Download Propaganda in the Soviet Union Through Posters: Its Historical

Propaganda in the Soviet Union Through Posters: Its Historical Roots,
Development and Influence on the Russian Society
Thesis
By
Valeria Dimova
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree of
Bachelor of Arts
In
Communication and Mass Media
State University of New York
Empire State College
2016
Reader: Dr., PhD., Todd Nesbitt
Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to my mentor, Professor Todd Nesbitt
for his wise advise, help, patience and truly great attitude. His recommendations and
observations always helped me to find the right way while I was working on my
thesis.
I would also like to thank Professor Beth Lazroe, whose amazing classes of Visual
Culture and Analysis of Media Images influenced the choice of my thesis topic. The
knowledge I obtained from these classes was a great contribution to my work.
I thank my beloved parents who gave me the opportunity to study abroad, always
supported me during my studies and who are always doing everything for me.
Last but not least, I thank my dear friends Tamara Titova and Alena Davydova for
their support and participation. And, of course, the man of my life Artem whose love
and care is the source of my inspiration and strength.
Table of Contents
I. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
II. Basic Information About Propaganda....................................................................... 3
II.I. Understanding Propaganda ................................................................................. 3
II.I.1. White, Grey and Black Propaganda ............................................................. 4
II.I.2. Cartographic Propaganda ............................................................................. 6
II.I.3. Disinformation ............................................................................................. 8
III. Propaganda in Russia in Different Historical Periods ........................................... 10
III.I. Bolshevik Revolution (The Great October Revolution) - 1917 and after ....... 11
III.I.1. Anti-Monarchist Propaganda .................................................................... 11
III.I.2. Construction of New Soviet Society ........................................................ 16
IV. World War II (1939-1945; 1941-1945 for the Soviet Union) or The Great
Patriotic War ................................................................................................................ 23
IV.I.1. Joseph Stalin’s Personality Cult ............................................................... 24
IV.I.2. Anti-German/Nazi Propaganda ................................................................ 26
IV.I.3. Propaganda Aimed at the Maintenance of the National Spirit ................. 32
V. Cold War (1946-1989) ............................................................................................ 37
V.I.1. Ideological Race ........................................................................................ 38
V.I.2. Cultivation of the Detrimental Image of the West/the United States of
America ................................................................................................................ 42
VI. Perestroika (late 1980s - the beginning of 1990s) ................................................. 48
VI.I.1. “Glasnost” (English: Openness) ............................................................... 50
VI.I.2. Changing of Political and Economic Regimes ......................................... 55
VI.I.3. Shift in the Soviet Paradigm ..................................................................... 59
VII. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 61
Abstract
This paper analyses the nature of the internal propaganda in the Soviet Union over
more than 70 years. The paper can be considered to be a historical overview of the
most significant periods of the Soviet history and is divided into the following
sections: The Great October Revolution, the World War II, the Cold War and
Perestroika. The main purpose of this paper is to show through an examination of
visual art what methods Soviet propaganda used in order to strengthen the position of
the Communist Party and socialist ideology. Another goal of this thesis is to explain
how propaganda contributed to the creation and development of the paradigm of the
Ideal Soviet Man.
The paper concludes that Soviet propaganda successfully reached its aims in the
creation of a paradigm and in the maintenance of control over the public. However,
the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to a shift of the existed paradigm that
fostered the beginning of the development of the post-Soviet mentality.
I. Introduction
A history of propaganda in Russia is a complex and difficult subject that requires
deep analysis and consideration. It is impossible to examine the influence and
development of propaganda without referring to the history of the country. Therefore,
discussion and information about the historical events from Russian history are
essential for the present work and shall be analyzed along with the propagandistic
practices.
In order to understand the present we have to consult the past. It is crucial to examine
the long-term influence of propaganda on the society by looking at the historically
significant periods of the country. By examining real examples from the history of the
Soviet Union, it is possible not only to understand and study the mechanism of
propaganda but also discover the fascination of it and see whether it is possible to
trace a certain paradigm. Russian propaganda is multi-faceted not only because it
takes different forms and shapes but also because it is constructed on the most
important grounds of cultural and psychological aspects of life. By using people’s
emotions and beliefs propagandists are very successful in the conduction of their
speculative and manipulative machinations.
It might be interesting to the reader to see how Soviet/ Russian people’s perception
and priorities were changing throughout time and what the contribution of propaganda
was to it. How did the appropriate become inappropriate and vice versa? What was
considered to be “bad” and “good”? What were the life goals and what the reasons
behind them? How was public opinion constructed? What was happening to the
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people who “disagree”? What human model was presented and expected from
society? This paper will try to provide the answers for such complex questions.
The purpose of the present paper is to explore the role of internal propaganda in
Russia until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. What was the nature of Russian
propaganda from 1917 to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991? What similarities
and differences exist in approaches throughout different periods, and what can they
tell us about the society? The answers for these questions will be provided with the
focus on the visual art of propaganda that took a form of agitation posters.
This paper will begin by exploring the background of propaganda. Its methods will be
discussed with the help of the real examples, including examples from America and
France. After the analysis of the general theories, they will be applied specifically to
the Russian context and the paper will explore their relevance to the actual
propagandistic operations there. In order to be coherent and logical, the work is
divided into parts that cover significant historical events starting with the year 1917
when the overthrow of the monarchy in Russia occurred. The subsequent parts of the
paper will cover various significant events grouped into the following blocks: the
Bolshevik Revolution (the Great October Revolution), the World War II, the Cold
War and “Perestroika”. Each block will be deconstructed in detail. Even though
propaganda also existed during time of the Russian Empire, it is reasonable to focus
on and discuss in more detail the period of the Soviet Union when propaganda
reached its acme in professionalism and power.
