Maximilian Francis, during the Seven Years' War, aged 39.[100] Maria Theresa asserted that, had she not been
almost always pregnant, she would have gone into battle herself.[63] [101]
Maria Theresa's mother, Empress Elisabeth Christine, died in 1750. Four years later, Maria Theresa's governess,
Marie Karoline von Fuchs-Mollard, died. The Empress showed her gratitude to Countess Fuchs by having her buried
in the Imperial Crypt along with the members of the imperial family.[28]
Shortly after giving birth to the younger children, Maria Theresa was confronted with the task of marrying off the
elder ones. She led the marriage negotiations along with the campaigns of her wars and the duties of state. She
treated her children with affection but used them as pawns in dynastic games and sacrificed their happiness for the
benefit of the state.[9] [102] A devoted but self-conscious mother, she wrote to all of her children at least once a week
and believed herself entitled to exercise authority over her children regardless of their age and rank.[103]
The dowager empress with family, 1776, by
Heinrich Füger
Maria Theresa came down with a severe attack of smallpox shortly
after her fiftieth birthday in May 1767, caught from her
daughter-in-law and empress, Maria Josepha of Bavaria.[104] Maria
Theresa survived, but the new empress did not. Maria Theresa forced
her daughter, Archduchess Maria Josepha, to pray with her in the
Imperial Crypt next to the unsealed tomb of Empress Maria Josepha.
The Archduchess started showing smallpox rash two days after visiting
the crypt and soon died. Maria Carolina was to replace her as the
pre-determined bride of King Ferdinand IV of Naples. Maria Theresa
blamed herself for her daughter's death for the rest of her life because,
at the time, the concept of an extended incubation period was largely
unknown and it was believed that Maria Josepha had caught smallpox
from the body of the late empress.[105]
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In April 1770, Maria Theresa's youngest daughter, Maria Antonia, married Louis, Dauphin of France, by proxy in
Vienna. Maria Antonia's education was neglected, and when the French showed an interest in her, her mother went
about educating her as best she could about the court of Versailles and the French. Maria Theresa kept up a
fortnightly correspondence with Maria Antonia, now called Marie Antoinette, in which she often reproached her for
laziness and frivolity and scolded her for failing to conceive a child. She disliked Leopold's reserve and often blamed
him for being cold. She criticised Maria Carolina for her political activities, Ferdinand for his lack of organisation
and Maria Amalia for her poor French and haughtiness. The only child she did not constantly scold was Maria
Christina, who enjoyed her mother's complete confidence, though she failed to please her mother in one aspect: she
did not produce any surviving children. One of Maria Theresa's greatest wishes was to have as many grandchildren
as possible, but she had only about two dozen at the time of her death, of which all the eldest surviving daughters
were named after her, with the exception of Caroline of Parma, her eldest granddaughter by Maria Amalia.[103] [106]
Religious views and policies
Like all members of the House of Habsburg, Maria Theresa was a
Roman Catholic, and a devout one as well. She believed that religious
unity was necessary for a peaceful public life and explicitly rejected
the idea of religious toleration. However, she never allowed the Church
to interfere with what she considered to be prerogatives of a monarch
and kept Rome at arm's length. She controlled the selection of
archbishops, bishops and abbots.[108]
Her approach to religious piety differed from the approach of her
predecessors, as she was influenced by Jansenist ideas. The empress
actively supported conversion to Roman Catholicism by securing
pensions to the converts. She tolerated Greek Catholics and
emphasised their equal status with Roman Catholics.[108] [109] [110]
Maria Theresa and her family celebrating Saint
Nicholas, by Archduchess Maria Christina, in
1762. The painting depicts the bourgeois cosiness
[107]
of the imperial family's home.
