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CONGRESS
* The National Legislature
• Congress is our national legislature, responsible for the making of laws
• Congress is a bicameral legislature, meaning that it consists of two houses. The
junior house is the House of Representatives, and the senior house is the Senate.
• It meets in the capitol building in Washington, D.C., where one wing of the
building is dedicated to the Senate, and the other is dedicated to the House of
Representatives. In between these two wings is the Capitol Rotunda where
important national ceremonies, such as the lying of bodies in state, occur, and
each state is allowed to have two statues of important people from their state on
display. Illinois’ statues are General and Senator James Shields, and Frances
Willard, a woman’s rights activist.
* The National Legislature
• Congress’s meetings are held in periods known as terms, and each term lasts for
two years. Each of these two year terms is numbered consecutively with the First
Congress beginning on March 4, 1789. Today a new Congress convenes, or begins
every January 3rd of odd numbered years. We are currently in the 112th Congress,
but beginning January 3rd, 2013 we will be in the 113th Congress.
• A session of Congress is that period of time during which each year Congress
assembles and conducts business. There are two sessions to each term, or one
session per year.
• The 20th Amendment states that, “The Congress shall assemble at least once in
every year, and such meeting shall begin at noon on the 3rd day of January,
unless they shall by law appoint a different day.” In fact, Congress often does
appoint a different day. The second session, in even numbered years, usually
begins a few days or even a few weeks after the third of January.
• Congress adjourns or suspends until its next session whenever it sees fit. They
also take short breaks, such as right now during their campaign season, where
they return home to campaign, called recess, and they take several short recesses
throughout each session.
* The National Legislature
• Members of Congress play five major roles:
• Legislators
• Representatives of their constituents (the people whom they represent and
are elected by and live in their districts, or states) voting on legislation as they
would desire him or her to do, or in their interests
• Committee members
• Servants of their constituents, assisting them with personal issues dealing
with the government such as problems getting Social Security, obtaining
grants, understanding laws, etc.
• Politicians
• As legislators, and representatives of the people members of Congress have to
decide what voting philosophy they subscribe to, and that philosophy may change
based on what they are considering. There are four voting philosophies:
• Delegate
• Trustee
• Partisan
• Politico
* The National Legislature
• When voting as a delegate, members of Congress may disagree with what they
view as a bad policy, but their constituents, when polled, are largely in favor of the
policy, so as a delegate the Congress person would vote for the bill.
• When voting as a trustee, a Congress person trusts that his constituents have faith
and confidence in his or her knowledge to determine what is good policy, or bad,
and so the member of Congress votes as he sees is best for his constituents.
• When voting as a partisan, a member of Congress would most likely follow his
party leadership as to how to vote, in order to demonstrate the strength and
better management skills of the nation’s business by members of his party. Most
studies of voting behavior indicate that partisanship is the leading factor
influencing lawmaker’s vote on most important questions.
• When voting as a politico, a member of Congress attempts to balance his roles as
a delegate, trustee and partisan to come up with the best decision for the
moment.
* The National Legislature
• Compensation: The pay of members of Congress
• The Constitution says that members of Congress “shall receive a compensation for
their services, to be ascertained by law,” or in other words, it fixes its own pay.
• The 27th Amendment makes it so that when members of Congress decide to give
themselves a pay raise, it cannot go into effect until after the next term of
Congress.
• Currently, a Congress member’s base salary is $174,000.00 per year.
• The Speaker of the House makes $223,500.00
• The Vice President makes $227,300 per year
• The Senate President Pro Tempore, and the floor leaders of both chambers
make $193,400.00 per year
* The National Legislature
• Members receive a number of non salary compensation, or fringe benefits,
including:
• Special tax deductions
• Travel allowances
• Very low cost health and life insurance
• A generous retirement plan
• An office
• Allowances for multiple offices in their home state and district
• Money to hire a staff and cover the operating costs of their offices
• Franking privileges, or the ability to mail official business postage free
• Free printing of official business
• Low cost radio and television production of official business
• Choice of several fine restaurants and two first rate gymnasiums
• The paid assistance of the Library of Congress
• Free parking at the capitol, and at major nearby airports in D.C.
* The National Legislature
• The Constitution delegates to Congress certain powers. These powers can be
classified into three categories
• Expressed Powers, or those powers specifically stated word for word in the
Constitution
• Implied Powers, or those powers that can be reasoned to exist because of the
expressed powers, but are not specifically written into the Constitution.
• Inherent Powers, or the powers it is assumed that governments have by
virtue of their existence
* The National Legislature
• In Article One, Section 8 of the Constitution, 27 powers are expressly spelled out
for Congress. These are short statements and not clearly defined, and so their
meaning is found more in the ways Congress has exercised those powers
throughout history, and how the Supreme Court has defined those powers. These
include;
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Make and collect taxes
Borrow money
Regulate commerce between the United States and foreign nations, and amongst the states
Make immigration and bankruptcy laws
To print money, regulate its value, and establish common weights and measures
To punish counterfeiting
Establish post offices and roads
To create patent and trademark laws
To create courts under the Supreme Court
To define and punish piracy
To declare war
To raise and support armies and navies for up to two years at a time
To make rules for the government and military
To call out the reserves and National Guard
To provide for the organizing, arming and training of the reserves and National Guard
To set up and exclusively govern a district where the nation’s capitol is located (Washington, District
of Columbia)
To make all laws necessary and proper for carrying out these functions (the “elastic clause”)
* The National Legislature
• The Commerce Power
• Commerce is defined as the buying and selling of goods and services, and
Congress has the power to regulate interstate and foreign trade. This power,
possibly more than any other, is what is responsible for the success of the
Constitution as opposed to the Articles of Confederation
• In the Supreme Court case Gibbons vs. Ogden 1824, the court ruled that when the
State of New York, and the United States government were both regulating
steamboats, only the United States government could decide who would have the
rights to navigate internal waters.