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II. Basic Information About Propaganda
II.I. Understanding Propaganda
Before the discussion of the existing theories of propaganda, it is crucial to provide
the definition for the term. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Mass Media and
Communication (2011), propaganda can be described as a “persuasive mass
communication that filters and frames the issues of the day in a way that strongly
favors particular interests; usually those of a government or corporation. It is also the
intentional manipulation of public opinion through lies, half-truths and the selective
re-telling of the story”. Oxford English Dictionary (2005) gives the description of
propaganda as of the information that is often biased or misleading used to promote a
political cause or point of view. Nelson (1996) in his book A Chronology and
Glossary of Propaganda in the United States provides more explicit definition of
propaganda: “Propaganda is neutrally defined as a systematic form of persuasion that
attempts to influence the emotions, attitudes, opinions and actions of specified target
audiences for ideological, political or commercial purposes through the controlled
transmission of one-sided message via mass and direct media channels” (p.232). It is
significant to mention that before the World War One the word propaganda was not
really used in the English language and had a completely different connotation: the
term was used by the Roman Catholic Church for the religious purposes (spread of
the religious word, education, etc.) and, basically, meant “Propagation of the Faith”
(Congregatio de propaganda fide) (Bernays, 1928). When it comes to the etymology
of the word, the word is formed from the Latin verb propagare, and according to the
definition from 1790, it is an activity meant to propagate any action or ideology
(Online Etymology Dictionary).
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II.I.1. White, Grey and Black Propaganda
Propaganda can be divided into three distinguishable types: white propaganda, grey
propaganda, and black propaganda. White propaganda comes from an identified
source and there is no doubt about the truthfulness of the source’s claimed origin;
grey propaganda does not reveal its source, its origin is rather doubtful, and black
propaganda is where the claimed origin of the source is false. It also significant to
mention that there is a fine line between grey and black propaganda due to the
absence of the information about the origin (Fortner, 1993)
White Propaganda
To analyze the three types in more depth, it is reasonable to provide examples.
A significant number of examples can be found in the propaganda of the United
States of America during the World War II. A motivating poster from 1943 “We can
do it!”, portraying a strong female-worker can be seen as an example of white
propaganda for the several reasons: it is known who is the commissioning agentWestinghouse Electric and Manufacturing company; moreover, it is also known who
is the producer- J. Howard Miller (The National Museum of American History).
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Figure 1: “We can do it” poster from 1943.
Grey and Black Propaganda
For the examples of grey and black propaganda, it is possible to provide the example
about of a poster and leaflet that are united by one topic: prevention of venereal
diseases among American soldiers. The poster saying “Don’t take chances with pickups, loose women may also be loaded with disease” that portrays a sexualized image
of a lying woman, can be seen as an example of grey propaganda.
There is no clear identification of the source of the poster or information about who
ordered the production of it.
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Figure 2: “Loaded? Don’t take chances with pick-ups…” poster.
It can be said that the example of black propaganda is much more hurtful and
derogatory. A leaflet from the period of the U.S. colonization period in the
Philippines reads: “Lately, there has been a great increase in the number of venereal
diseases among our officers and men owing prolific contacts with Filipino women of
dubious character…in view of the increase in pro-American leanings, many Filipino
women are more than willing to offer themselves to American soldiers and due to the
fact that Filipinos have no knowledge of hygiene, disease carriers are rampant and
due care must be taken” (Linebarger, 2010)
II.I.2. Cartographic Propaganda
Propaganda is a complex media type that has a variety of categories indefinable be
their structure and subject. One example of is cartographic propaganda. Cartographic
propaganda is a type of propaganda that is conducted by using a visual representation
of a terrain/location. It is created in order to construct or influence public perception
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about physical representation of a land/territory as well as to persuade the public’s
beliefs about the size and borders of the territory. According to P.E. Sorrell, author of
the article Cartography: A Manufacturing Industry Concerned with the Processing,
Transformation, Packaging and Transportation of Spatial Data (1981), cartography
can be seen as an “industry, which packages and markets spatial knowledge” (Sorrell,
1981). It is possible to say that in the case of cartographic propaganda the creation of
maps is subjective and serves particular ideological and political purposes. The visual
effects such as usage of colors (i.e. red as danger), sizes (i.e. deliberately enlarged size
of a land), and symbols contribute to the successful creation of an image. To analyze
the real existing examples of cartographic propaganda it makes sense to deconstruct
the French propaganda poster from 1917:
Figure 3: “War is the National Industry of Prussia” poster from 1917.
As it can be seen in Figure 3, Prussia is presented as an octopus that intends to stretch
its tentacles to the whole Europe and even further. When observing this example, it is
significant to talk about symbolism that is an essential part of the cartographic
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propaganda. The idea of an octopus with its stretching tentacles is used as a metaphor
for the Prussian intentions to conquer new lands and expand its influence. The
stretching tentacles are presented as long and “curly”; that gives a feeling of their
omnipresence and impossibility of escaping them. The purpose of this poster was to
influence the French public’s opinion regarding the war and intensify the antiPrussian sentiment. It also contributed to the people’s desire to defeat the Prussian
Empire.
There are plenty of examples of cartographic propaganda that were created in order to
achieve different aims, whether it was demonization of the enemy or provocation for
certain actions (fight for rights, going to war, voting, etc).
II.I.3. Disinformation
Even though it might be assumed that the notion of disinformation is more related to
espionage it is also can be used as one of the propaganda tactics. Oxford Dictionary of
Mass Media and Communication (2011) provides the following explanation of
disinformation: “It is a form of propaganda involving the dissemination of false
information with the deliberate intent to deceive or mislead”. It is originated from the
Russian word “дезинформация” (dezinformatsiya) and started being used in the
English language from 1955 (Online Etymology Dictionary). Probably the case of the
idea about the Weapon of Mass Destruction that allegedly was invented in Iraq in
2003 is one of the most prominent examples of using the disinformation as a
propaganda tool. By creating conspiracy theories, gossips, false information, and,
most importantly, fear, the government of the United States of America was looking
created a reason to justify the invasion and, subsequently, the war in Iraq in 2003.
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(Hammond, 2012) The disinformation was systematically spread through different
media channels and convinced the public that the Iraqi government was in possession
of WMD. The disinformation was publically spread thus gaining public acceptance
for the idea that the country should be restrained and attacked (Hammond, 2012). To
strengthen public support, the image of the United States as a “saver of the world”
and a “hero of the universe” was developed. It can be observed in the poster that was
designed by Linda Eddy that based her design on a photograph made from the Reuters
photographer Damir Sagolj (Petersen, 2008)
Figure 4: “She’s glad he’s there. Are you?” poster by Linda Eddy.