Besides her devotion to Christianity, she was widely known for her ascetic lifestyle, especially during her
15-year-long widowhood.[111]
Jesuits
Her relationship with the Jesuits was of complex nature. Members of this order educated her, served as her
confessors and supervised the religious education of her eldest son. The Jesuits were powerful and influential in the
early years of Maria Theresa's reign. However, the queen's ministers managed to convince her that they posed a
danger to her monarchical authority. Not without much hesitation and regret, she issued a decree which removed
them from all the institutions of the monarchy and carried it out thoroughly. She forbade the publication of Pope
Clement XIII's bull which was in favour of the Jesuits and promptly confiscated their property when Pope Clement
XIV suppressed the order.[112]
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Jews and Protestants
Though she eventually gave up trying to convert her non-Catholic
subjects to Roman Catholicism, Maria Theresa regarded both the Jews
and Protestants as dangerous to the state and actively tried to suppress
them.[113] The empress was probably the most anti-Semitic monarch of
her day, having inherited all traditional prejudices of her ancestors and
acquired new ones. This highly personal feature was a product of deep
religious devotion and was not kept secret in her time.[114] In 1777, she
wrote of the Jews: "I know of no greater plague than this race, which
on account of its deceit, usury and avarice is driving my subjects into
beggary. Therefore as far as possible, the Jews are to be kept away and
avoided."[115]
The Maria Theresa thaler is called "the world's
She imposed extremely harsh taxes on her Jewish subjects and, in
most famous coin". The Latin inscription is
December 1744, proposed expelling the Jews from her hereditary
M[ARIA] THERESIA D[EI] G[RATIA]
dominions to her ministers. Her first intention was to expel all Jews by
R[OMANORVM] IMP[ERATRIX]
HV[NGARIAE] BO[HEMIAE] REG[INA], or in
1 January, but having accepted the advice of her ministers who were
English, "Maria Theresa, by the Grace of God,
concerned by the number of future expellees, had them expelled by
Empress of the Romans, Queen of Hungary and
June. She also transferred Protestants from Austria to Transylvania and
Bohemia." This particular coin was struck in
cut down the number of religious holidays and monastic orders. In
Vienna in 1890, and production continued for
more than a century after Maria Theresa's death,
1777, Maria Theresa abandoned the idea of expelling Moravian
always with the frozen date of 1780.
Protestants after Joseph, who was opposed to her intentions, threatened
to abdicate as emperor and co-ruler. Finally, the empress was forced to
grant them some toleration by allowing them to worship privately. Joseph regarded his mother's religious policies as
"unjust, impious, impossible, harmful and ridiculous".[112] [113] [116]
In the third decade of her reign, influenced by her Jewish courtier Abraham Mendel Theben, Maria Theresa issued
edicts which offered some state protection to her Jewish subjects. She forbade forceful conversion of Jewish children
to Christianity in 1762. The next year, the empress forbade Catholic clergy to extract surplice fee from the Jews. In
1764, she ordered the release of those Jews who had been jailed for a blood libel in the village of Orkuta.
Notwithstanding her strong Judeophobia, Maria Theresa supported Jewish commercial and industrial activity.[117]
[118]
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Reforms
Maria Theresa was as conservative in manners of state as in those of
religion, but implemented significant reforms to strengthen Austria's
military and bureaucratic efficiency.[119] She employed Count
Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitz, who modernised the empire by
creating a standing army of 108,000 men, paid for with 14 million
gulden extracted from each crown-land. The central government was
responsible for the army, although Haugwitz instituted taxation of the
nobility, who never before had to pay taxes.[120] Maria Theresa
oversaw the unification of the Austrian and Bohemian chancellories in
May 1749.[121]
Maria Theresa doubled the state revenue between 1754 and 1764,
though her attempt to tax clergy and nobility was only partially
successful.[119] [122] These financial reforms greatly improved the
economy.[123]
In 1760, Maria Theresa created the council of state, composed of the
state chancellor, three members of the high nobility and three knights,
Maria Theresa in 1762, by Jean-Étienne Liotard.
which served as a committee of experienced people who advised her.
The council of state lacked executive or legislative authority, but
nevertheless showed the difference between the form of government employed by Frederick II of Prussia. Unlike the
latter, Maria Theresa was not an autocrat who acted as her own minister. Prussia would adopt this form of
government only after 1807.[116]
In 1771, she and Joseph issued the Robot Patent, a reform that regulated a serf's labor payments in her lands, which
provided some relief. Financially, in 1775, the Monarchy's budget was balanced for the first time in history.[124]
Medicine
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Gerard van Swieten, whom Maria Theresa had recruited following the
death of her sister, Archduchess Maria Anna, founded the Vienna
General Hospital, revamped Austria's educational system and served as
the Empress's personal physician.
After calling in van Swieten, Maria Theresa asked him to study the
problem of infant mortality in Austria. Following his recommendation,
she made a decree that autopsies would be mandatory for all hospital
deaths in the city of Graz, Austria's second largest city. This law – still
in effect today – combined with the relatively stable population of
Graz, resulted in one of the most important and complete autopsy
records in the world.[126] [127] Her decision to have her children
inoculated after the smallpox epidemic of 1767 was responsible for
changing Austrian physicians' negative view of inoculation.[128] [129]
The empress herself inaugurated inoculation in Austria by hosting a
dinner for the first sixty-five inoculated children in Schönbrunn Palace,
waiting on the children herself.[130]
Civil rights
Maria Theresa holding a theatre mask (1744), by
Martin van Meytens. She regarded the theatre as a
source of amusement and national pride and
insisted upon observing special rules to achieve a
[125]
high moral tone.