• This ruling rejected the argument that commerce was only the buying and
selling of goods, and defined it more broadly as all of the steps in producing,
advertising, marketing and selling those goods, which the Chief Justice, John
Marshall, defined as “intercourse.”
* The National Legislature
• The Commerce Power
• The broad powers of the Commerce Clause allowed Congress to pass and establish
the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibits discrimination in access to or service
in hotels, motels, theatres, restaurants and other public spaces on the grounds of
race, color, religion or national origin. The Supreme Court upheld this use of the
Commerce Clause when it stated that there was “overwhelming evidence of the
disruptive effect that racial discrimination has had on commercial intercourse.”
• The Supreme Court has also placed restrictions on the application of the
Commerce Clause by saying that there has to be a reasonable connection between
interstate commerce and the law. For example, in United States vs. Lopez, a
federal law called the “Gun Free School Zone Act of 1990” made it a federal crime
for anyone other than a police officer to possess a firearm in or around a school.
In this instance the court found the federal government had overstepped its
powers, and had violated the rights of the states.
• The Constitution itself places restrictions on the Congressional right to regulate
commerce in that it states that Congress cannot tax exports, favor the ports of one
state over another, or require that vessels bound to one state be obliged to enter,
clear, or pay duties in another.
* The National Legislature
• The Tax Power
• A tax is a charge levied by government on persons, or property to raise money to
meet public needs. However, Congress sometimes imposes taxes for other
purposes as well
• For example, the protective tariff, where the government taxes certain imports in
order to raise their cost above what American companies can make and sell the
same product for.
• Sometimes the government also taxes to protect the public health and safety, such
as taxes on cigarettes, liquor, and even by licensing certain activities such as
pharmacists, and teachers
• The Constitutional limits on the power of taxation include being only to tax for
public purposes, and not for private benefit, taxes can only be levied to pay for the
common defense and general welfare, and pay the debts of the United States, and
Congress may not tax exports, and direct taxes have to be apportioned amongst
the states according to their population, and all indirect taxes must be levied at
the same rate throughout the country.
* The National Legislature
• The Borrowing Power
• While the Constitution gives Congress the power to borrow money on the credit
of the United States, there is no limit on the amount they can borrow, and no
restriction on the reasons why they can borrow.
• The Department of the Treasury is who handles the actual borrowing. It does so
by issuing treasury bills for short term borrowing, and savings bonds for long term
borrowing. This is what creates the public debt, or all of the money borrowed by
the federal government, and not yet repaid, plus the accumulated interest on that
money. Usually the largest investors in these types of financial instruments are
other countries. The country that holds most of our debt currently is China.
• These securities are in effect IOU’s for which the government agrees to pay a
certain sum, plus interest, on a given date.
• Congress has set a limit to the amount of debt the United States can incur, by law,
known as the debt ceiling, however it has never amounted to more than a public
gesture as Congress regularly raises the limit whenever the debt threatens to
overtake it. Our current national debt is …………….
* The National Legislature
• The War Powers
• Six of the 27 expressed powers deal explicitly with the subject of war and national
defense, a power shared with the executive branch. However the Constitution
does give Congress extensive and substantial powers over the nation’s military and
how it is used to conduct foreign policy.
• Only Congress can declare war. It alone has the sole power to raise an army and a
navy, and to make the rules that govern them, as well as calling out the militia and
arming and organizing them, as well as disciplining them.
• The President can use military forces without Congressional authorization, or a
declaration of war, but must notify Congress within 48 hours of doing so, and can
only continue to do so for 60 days without Congressional approval of an extension.
Congress also has the “power of the purse” and can defund activities, essentially
halting the President’s abilities to continue.
* The National Legislature
• The Investigative and Oversight Powers
• Perhaps Congress most powerful weapon is their power to investigate, inquire
into, or inform itself on any matter that falls within the scope of its law making
authority.
• This authority is implied in the fact that the Constitution grants legislative power
to Congress, and without the proper knowledge, it could not effectively fulfill this
duty.
• Most often these inquiries are held to:
• Gather information necessary to the framing of legislation
• Oversee the operations of various agencies in the executive branch
• Focus public attention on some particular matter
• Expose the questionable activities of some public official or private person or
group
• Promote the particular interests of some members of Congress
* The National Legislature
• The Investigative and Oversight Powers
• To aid it in executing these powers, Congress has established three agencies within
it to ease their job, these include the
• Congressional Budget Office , commonly known as the CBO, which
committees of both chambers rely on quite heavily to define the effects of
taxing, spending, and other budget related matters
• Congressional Research Service, located in the Library of Congress, where
several hundred staff specialists provide members with factual information
on virtually any subject; and
• Government Accountability Office, or GAO, which is Congress’s watchdog
because it has broad authority to monitor the work of the Federal
government and report its findings to Congress.