The poster implies the idea that the American presence in Iraq brings peace, freedom
and saves the lives of innocent people. The speculation with the child in the warm
hands of the American soldier is also very influential when it comes to rendering
support for the created heroic image of the American military.
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Thus, disinformation can significantly contribute to the successful functioning of
propaganda.
III. Propaganda in Russia in Different Historical Periods
The next three chapters of this paper will be devoted to the different historical periods
of the Soviet Union starting from the Great October Revolution and ending with the
period of Perestroika followed by the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Bolshevik Revolution is a common name that is used to describe the Great October
Socialist Revolution that took place on 25th of October 1917 by the Julian and Old
style calendar that corresponds to the 7th of November 1917 by the Gregorian
calendar.
The October Revolution led by the party of Bolsheviks with the armed help of urban
workers (Soviets) overthrew the Provisional Government and the monarchy of
Romanov’s royal family that had ruled Russia for 300 years. Soon after the coup, a
new government established the Russian Socialist Federative Republic that is
considered to be the first self-proclaimed socialist state in the world.
The period of the October Revolution and the following years of the Civil War can be
considered one of the bloodiest periods in the history of Russia. The ideological and
military struggle between the Red and White movements and their terrors led to the
deaths of millions among the Russian population and subsequent devastation of the
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country that significantly threw back the development of Russia and almost destroyed
its cultural heritage.
III.I. The Bolshevik Revolution (The Great October Revolution) 1917 and after
The Great October Revolution of the year 1917 can be seen as one the most
significant historic events in the history of Russia. Not only was it followed by a
complete change of the existing order, but was also a profound and powerful trigger
event for the change in the ideology and social structure of Russian society. It can be
claimed that the success of the Revolution was notably assured by the correct
employment of propagandistic practices and well-directed creation of messages that
were sent to the public.
III.I.1. Anti-Monarchist Propaganda
The main idea of the Revolution was the complete extermination of the monarchist
regime and existence of estates. Thus, the political leaders of the revolutionary groups
of the two most powerful parties of Bolsheviks and Mensheviks (Vladimir Lenin,
Leon Trotsky) based their ideas of a new society on the works of Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels that already elaborated the idea of “class struggle” and social
inequality. In the book The State and Revolution (1917) Vladimir Lenin analyzes the
work of Karl Marx on the subject of French Revolution, he wrote: “‘Breaking state
power’, which as a ‘parasitic excrescence’; its ‘amputation’, its ‘smashing state power
now become superfluous’-these are the expressions Marx used in regard to the state
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when appraising and analyzing the experience of the Commune.” (Lenin, 1917) Lenin
saw the Russian working class as an enormous force and source of support for their
aim and, thus, was focusing the efforts of his party on reaching it: “The Commune is
the first attempt by a proletarian revolution to smash the bourgeois state machine; and
it is the political form ‘at last discovered’ by which the smashed state machine can
and must be replaced.” (Lenin, 1917) At the same time he considered the fact that
everything should be done in accordance with the features of Russian mentality and
culture: “We shall see further on that the Russian Revolution of 1905 and 1917, in
different circumstances and conditions, continue and confirm Marx’s brilliant
historical analysis.” (Lenin, 1917)
In order to analyze the propaganda that operated during the Revolution and the Civil
War, this paper will examine the visual representation of propaganda (posters,
pamphlets and pennants) that was aimed towards undermining the autocratic power of
Romanovs and evoke an action and response among the masses.
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Figure 5: “Autocratic System” poster by A. Radakov from 1917.
On the poster “Autocratic System”, created by the Russian graphic artist Alexei
Radakov, it is possible to see the “classic” pyramid representation of the estate
system. It contains of the 6 estates (from the top): royalty “we reign”, church “we
pray for you”, judiciary “we judge you”, military “we protect you”, peasantry “we
feed you” and the working class that is told: “and you must work!” The poster can be
considered to be a very influential image because of its construction: it is clear who is
on the “top” and who is at the “bottom” of the pyramid. By representing royalty,
church, judiciary, and landowners as lazy, greedy and exploitative, the image reaches
its ultimate goal: to evoke anger, a feeling of injustice and a desire for revenge in the
minds of the “oppressed”, the peasantry and working class in this case.
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Figure 6: “International: Proletarians of All the Countries, Unite!” poster.
An image “International” was commissioned by the publishing house of the AllRussian Central Committee of Soviet workers, peasants, Red Army soldiers and
Cossack deputies. The image vividly depicts monarchism as a dreadful, fat and
disgusting beast that is lying on the plate of “capitalism”. The plate crushes the
workers, whilst some of them succeed to defeat the monster. There is also special
symbolic meaning to the crown of the beast, which is shown in the form of the dome
of the Orthodox Church. It implies the idea that the Church is a parasitizing and
manipulative institution that like the monarchy “beast” has to be destroyed.
In order to discuss the anti-monarchist propaganda in Russia in more depth it is
crucial to talk about the propaganda that was particularly aimed against the “Whites”,
a part of the population that was supporting the restoration of monarchy in Russia and
the preservation of autocratic regime. The “Whites” consisted of the military that
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swore allegiance to tsar Nicholas II as well as from the White Cossacks, higher up
and petty bourgeoisie, intellectuals and monarchists that saw the development of
socialism and communism as a great threat to the future of the country.
Figure 7: “Denikin’s Gang” poster.
An image “Denikin’s Gang” depicts the commanders of the White Movement as fat
and morally degraded, seated with popes, with a picture of the tsar and drinking wine.
The tricolor flag, a symbol of the Movement, is shown with the slogan “Beat the
workers and peasants!” Some of the commanders are indicated with their surnames:
Denikin, Purishkevich. The image is called “Denikin’s gang” because of Anton
Denikin, who was a leading General of the White Movement and was considered to
be one of the greatest oppositionist of Bolshevism as well as a key figure in the
Russian Civil War. Again, it is possible to see the implied idea that the supporters of
the “old” regime are evil, exploitative and generally rotten.