Among other reforms was the Codex Theresianus, begun in 1752 and finished in 1766, that defined civil rights.[122]
In 1776, Austria outlawed witch burnings and torture, and, for the first time in Austrian history, took capital
punishment off the penal code, as it was replaced with forced labor. It was later reintroduced, but the progressive
nature of these reforms remains noted. Much unlike Joseph, but with the support of religious authorities, Maria
Theresa was opposed to the abolition of torture. Born and raised between Baroque and Rococo eras, she found it
hard to fit into the intellectual sphere of the Enlightenment, which is why she only slowly followed humanitarian
reforms on the continent.[131]
Church
"She is most unusually ambitious and hopes to make the House of Austria more renowned than it has ever been."
[132]
– Prussian ambassador's letter to Frederick II of Prussia.
"That woman's achievements are those of a great man."
[133]
– The writings of Frederick II of Prussia.
Main reforms concerning the Roman Catholic Church were initiated and carried out under Maria Theresa, while the
reforms under her son concerned their non-Catholic subjects. The ecclesiastic policies of Maria Theresa, like those
of her devout predecessors, were based on primacy of government control in the relations between the Church and
the State, but not of organization of the Church.[134] Maria Theresa banned the creation of new burial grounds
without the prior permission of the government, thus deploring the wasteful and unhygienic burial customs.[135]
Maria Theresa
13
Education
Aware of the inadequacy of bureaucracy in Austria and, in order to improve
it, Maria Theresa reformed education in 1775. In a new school system based
on the Prussian one, all children of both genders from the ages of six to
twelve had to attend school. Education reform was met with hostility from
many villages; Maria Theresa crushed the dissent by ordering the arrest of all
those opposed. Although the idea had merit, the reforms were not as
successful as they were expected to be; in some parts of Austria, half of the
population was illiterate well into the 19th century.[116] [137]
The empress permitted non-Catholics to attend university and allowed the
introduction of secular subjects (such as law), which influenced the decline of
theology as the main foundation of university education.[109] [119]
Late reign
Emperor Francis I died on 18 August 1765, while he and the court were in
Innsbruck celebrating the wedding of his second son, Leopold. Maria Theresa
was devastated. Their eldest son, Joseph, became Holy Roman Emperor.
Maria Theresa abandoned all ornamentation, had her hair cut short, painted
her rooms black and dressed in mourning for the rest of her life. She
completely withdrew from court life, public events, and theater. Throughout
her widowhood, she spent the whole August and the eighteenth of each
month alone in her chamber, which negatively affected her mental
health.[138] [139] She described her state of mind shortly after Francis's death:
"I hardly know myself now, for I have become like an animal with no true
life or reasoning power."[138]
Maria Theresa as widow in 1773, by
Anton von Maron. Peace holds the olive
crown above her head, reaffirming Maria
Theresa's monarchical status. This was
the last commissioned state portrait of
[136]
Maria Theresa.
Upon his accession to the imperial throne, Joseph ruled less land than his
father had in 1740. Believing that the emperor must possess enough land to
maintain the Empire's integrity, Maria Theresa, who was used to being
assisted in the administration of her vast realms, declared Joseph to be her new co-ruler on 17 September 1765.[140]
From then on, mother and son had frequent ideological disagreements.[2] The 22 million gulden that Joseph inherited
from his father was injected into the treasury. Maria Theresa had another loss in February 1766 when Haugwitz died.
She gave her son absolute control over the military following the death of Count Leopold Joseph von Daun.[141]
According to Robert A. Kann, Maria Theresa was a monarch of above-average qualifications but intellectually
inferior to Joseph and Leopold.[5] He asserts that she nevertheless possessed qualities appreciated in a monarch:
warm heart, practical mind, firm determination and sound perception. Most importantly, she was ready to recognise
the mental superiority of some of her advisers and to give way to a superior mind while enjoying support of her
ministers even if their ideas differed from her own. Joseph, however, was never able to establish rapport with the
same advisers, even though their philosophy of government was closer to Joseph's than to Maria Theresa's.[5]
Maria Theresa
14
The relationship between Maria Theresa and Joseph was not without
warmth but was complicated and their personalities clashed. Despite
his intellect, Maria Theresa's force of personality often made Joseph
cower. Sometimes, she openly admired his talents and achievements,
but criticised him behind his back.[142] She wrote: "We never see each
other except at dinner ... His temper gets worse every day ... Please
burn this letter ... I just try to avoid public scandal."[142] In another
letter, also addressed to Joseph's companion, she complained: "He
avoids me ... I am the only person in his way and so I am an
obstruction and a burden ... Abdication alone can remedy matters."[142]
Joseph, Maria Theresa's eldest son and co-ruler,
in 1775, by Anton von Maron.
After much contemplation, she chose not to abdicate. Joseph himself
often threatened to resign as co-regent and emperor, but he, too, was
induced not to do so. Her threats of abdication were rarely taken
seriously; Maria Theresa believed that her recovery from smallpox in
1767 was a sign that God wished her to reign until death. It was in
Joseph's interest that she remained sovereign, for he often blamed her
for his failures and thus avoided taking on responsibilities of a
monarch.[142]
Joseph and Prince Kaunitz arranged the First Partition of Poland despite Maria Theresa's protestations. Her sense of
justice pushed her to reject the idea of partition, which would hurt the Polish people. The duo argued that it was too
late to abort now. Besides, Maria Theresa herself agreed with the partition when she realised that Frederick II of
Prussia and Catherine II of Russia would do it with or without Austrian participation. Maria Theresa claimed and
eventually took Galicia and Lodomeira, a province claimed by Hungarian monarchs since the 13th century; in the
words of Frederick, "the more she cried, the more she took".[143] [144] [145]
Death and legacy
Maria Theresa and her husband are interred in the
double tomb which she had inscribed as a widow.
Maria Theresa
15
"She never bothers about her health, but relies entirely upon her vigorous body for strength and endurance. She is warm-blooded and, even
in the middle of winter, often sits by an open window ... Her physician scolds her dreadfully about this, but she only laughs at him."
[132]
Prussian ambassador's letter to Frederick the Great, c. 1748.
It is unlikely that Maria Theresa ever completely recovered from the smallpox attack in 1767, as 18th-century writers
asserted. She suffered from shortness of breath, fatigue, cough, distress, necrophobia and insomnia. She later
developed edema.[146]
The empress fell ill on 24 November 1780, ostensibly of a chill. Her physician Dr. Störk thought her condition
serious. By 28 November, she asked for the last rites, and the next day, at about nine o'clock in the evening, she died
surrounded by her remaining children. With her, the House of Habsburg died out and was replaced by the House of
Habsburg-Lorraine. Joseph, already co-sovereign of the Habsburg dominions, succeeded her.[147] [148]
Maria Theresa left a revitalised empire that influenced the rest of Europe throughout the 19th century. Her
descendants followed her example and continued reforming the empire. The acquisition of the Kingdom of Galicia
and Lodomeria gave the empire an even more multinational character that would ultimately lead to its
destruction.[149] Her introduction of compulsory schooling, as a means of Germanisation, eventually triggered the
revival of Czech culture.[150] [151] [152]
The empress is buried in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna next to her husband in a coffin she had had inscribed during
her lifetime.[153]
Full title
Her title after the death of her husband was:
Maria Theresa, by the Grace of God, Dowager Empress of the Romans, Queen of
Hungary, of Bohemia, of Dalmatia, of Croatia, of Slavonia, of Galicia, of Lodomeria,
etc.; Archduchess of Austria; Duchess of Burgundy, of Styria, of Carinthia and of
Carniola; Grand Princess of Transylvania; Margravine of Moravia; Duchess of
Brabant, of Limburg, of Luxemburg, of Guelders, of Württemberg, of Upper and Lower
Silesia, of Milan, of Mantua, of Parma, of Piacenza, of Guastalla, of Auschwitz and of
Zator; Princess of Swabia; Princely Countess of Habsburg, of Flanders, of Tyrol, of
Hennegau, of Kyburg, of Gorizia and of Gradisca; Margravine of Burgau, of Upper and
Lower Lusatia; Countess of Namur; Lady of the Wendish Mark and of Mechlin; Dowager Duchess of Lorraine and
Bar, Dowager Grand Duchess of Tuscany.[154] [155]
References
[1] As she was the second Maria to reign over the Austrian Netherlands (after Mary the Rich) and Hungary (after Mary of Anjou), she is
sometimes listed as Maria II Theresa. Ellenius, 210.
[2] Marie Theresa (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 364907/ Maria-Theresa). (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 22
April 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
[3] Crankshaw, 11–12.
[4] Dawson Beales, 39.
[5] Kann, 157.
[6] Browning, 67.