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It is clear from the examples shown that the anti-monarchists used propaganda highly
effectively. Their aim to sway the masses of peasants and other working class was
well met, with the propaganda contributing greatly to the Bolsheviks victory over the
White Movement.
III.I.2. Construction of New Soviet Society
After the victory of the Bolsheviks in the Civil War, the power was totally in the
hands of the new Soviet government. In order to strengthen the position of the
Communist Party, it was very important for Bolsheviks to have a precise plan of
actions for the transformation and reorganization of the country. Primarily, the
transformation consisted of the change in politics and economics: the appearance of
the one-party system, nationalization of property, the elimination of the right to
private property, the development of command economy and so forth. However, one
of the most significant and complex tasks was to create a new vision of life and new
version of the Russian society i.e.- Soviet society. A society that would have new
ideology, philosophy, life goals and attitudes. The term “cultural revolution” is
appropriate in this context. Sheila Fitzpatrick in her article Cultural Revolution in
Russia 1928-32 (1974) provides the explanation of the Soviet historians that saw
Cultural Revolution as a fundamental and inevitable transition to a socialist society
(Fitzpatrick, 1974). Fitzpatrick (1974) discusses the most crucial areas of social life
that required a change: “The party, having taken power, is the initiator of cultural
revolution, equalization of cultural opportunity, rapid rise of the educational level of
the population and the formation of a new popular intelligentsia.” (Fitzpatrick, 1974)
Thus, it is found that certain aspects of life became the subject of propaganda more so
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than others and these areas were especially influenced by it. This includes propaganda
in support of: education ‘Ликвидация Безграмотности' (Elimination of Illiteracy),
healthy living and sport, emancipation of women, and propaganda against alcoholism,
smoking and prostitution. It is significant to mention that the main purpose of the
social propaganda that was taking place was to install a new system of ideals and
values for Soviet people.
To see how the propagandists were achieving their goals it is, again, reasonable to
observe and analyze the visual art, the posters that carried certain messages and
tended to evoke a particular response.
Figure 8: “Spirit. Sport!” poster from 1929.
An image “Spirit. Sport!” depicts a young pioneer who corrects with the red chalk the
word “spirit” for the word “sport”. In the Russian language, it can be done by
changing only one letter “и” (English: [e]) to “о” (English: [o]) and the word will
transform from “spirit” to “sport”. It is also possible to see the following words: “with
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the letter “o”-power, but with the letter “e”- grave”. In the Russian language, these
two phrases rhyme. This technique is useful here: the phrase goes straight to the point
and sounds catchy. The contrasts of the colors (white, black and red) that are used in
the image are also important here: it contributes to the attraction of viewer’s attention
as well as to the fact that the viewer will “stay” on the image and actually read what is
written. The image implies the idea that alcoholism leads to death, whereas sport is
the way to be strong and healthy. The fact that a young boy is correcting the word is
also significant: it might be interpreted by the viewer that the Soviet children know
the right way from the childhood.
Figure 9: “Woman! Learn to Read and Write!” poster by E. Kruglikova from
1923.
At the bottom of the image, it is written: “Oh, mommy! If you were literate, you could
help me”. The image depicts the possible situation at home: a child is doing his/her
homework, however, the mother cannot help him/her because she is illiterate. This
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poster serves two functions at the same time: it propagates literacy and the process of
learning as well as promotes female activity outside the house. Perhaps, the fact that
the image is black and white could be interpreted as symbolic: life of illiterate people
is limited and colorless.
Figure 10: “Stop!” poster from 1929.
Surprisingly enough the issue of prostitution was not suppressed in the Soviet Union
in 1929 on the general background of the sanctimony and overall “antisexuality” of
the Soviet culture. The poster “Stop” portrays a Soviet woman who asks a prostitute
to stop. Prostitution was highly despised in society: the government considered it to
be a rotten legacy of capitalism and purely bourgeois vice that has to be eliminated
from the Soviet society. According to Sergei Golod (1988), author of the article
Prostitution in the Context of Changes in Sexual Morality, the Soviet propaganda
downplayed the fact that prostitution in the Soviet Union was in many ways a result
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of poor economic conditions of women, and meanwhile was focusing on the
development of public contempt and censure. (Golod, 1988)
Figure 11: “Down with kitchen slavery! Let there be new household life!” poster
by G. Shegal from 1931.
The image “Down with kitchen slavery,” continues developing the idea of women’s
emancipation and obtainment of social independence. David R. Mace (1961) in his
article The Employed Mother in U.S.S.R that was published in the periodical
“Marriage and Family Living” writes: “The removal of all discrimination on the
grounds of sex was a fundamental article of the Revolutionary creed.” (Mace, 1961)
The image portrays two women, one of which “opened” a new door and is about to
leave. It can be said that metaphor is the main technique that is used here: an image of
the door signified new life, new household, where woman will be active, free and
independent, whereas the other woman stays in the world of “kitchen slavery”,
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staying passive and without any development. It is significant to analyze the two
opposed “worlds” that are shown. The first is the world of constant exhausting female
labor and the other is the world of freedom and new opportunities for a woman. In
his article Mace (1961) also provides the words of Vladimir Lenin on that matter:
“The Russian woman must be delivered from the necessity of spending three-fourths
of her life in the stinking kitchen.” (Mace, 1961) If to look at the image more
carefully, there can be found such words as “factory”, “club”, “canteen” and
“nursery” that imply a new image of a woman as a socially active citizen, worker, and
mother. The fact that there is a notion of “nursery” is very significant: the Soviet
government was always very concerned about the demographic situation in the
country and thus, the idea of motherhood was always intensified and cultivated. In the
given context it can be interpreted that a woman can have children and work at the
same time and there will be people who will take care of her children (nursery).
Figure 12: “Work, Build and Do Not Whine” poster by A. Deineka from 1933.