[7] In a letter to Joseph, the Empress wrote: "What, without a dominant religion? Toleration, indifferentism, are exactly the right means to
undermine everything... What other restraint exists? None. Neither the gallows nor the wheel... I speak politically now, not as a Christian.
Nothing is so necessary and beneficial as religion. Would you allow everyone to act according to his fantasy? If there were no fixed cult, no
subjection to the Church, where should we be? The law of might would take command." Crankshaw, 302.
[8] Dawson Beales, 69.
[9] Russell Richards Treasure, 410.
[10] Morris, 21–22.
Maria Theresa
[11] Crankshaw, 17.
[12] Mahan, 5–6.
[13] Mahan, 11–12.
[14] Morris, 8.
[15] Levy, 122.
[16] Ingrao, 129.
[17] Crankshaw, 24.
[18] Jones, 89.
[19] Crankshaw, 37.
[20] Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 473697/
Pragmatic-Sanction-of-Emperor-Charles-VI), Encyclopedia Britannica, retrieved 15 October 2009.
[21] Maria Theresa survived both her sisters. Maria Amalia died at the age of six, while Maria Anna died in childbirth in 1744. Ingrao, 128.
[22] Mahan, 23.
[23] Mahan, 228.
[24] Members of the Habsburg dynasty often married their close relatives; examples of such inbreeding were uncle-niece pairs (Maria Theresa's
grandfather Leopold and Margaret Theresa of Spain, Philip II of Spain and Anna of Austria, Philip IV of Spain and Mariana of Austria, etc).
Maria Theresa, however, descended from Leopold I's third wife who was not closely related to him, and her parents were only distantly
related. Dawson Beales, 21.
[25] Morris, 22.
[26] Crankshaw, 19–21.
[27] Rather than using the formal manner and speech, Maria Theresa spoke (and sometimes wrote) Viennese German, which she picked up from
her servants and laidies-in-waiting. Spielman, 206.
[28] Mahan, 22.
[29] Morris, 28.
[30] Crankshaw, 20.
[31] Browning, 37.
[32] Mahan, 24–25.
[33] Crankshaw, 22.
[34] Mahan, 26.
[35] Morris, 25–26.
[36] Mahan, 27.
[37] Mahan, 37.
[38] Maria Theresa's father compelled Francis Stephen to renounce his rights to Lorraine and told him: "No renunciation, no archduchess."
Dawson Beales, 21.
[39] Crankshaw, 25.
[40] Mahan, 38.
[41] Mahan, 261.
[42] McGill, 43.
[43] Leland Goldsmith, 55.
[44] Mahan, 39.
[45] Mahan, 261–262.
[46] Pick, 260.
[47] Mahan, 262–263.
[48] Leland Goldsmith, 171–172.
[49] Morris, 85.
[50] Crankshaw, 26.
[51] Spielman, 207.
[52] Crankshaw, 3.
[53] Morris, 47.
[54] Saperstein, 33.
[55] Roider, 22, 103.
[56] Dawson Beales, 24.
[57] Browning, 37–38.
[58] Francis Stephen was at the time Grand Duke of Tuscany, but Tuscany hadn't been part of the Holy Roman Empire since the Peace of
Westphalia. His only possessions within the Empire were the Duchy of Teschen and County of Falkenstein. Dawson Beales, 190.
[59] Dawson Beales, 183.
[60] Browning, 38.
[61] Dawson Beales, 188–189.
[62] Roider, 8.
16
Maria Theresa
[63] Holborn, 218.
[64] Crankshaw, 43.
[65] Browning, 43.
[66] The day after the entrance of Prussia into Silesia, Francis Stephen exclaimed to the Prussian envoy, Major General Borcke: "Better the Turks
before Vienna, better the surrender of the Netherlands to France, better every concession to Bavaria and Saxony, than the renunciation of
Silesia!" Browning, 44.
[67] Browning, 42, 44.
[68] At the end of the War of the Austrian Succession, Count Podewils was sent as an ambassador to the Austrian court by King Frederick II of
Prussia. Podewils wrote detailed descriptions of Maria Theresa's physical appearance and how she spent her days. Mahan, 230.
[69] Browning, 44.
[70] Browning, 52–53.
[71] Crankshaw, 56.
[72] Crankshaw, 57.
[73] Crankshaw, 58.
[74] Browning, 66.
[75] To appease those who considered her sex to be the most serious obstacle, Maria Theresa assumed masculine titles. Thus, in nomenclature,
Maria Theresa was archduke and king; normally, however, she was styled as queen. No 18th-century commentary saw this crossing of
gendered titles as inappropriate or impossible. Levy, 118. Browning, 67.
[76] Crankshaw, 75.
[77] Crankshaw, 77.
[78] Mahan, 122.
[79] Morris, 74.
[80] Browning, 65.
[81] Duffy, 151.
[82] She explained her resolution to the Count furthermore: "I shall have all my armies, all my Hungarians killed off before I cede so much as an
inch of ground." Browning, 76.
[83] Browning, 79.
[84] Browning, 88.
[85] Browning, 92.
[86] Crankshaw, 93.
[87] Browning, 114.
[88] Crankshaw, 96.
[89] LeCaine Agnew, 84.
[90] Crankshaw, 97.
[91] Crankshaw, 99.
[92] Crankshaw, 100.
[93] Crankshaw, 238.
[94] Jones, 242.
[95] Crankshaw, 240.
[96] Crankshaw, 242.
[97] Lever, 243.
[98] Lever, 255.
[99] Lever, 257.
[100] Mahan, 266–271, 313.
[101] Dawson Beales, 21, 39.
[102] Mahan, 271.
[103] Dawson Beales, 194.
[104] Crankshaw, 273.
[105] It takes at least a week for the smallpox rash to appear after a person is infected. Since the rash appeared two days after Maria Josepha had
visited the vault, the Archduchess must have been infected much before visiting the vault. Hopkins, 64.
[106] The eldest surviving daughters of Maria Theresa's children were Maria Theresa of Austria (by Joseph), Maria Theresa of Tuscany (by
Leopold), Maria Theresa of Naples and Sicily (by Maria Carolina), Maria Theresa of Austria-Este (by Ferdinand) and Marie Thérèse of
France (by Marie Antoinette).
[107] Fraser, Antonia, 15.
[108] Mahan, 251.
[109] Crankshaw, 308.
[110] Himka, 5.
[111] Saperstein, 449.
[112] Mahan, 254.
17
Maria Theresa
[113] Dawson Beales, 14.
[114] Saperstein, 446.
[115] Saperstein, 447.
[116] Holborn, 222.
[117] Patai, 203.
[118] Penslar, 32–33.
[119] Byrne, 38.
[120] Crankshaw, 192.
[121] Holborn, 221.
[122] Crankshaw, 195.
[123] Crankshaw, 196.
[124] Crankshaw, 306.
[125] Morris, 92–93.
[126] Barnes, Broda (1976). Hypothyroidism: the unsuspected illness (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2sqMx5UdZbcC& dq=broda+
barnes). HarperCollins. ISBN 069001029X. .
[127] Langer, Stephan (2000). Solved: The Riddle of Illness. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=v-8xz2eiAkMC& dq). McGraw-Hill.
ISBN 0658002937. . "... A prime mover in clinical research on the thyroid gland for half a century, the late Broda O. Barnes, MD, Ph.D., was
also a prime mover behind the writing of ..."
[128] Dawson Beales, 158.
[129] Melograni & Cochrane, 27.
[130] Hopkins, 64–65.
[131] Kann, 154, 179.
[132] Mahan, 230.
[133] Fraser, David, 134.
[134] Kann, 187.
[135] Crankshaw, 310.
[136] Levy, 116–117.
[137] Grell & Porter, 200.
[138] Crankshaw, 267.
[139] Levy, 112.
[140] Dawson Beales, 136.
[141] Crankshaw, 268, 271.
[142] Dawson Beales, 183–184.
[143] Crankshaw, 285.
[144] Ingrao, 195.
[145] Magocsi, 92.
[146] Mahan, 334.
[147] Crankshaw, 336–338.
[148] Leland Goldsmith, 272.
[149] Del Testa, Lemoine & Strickland, 119.
[150] Di Duca, 15.
[151] Carroll, 38.
[152] Glajar, 75.
[153] Mahan, 335.
[154] Roider, 1.