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These are the following words of the poster: “We have a new life path specified. You
do not have to be an athlete, but you are obliged to take part in sport”. In the Russian
version the lines rhyme making the message more coherent, however, the English
translation still expresses the meaning. Even though on the image it is possible to
observe only the physical activities such as running, motorcycling racing, shooting
and the discus throw, the main goal of the poster is not to promote a sport only. The
core idea can be found in the very name of the poster: “Work, Build and Do Not
Whine”. Mike O’Mahony (2006) in his book Sport in U.S.S.R: Physical CultureVisual Culture, explains how sport was seen as something greater than just physical
activity: “The practice and spectatorship of physical culture, fizkultura-taken to
include a variety of activities from production of gymnastics, industrial and military
training to aviation-were supposed to promote the formation of the New Soviet
Person.” (O’Mahony, 2006) Along with the physical activities and sport, Soviet
people were encouraged to work hard, build (communism, of course) and not
complain: “Sport was not supposed to be only about personal pleasure, but was to
promote the construction of Communism through the formation of the New Soviet
Person by supporting industrialization and militarism.” (O’Mahony, 2006)
The idea of an ideal Soviet citizen has been developing throughout these imageseducated, healthy, hardworking and loyal to his/her homeland. To conclude this
section about the construction of new Soviet society it is crucial to notice the fact that
in the case of propaganda aimed at social life, in order to be effective it had to have a
repetitive and continuous character and circulate on a permanent basis. Jacques Ellul
(1961), the author of the book Propaganda. The formation of Men’s Attitudes
elaborates the notion of continuity and duration of propaganda: “Propaganda must be
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continuous and lasting-continuous in that it must not leave any gaps, but must fill the
citizen’s whole day and all his days; lasting in that it must function over a very long
period of time. Propaganda tends to make the individual live in a separate world; he
must not have outside points of reference.” (Ellul, 1962) Sheila Fitzpatrick (1974) in
her article Cultural Revolution in Russia 1928-32 also discusses the continuity of
propaganda in relation to Cultural Revolution: “The cultural revolution, unlike the
political revolution is neither sudden nor violent. It is a process of gradual ideological
transformation in which cultural traditions and the Leninist principle of cultural
continuity are respected.” (Fitzpatrick, 1974) Thus, propaganda conducted in the
period from the October Revolution until the Second World War can be characterized
by its long, continuous duration and an extensive usage of visual art aimed at a
creation of an absolutely new image of the ideal human in the still developing Soviet
environment.
IV. World War II (1939-1945; 1941-1945 for the Soviet Union) or
The Great Patriotic War
The term of the Great Patriotic War is used to describe the period of 1941-1945 when
the Soviet Union was officially involved in the World War II against Nazi Germany
and its allies. It is called “patriotic war” due to the fact that the Soviet army had to
fight against the German invaders on Soviet soil to protect the country. The Second
World War was the most devastating war for the whole world and especially for the
Soviet Union. According to the information of the General Staff of the Russian
Armed Forces for the year 1998, WWII took 23 388 100 lives of the Soviet people.
After 6 years of bloody battles and complex military operations, the Second World
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War ended with the victory of the Soviet Union and its allies and absolute capitulation
of the Nazi Germany and other Axis powers in 1945.
IV.I.1. Joseph Stalin’s Personality Cult
Before starting the discussion about particularly Anti-German/ Nazi Propaganda, it
might make sense to step back a little from the topic and to describe the political
situation in the country, which preceded the outbreak of the war. Vladimir Lenin died
in 1924. In the middle of 1920s by intraparty intrigues and the elimination of rivals,
Joseph Stalin came to power and become the General Secretary of the Central
Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The time of his rule can be
described as one of the darkest pages of Russian history: it was characterized by the
tightening of political and social control, repressions, disappearances of people and
the limitation of human rights and freedom. The other crucial aspect that greatly
contributed to the character of pre-war and war propaganda is the appearance of
Stalin’s personality cult. Robert C. Tucker (1979), author of the article The Rise of
Stalin’s Personality Cult proposes the idea that the cult emerged in many ways due to
the support from the Communist party: “Undoubtedly, the Bolsheviks genuinely
venerated their vozhd’ (Russian: вождь, English: leader) as the man, whose personal
leadership had been critically important for the movement…” (Tucker, 1979)
Nevertheless, the Bolsheviks were not the only ones who started the cult. Stalin
himself was hungry for adulation and saw it as a help to enhance his political position
as a ruler, thus, did everything possible and provided support for its development and
blossoming. (Tucker, 1979) During the development of the cult, the personality of
Stalin was equated to God, a supreme being, a great teacher, thinker, and seer. He was
24
presented as impeccable and almost holy. From the side of the media, the rhetoric of
Stalin’s personality cult was expressed through all the possible mediums: in
newspapers, films, literature, art and visual images. (Brooks, 1999) To see what kind
of agenda lay behind the images and to understand what idea they implied, it is
crucial to analyze the visual art.
Figure 13: “Thanks to Dear Stalin for a Happy Childhood” poster by V.
Govorkov from 1936.
The image “Thanks to dear Stalin for a happy childhood” can be considered a utopian
and idealistic representation of the Soviet leader. The image itself demonstrates this
through its construction and colors: Stalin is presented in a white suit surrounded by
happy and grateful Soviet children. The white suit symbolizes “pureness” and the
exceptionalism of the leader. The grateful children symbolize the fact that he is
admired and loved by the whole country and, especially, by the young generation.
25
According to the Russian political scientist Alexey Kara-Murza (2009), Stalin himself
created the cult of his personality and was engaged in its construction during the
whole period of his rule (until his death in 1953) (Kara-Murza: 2009). One of the
main aspects of the cult was the installation of an idea that the Soviet people must feel
obliged for everything they have to the Party and to Stalin. Another aspect of this
system was a necessity to express gratitude to comrade Stalin for social services and
other civil benefits (Kara-Murza: 2009). Professor of the Russian history in the John
Hopkins University and the author of the book Thank you, comrade Stalin!: Soviet
Public Culture from Revolution to Cold War Jeffrey Brooks (1999) states that the
famous phrase “thank comrade Stalin for our happy childhood “ emphasized the idea
that children have a happy childhood only because I. Stalin provided it to them
(Brooks, 1999). Thus, the cult of the personality of Joseph Stalin played a very
profound role not only in the overall direction of propaganda but also was one of the
central themes of the propaganda during the war with the Nazi Germany. It will be
discussed in more detail in the following section.