[155] In German: Maria Theresia von Gottes Gnaden Heilige Römische Kaiserinwitwe, Königin zu Ungarn, Böhmen, Dalmatien, Kroatien,
Slavonien, Gallizien, Lodomerien, usw., Erzherzogin zu Österreich, Herzogin zu Burgund, zu Steyer, zu Kärnten und zu Crain, Großfürstin zu
Siebenbürgen, Markgräfin zu Mähren, Herzogin zu Braband, zu Limburg, zu Luxemburg und zu Geldern, zu Württemberg, zu Ober- und
Nieder-Schlesien, zu Milan, zu Mantua, zu Parma, zu Piacenza, zu Guastala, zu Auschwitz und Zator, Fürstin zu Schwaben, gefürstete Gräfin
zu Habsburg, zu Flandern, zu Tirol, zu Hennegau, zu Kyburg, zu Görz und zu Gradisca, Markgräfin des Heiligen Römischen Reiches, zu
Burgau, zu Ober- und Nieder-Lausitz, Gräfin zu Namur, Frau auf der Windischen Mark und zu Mecheln, Herzoginwitwe zu Lothringen und
Baar, Großherzoginwitwe zu Toskana
18
Maria Theresa
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• Browning, Reed: The War of the Austrian Succession Palgrave Macmillan 1995 ISBN 0312125615
• Byrne, James M: Religion and the Enlightenment: from Descartes to Kant Westminster John Knox Press 1997
ISBN 0664257607
• Caroll, Harry J: The development of civilization: a documentary history of politics, society, and thought, Volume 2
Scott, Foresman 1969
• Crankshaw, Edward: Maria Theresa, Longman publishers 1969
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2007 ISBN 0226519562
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1860649505
• Del Testa, David W; Lemoine, Florence; Strickland, John: Government leaders, military rulers, and political
activists, Part 107 Greenwood Publishing Group 2001 ISBN 1573561533
• Duffy, Christopher: The army of Maria Theresa: The Armed Forces of Imperial Austria, 1740–1780 Hippocrene
Books 1977 ISBN 0882544276
• Ellenius, Allan; European Science Foundation: The Origins of the Modern State in Europe: 13th to 18th
Centuries Oxford University Press 1998 ISBN 0198205503
• Fraser, Antonia: Marie Antoinette: the journey Anchor Books 2001 ISBN 0385489498
• Fraser, David: Frederick the Great: King of Prussia A. Lane 2000 ISBN 0713993774
• Glajar, Valentina: The German legacy in East Central Europe as recorded in recent German-language literature
Boydell & Brewer 2004 ISBN 1571132562
• Goodwin, A: The New Cambridge Modern History CUP Archive 1976 ISBN 0521291089
• Grell, Ole Peter & Porter, Roy: Toleration in Enlightenment Europe
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National Movement in Galicia, 1867–1900 McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP 1999 ISBN 0773518126
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• Hopkins, Donald R: The greatest killer: smallpox in history, with a new introduction University of Chicago Press
2002 ISBN 0226351688
• Ingrao, Charles W: The Habsburg monarchy, 1618–1815 Cambridge University Press 2000 ISBN 0521785057
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0-231-12882-7
• Kann, Robert A.: A history of the Habsburg Empire, 1526–1918 University of California Press 1980 ISBN
0520042069
• LeCaine Agnew, Hugh: The Czechs and the lands of the Bohemian crown Hoover Press 2004 ISBN 0817944923
• Leland Goldsmith, Margaret: Maria Theresa of Austria A. Barker, ltd. 1936
• Lever, Evelyne: Madame de Pompadour: A Life FSR 2002 ISBN 0-374-11308-4
• Levy, Allison Mary: Widowhood and visual culture in early modern Europe, Issue 7630 Ashgate Publishing Ltd.
2003 ISBN 0754607313
• Magocsi, Paul R. & Canadian Institute of Ukrainian Studies & Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute: Galicia: a
historical survey and bibliographic guide University of Toronto Press 1983 ISBN 0802024823
• Mahan, J. Alexander: Maria Theresa of Austria READ BOOKS 2007 ISBN 1406733709
• McGill, William J.: Maria Theresa Twayne Publishers 1972
• Morris, Constance Lily: Maria Theresa – The Last Conservative READ BOOKS 2007 ISBN 1406733717
• Patai, Raphael: The Jews of Hungary: history, culture, psychology Wayne State University Press 1996 ISBN
0814325610
19
Maria Theresa
20
• Penslar, Derek Jonathan: Shylock's children: economics and Jewish identity in modern Europe University of
California Press 2001 ISBN 0520225902
• Pick, Robert: Empress Maria Theresa: the earlier years, 1717–1757 Harper & Row 1966
• Roider, Karl A.: Maria Theresa Prentice-Hall 1973 ISBN 0135561914
• Russell Richards Treasure, Geoffrey: The making of modern Europe, 1648–1780 Taylor & Francis 1985 ISBN
0416723705
• Saperstein, Marc: Your voice like a ram's horn": themes and texts in traditional Jewish preaching Hebrew Union
College Press 1996 ISBN 0878204172
• Spielman, John Philip: The city & the crown: Vienna and the imperial court, 1600–1740 Purdue University Press
1993 ISBN 1557530211
• Temperley, H.W.V: Frederick the Great and Kaiser Joseph Routledge 1968 ISBN 0714615188
• Vovk, Justin C. (2010). In Destiny's Hands: Five Tragic Rulers, Children of Maria Theresa. iUniverse:
Bloomington, Ind. ISBN 978-1-45020-081-3
• Wyatt, Walter James: Hungarian Celebrities BiblioBazaar LLC 2009 ISBN 1110820461
• Yonan, Michael: Empress Maria Theresa and the Politics of Habsburg Imperial Art Penn State Press, 2011.
ISBN 9780271037226
External links
•
•
•
•
Maria Theresa (Catholic Encyclopaedia) (http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09662d.htm)
Maria Theresa, Archduchess of Austria (http://departments.kings.edu/womens_history/mariatheres.html)
Maria Theresa (http://www.nndb.com/people/157/000085899/)
Maria Theresa, (1717–1780) Archduchess of Austria (1740–1780) Queen of Hungary and Bohemia (1740–1780)
(http://www.pinn.net/~sunshine/whm2001/maria.html)
Titles
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
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SIDIOUS 2, DAW0001, DWC LR, Dalv89, Dalziel 86, Dana boomer, Danicalove79, Daniel Morales, Danwhite2008, Darth Panda, Davidcannon, Deb, DeltaQuad, Deltabeignet, Dimadick,
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Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Kaiserin Maria Theresia (HRR).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaiserin_Maria_Theresia_(HRR).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anna reg, Avatar,
Carolus, Cybershot800i, Ecummenic, Gabor, Gryffindor, Kevyn, Mmm448, Pe-Jo, Sakura-saku-kuni, Snek01, 竹麦魚(Searobin)
File:Signatur Maria Theresa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Signatur_Maria_Theresa.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: wukappa
Image:Andreas Moeller 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Andreas_Moeller_001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Caro1409, User:Cropbot,
User:Gryffindor
File:Maria Theresa and Francis Wedding Breakfast by Martin van Meytens ca 1736.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maria_Theresa_and_Francis_Wedding_Breakfast_by_Martin_van_Meytens_ca_1736.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Martin van
Meytens
File:MariaTheresiaFranzStephan.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MariaTheresiaFranzStephan.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Caro1409, Ecummenic, 2
anonymous edits
File:Oath of Fealty to Maria Theresa.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oath_of_Fealty_to_Maria_Theresa.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: "From Georg
Christoph Kriegl's 'oath of fealty,' Vienna, 1742."
File:Friedrich Zweite Jung.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Friedrich_Zweite_Jung.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Carolus, Gryffindor, Kürschner,
Maksim
File:Coronationmariatheresiaaustria.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coronationmariatheresiaaustria.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Caro1409,
Ecummenic, Pe-Jo, Pescan, Surtsicna, Zil
File:Maria Theresia Familie.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maria_Theresia_Familie.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Akela3, Anna reg, Caro1409,
CommonsDelinker, Docu, Gryffindor, Kaho Mitsuki, Michiko-starsky-japan, Mmm448, PKM, Shakko, 2 anonymous edits
File:Mariatheresiaoldfamily.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mariatheresiaoldfamily.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Caro1409, Docu, Ecummenic,
Gryffindor, Pe-Jo, Shakko, Surtsicna, 2 anonymous edits
File:Maria Theresa of Austria family.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maria_Theresa_of_Austria_family.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anne97432,
Docu, EDT95, Ecummenic, Shakko
Image:MariaTheresa2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MariaTheresa2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Coinman62
File:Maria Theresia11.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Maria_Theresia11.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Caro1409, Carolus, Kilom691, Mmm448,
PKM, Surtsicna, 1 anonymous edits
File:MariaTheresia Maske.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MariaTheresia_Maske.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Ecummenic, Gryffindor, Mattes,
Shakko, Thorvaldsson
Image:Anton von Maron 005.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anton_von_Maron_005.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Cropbot, User:Gryffindor,
User:JoJan
File:Anton von Maron 006.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Anton_von_Maron_006.png License: Public Domain Contributors: User:CharlesX, User:Finavon,
User:Gryffindor
File:Kaisergruft 2286201074 fdea9c4cfa b.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaisergruft_2286201074_fdea9c4cfa_b.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Oliver Bruchez
File:Wappen Kaiserin Maria Theresia 1765 (Mittel).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wappen_Kaiserin_Maria_Theresia_1765_(Mittel).png License: Public
Domain Contributors: Hochgeladen von David Liuzzo
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