IV.I.2. Anti-German/Nazi Propaganda
During World War II, which started for the Soviet Union on the 22 of June 1941,
there was a great necessity for the mobilization of the armed forces and population for
the waging of a severe and devastating war. According to Karel Berkoff (2012),
author of the book Motherland in Danger. Soviet Propaganda During World War II,
the extent of the creation and circulation of propagandistic materials rose significantly
during WWII in comparison with the pre-war years (Berkhoff, 2012). The anti-
26
German messages were conveyed with the help of all possible mediums such as radio,
voice recordings and leaflets. At the same time, periodicals were the leading form of
Soviet propaganda that reflected the position of the official power as well as the
overall mood of the population (Berkhoff, 2012).
Before starting the analysis of the posters that were created during WWII, it is crucial
to mention the fact that domestic anti-Nazi propaganda was directed against the Nazi
government but not against the German people. Anthony Rhodes (1976), author of the
book Propaganda: The Art of Persuasion. World War II, clearly points out that the
Soviet propaganda precisely distinguished between the ordinary German people and
their leaders, the Hitlerites, and always clearly stated that the war is waged not against
the German nation. (Rhodes, 1976) A sharp rejection of racism, fascism, antiSemitism and chauvinism was an essential part of Soviet propaganda as a
manifestation of the universal component of value accents.
In order to maintain a well-established and functioning production of the weapon and
military equipment, it was significant for the Soviet government to cultivate the idea
of collective labor and motivate people to work harder. It is reasonable to analyze the
posters that agitated people’s contribution to the victory.
27
Figure 14: “All for the Front! All for the Victory!” poster by L.M. Lisitskiy from
1942.
An image “All for the Front! All for the Victory” can be seen as an eloquent example
of the core Soviet message: everything has to be devoted to the sake of the war. The
text at the bottom of the image says: “Let’s make more anti-tank rifles and guns,
planes, cannons, mortars, missiles, machine guns, rifles”. The presence of a specific
list of weapons that had to be produced as well as the clear and straightforward
construction of the message empowers the impact of the image. The image is also
symbolic in terms of colors: the red color can be associated with aggression, and in
the given situation perfectly fits the military context of the poster. Additionally, red
color is a major color of the flag of the Soviet Union and its army (Red Army).
Meanwhile, the grey creates a contrast that contributes to the sharpness and brightness
of the image. The presence of a male and female figure in the image implies the idea
28
that everybody has to work equally and in a collaborative way regardless of their sex
or anything else.
The other leitmotif of the Soviet propaganda during the War was the cultivation of
adverse images of the enemy. The leaders of the German government, as well as the
representatives of the German Army, were portrayed as ultimately evil and at the
same time pathetic. (Berkhoff, 2012) By creating even zoomorphic images of the
Nazis, the Soviet propaganda aimed to create a feeling of disgust and hatred towards
them. Also, they were not portrayed as humans but rather senseless beasts and
demonstrated the absence of intellect, soul, and human emotion. According to
Richard Overy (2006), author of the book The Dictators: Hitler’s Germany, Stalin’s
Russia, the newspaper Pravda from the very beginning of the War systematically
portrayed the German soldiers as killers, bloodsuckers, and cannibals, and especially
focused on the atrocities committed by the Germans. (Overy, 2006)
29
Figure 15: “The Animal is Wounded! Dispatch a Fascist Animal!” poster by D.S.
Moor from 1943.
The poster “The Animal is Wounded! Dispatch a Fascist Animal!” which depicts a
hyperbolized figure of the German soldier, can be seen as a symbol of the Nazi/
Fascist regime and, generally, the German army. The figure is ugly, and disgusting,
with an almost inhuman face; its hands and face are covered in blood. On the shoulder
there can be seen a patch with skull and crossbones- these objects traditionally
symbolize death. It can be said that the image is an “ideal” example of the Soviet
propaganda program of dehumanization and demonization of the German Army/ Nazi
government. The words also play a very significant role: “the German invader” is not
given a name or called a soldier; he is called “an animal” that has to be dispatched.
The words that the “animal is wounded” are a historical referral to the turning point
for the Red Army in the year of 1943 when the poster was commissioned. In this year
30
the successful military operations of the Red Army, including the Siege of Leningrad,
to the liberation of several Soviet cities and concentration camps, and the German
Army was pushed back significantly. The words “Dispatch a Wounded Animal” serve
as an agitation for the final, decisive action that had to be taken in order to defeat the
“animal” completely.
Figure 16: “Face of Hitlerism” poster by V.N. Deni from 1941.
The image “Face of Hitlerism” is another example of a poster that follows the
traditional direction of Soviet propaganda. However, in this case, it is possible to see
the comical allusion to Adolf Hitler or the Nazi leaders in general: absence of military
uniform as it was shown in the previous image. The “animal” is again, shown as
stupid, monstrous, and fat; it has strong features of the pig. At the bottom of the
image, it is possible to see the torn pages with the written words: international law,
31
morality, honor, and conscience. The presence of these “pages” has a great
significance- it expresses the contempt of the Soviet side to the ideology and actions
of the Nazi Germany. By creating that, the Soviet propaganda demonstrated that the
enemy violated and abused the core Soviet values. It implied the idea that the villain
has to be severely punished for that.
IV.I.3. Propaganda Aimed at the Maintenance of the National Spirit
Propaganda as an integral part of the war effort played a double role- in not only
effectively influencing individuals in the military front line, but also in successfully
maintaining moral among people who stayed and worked in the rear. Since the
beginning of the war, the inhabitants were faced with the danger of loss of live and
health, the sharp decline in consumption, and the destruction of a familiar social
environment. Berkhoff (2012) in his book Motherland in Danger. Soviet Propaganda
During World War II, states that propagandistic work in the first instance had been
designed to reduce the level of social stress, enhance the morale of the army and the
productivity of labor in the rear. (Berkhoff, 2012) The theme of revenge was
especially present in the visual art of propaganda during the period of the War.
32
Figure 17: “Blood for Blood. Death for Death” poster by A.G. Sittaro from 1942.
As it can be seen from this image, the Soviet man is portrayed as big, strong and
ready to attack. His figure is deliberately depicted as unrealistically bigger than the
figures of the running German soldiers. It is possible to observe the main idea of the
poster: revenge. The words “blood for blood” and “death for death” and, the portrayal
of dead bodies, and devastated land on the left bottom side of the image can be
considered as a really influential emotional stimulus. The image aim was to evoke the
feeling of anger, hatred, grief and desire for revenge. According to Richard Overy
(2006), the Soviet soldiers as well as the members of the partisan movement were
encouraged to see themselves as avengers. (Overy, 2006)
Images portraying females, particularly those portraying mothers, were also used
widely and some of them openly called for revenge.
33
Figure 18: “Avenge!” poster by D. Shmarinov from 1942.
The main purpose of the image “Avenge!” is to provoke anger and hatred towards the
invaders by using emotional images of women and children. The Soviet woman is
portrayed as physically weak but yet strong-willed. The image of a dead child can be
interpreted as a symbol of all the children that died because of the Germans or who
were killed by the Germans. The name of the poster speaks for itself: it is a plea of the
weak (women, elderly, children) for those who are stronger (the Soviet soldiers).
As it was already discussed in the previous section, the cult of Joseph Stalin not only
had a great impact on the visual propaganda but also even penetrated into the
language. According to Jeffrey Brooks (1999), the expert of Stalin’s epoch of the
Soviet Union, the phrase “For the Motherland! For Stalin!” became so widely used
34
during the War among the soldiers as it was expressed in the agitation posters.
(Brooks, 1999)
Figure 19: “For the Motherland! For Stalin!” poster by I. Toidze from 1941.
The image “For the Motherland! For Stalin” depicts a Soviet soldier standing in front
of the planes, tanks, and other military equipment. The aim of the poster is to urge
soldiers to fight the enemy that treacherously attacked the Soviet motherland. The
poster is constructed with the usage of traditional War period colors: red and gray as
were seen and discussed above in Figure 14. “All for the Front! All for the Victory!”
The body language of the imposing figure of the soldier holding the Red Flag leaning
forward implies the idea that the Soviet soldiers are swiftly and boldly attacking the
enemy. This represents a confidence in upcoming victory. The phrase “For Stalin!”
signifies the fact that the cult of his personality reached such a great extent of
35
popularity during the War period that it was absolutely appropriate (and honorable!)
among the population to say that they will sacrifice their lives for him. (Tucker, 1979)
When talking about the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), it is impossible to avoid the
topic of the glorification of the Soviet soldiers and, later on, the war heroes, in
propaganda during the period of the War. The image of the valiant Soviet soldier was
prominent not only during the War years but also strongly entrenched in
propagandistic rhetoric for the later decades.
Figure 20: “You Gave Us Our Life Back!” poster by V. Ivanov from 1943.
In this poster it can be seen, the Soviet soldier is portrayed as an ordinary yet heroic
man. The phrase “you gave us our life back!” represents the main feeling that
developed with the help of propaganda efforts: the feeling of endless gratitude to the
soldiers who fought to protect their families, and the country. It is also important not
36
to forget about the image of the women who stayed in the rear. As it can be observed
from the image, the female figure represents traditional Russian family values and
morality. Her head and shoulders are covered with the traditional Russian white
shawl; she is portrayed as a faithful, hard-working ordinary woman who was waiting
for her husband/father/brother/friend to come back home alive from the front.
During the period of the Second World War, the paradigm of the Soviet man, that
started its development right after the Great October Revolution, was significantly
strengthened. Propaganda materials reinforced the original features of the paradigm
such as the representation of the Soviet population as hard-working people, loyal to
their family, their country, and the party. It also added new characteristics such as
heroism, strength and the idea of the superpower of the Russian nation. The evolved
paradigm continued to be cultivated in the following years.
V. The Cold War (1946-1989)
The end of the Second World War did not appear to be the end of the ideological and
political confrontation between the former allies. As the winners of the Second World
War, the Soviet Union, the United States of America and Great Britain agreed on the
separation of the world by dividing it into the “spheres of influence”. However, the
perception of the Soviet Union as a threat to the world only worsened and the tensions
between the countries escalated to the new level, where the conflict took a permanent
form and lasted for decades. Such notions as the arms race, development and
improvement of the nuclear weaponry, and propaganda attacks from both sides were
the core features of the Cold War period.
37
The English novelist and journalist George Orwell (1945) is considered to be the
inventor of the term “Cold War”. He first used this expression in his essay You and
The Atomic Bomb that was published by the British newspaper Tribune in 1945.
Orwell’s essay first of all referred to the danger of the world nuclear warfare: “
Looking at the world as a whole, the drift for many decades has been not towards
anarchy but towards the reimposition of slavery…James Burnhaim’s theory has been
much discussed but few people have yet considered its ideological implications- that
is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would
probably prevail in a state which at one unconquerable and in a permanent of “cold
war” with its neighbors” (Orwell, 1945). Thus, it can be seen through the George
Orwell’s words that the Cold War predominantly was based on the ideological and
social grounds.
Various posters created during the Cold War period will be analyzed in this section to
demonstrate the ideological propaganda produced by the Soviet Union.
V.I.1. Ideological Race
Before starting the analysis of the visual art of propaganda during the Cold War
period, it is crucial to note that according to Jonathan Haslem (2011), author of the
book Russia’s Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall, even
though the arms race, the development and improvement of military equipment and
the nuclear weaponry indeed existed and was one of the major directions of the Soviet
government, it was never openly expressed by the Soviet propaganda. (Haslem, 2011)
Conversely, the art reflected the contrasting idea of the preservation of world peace
38
and the development of international relations. Propaganda also actively promoted
scientific and social achievements of the Soviet people and the government.
Space exploration had a special importance for the Soviet government. When a citizen
of the Soviet Union, a pilot and cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became a first human to
journey into outer space, the theme of space not only became the subject for national
pride but also was a new influential tool for the Soviet propaganda to glorify the
socialist regime of the country.
Figure 21: “In the Name of Peace and Progress!” poster by M. Vasiliev from
1965.
The image “In the name of peace and progress” depicts a Soviet cosmonaut in space.
The cosmonaut’s suit is red: red color as the traditional of the Soviet Union. It is
possible to see the reference to a real space equipment in the image- the cosmonaut
flew there on the spacecraft “Voskhod”; this spacecraft indeed was created in 1964
and sent to space. The words written at the top of the image “In name of peace and
progress” express the direction of the Soviet propaganda of the time: that the Soviet
39
Union explored space only for the sake of science, progress, and exclusively for
peaceful purposes.
Figure 22: “To Stop the Militarization of the Outer Space!” poster by A.
Mikhalkin from 1984.
When it comes to the Soviet propaganda attacks to the politics of the United States of
America, the poster “To stop militarization of the Outer Space” can be seen as a great
example of the Soviet rejection of the US actions. In 1983 the United States of
America announced the creation of Strategic Defense Initiative, a missile defense
system the purpose of which was the protection of the United States from ballistic
strategic nuclear weapons. As it can be observed on the poster, there is a vivid
allusion to the national flag of the United States in the way that the stars of the flag
are transforming into the military planes and missiles. The Soviet propaganda clearly
demonstrated the Soviet Union’s opposition to the US’s militarization of space. It also
emphasized the fact that the Soviet Union, in contrast with the United States, is a
40
country that refused militarization and generally had a leading role as peacemaker in
the world.
Along with space exploration, national economy and cattle breeding, in particular,
were of great significance to the Soviet Union. In order to motivate its population to
increase the productivity of the national labor in the fields such as stock raising, crop
and grain yield, the propaganda actively used the idea of competition with the main
ideological enemy of the Soviet Union, that is-the Unites States of America. The
statistics of the US achievements were provided to the Soviet people and thus, the
propaganda tried to encourage the Soviet workers to “beat” the indicators of the rival.
Figure 23: “In a Peaceful Competition Let’s Catch Up with the United States!
Let’s make 20-21 tons of meat!” poster by V.Volikov from 1960.
41
In figure 23 it is possible to observe a female worker who is standing among the
livestock. The words “in a peaceful competition” again, signifies the idea that the
Soviet Union accepts only peaceful competition with other countries and also, is
concerned with the improvement of its national economy and labor.
V.I.2. Cultivation of the Detrimental Image of the West/the United
States of America
The main purpose of Soviet propaganda was not only portraying the Soviet
government and the Soviet regime as the ideal political and social structure. Sonja
Luehrmann (2011), author of the article The Modernity of Manual Reproduction:
Soviet Propaganda and the Creative Life of Ideology, states that the propaganda was
also very concerned with the constant maintenance of favorable contrast and
comparisons to the political systems of the Western countries and with the United
States of America in particular. (Luehrmann, 2011) According to Ellul (1962),
propaganda took different forms and could be absorbed by the people with the help of
different institutions: “In the Soviet Union, agitation propaganda against imperialists
and saboteurs, or for the fulfillment of the Plan, is employed simultaneously with
propaganda of integration into the system (using different arguments and media)
through political education, youth movements and so on.” (Ellul, 1962)
In its systematic attacks on the United States, the Soviet propaganda focused on the
differences between the Soviet Union and the United States and cultivated contrasting
views of the countries on such values as liberty, democracy, employment, income and
the overall position of a human in society.
42
Figure 24: “American Freedom” poster by B. Efimov and N. Dolgorukov from
1950.
The poster “American Freedom” requires careful observation and analysis. It can be
said that it is a “5 in 1” image since it is possible to see 5 different images connected
by one theme. The first one is the central one, where the Statue of Liberty is portrayed
with the “locked” mouth and having a police officer with a baton on its shoulders. It
implies the idea that there is no freedom of speech in the United Sates and that the
government is controlling the society by the usage of official force (police officers).
The picture on the left top side of the image is called “A freedom of press” and
portrays a man sitting on the money bag and holding a folded newspaper, flying from
it are “named ducks”- lie, slander and so on. The creators of the poster probably
referred to and cultivated the existing in the Soviet Union idea that the wealthy
corporations controlled the press in the United States; the words “freedom of press”
43
are in quotes, implying the idea there that there is no freedom of press in the US. The
fact that the “ducks” are flying from the paper also has cultural meaning: there is a
notion of “газетная утка” (English: literally “newspaper duck”) in the Russian
language that can be translated as hogwash or hoax. The picture on the left bottom
side of the image is called “A freedom of opinions” and portrays a vicious capitalist
standing in front of the prison and holding a jail “sentence” probably for those who
too openly expressed their opinion. The third image, “the freedom of personality”,
portrays the members of Ku Klux Klan hanging an African-American on a tree. Here
the Soviet propaganda directly attacks the fact that in the United States AfricanAmericans did not have basic human rights until the 1960-s and were chased and
often killed by the members of such movements as the Ku Klux Klan. The last
picture, that can be found on the right bottom side of the image, portrays a
demonstration that is about to be suppressed by the police with a weapon. It is called
“a freedom of meetings” and implies the idea that in the United States problems in
society such as protesters are solved with the help of official violent force. It can be
said, that the aim of the “American Freedom” poster was to install and develop the
idea among the Soviet people that the notion of freedom in the United States is
violated and abused, and, in fact, is an imaginary concept.
44
Figure 25: “Who Gets the National Income?” poster by V. Govorkov from 1950.
The aim of the poster “Who gets the national income?” is to not only to ask a question
about the fate of the national income but also to give an answer to that question. It
says that “in capitalist countries the lion share of the income goes to the exploiters”,
whereas “in the USSR it goes to the workers”. Even though the image does not
directly name the United States of America and just talks about “capitalist countries”,
it could be implied that it referring to the US as the major capitalist power of the time.
As in the previous poster, “the capitalist” is portrayed as lazy, fat, greedy and
exploitative. The figure of the worker in the capitalist world depicted as small and
miserable. On the contrary, the figure of the Soviet worker is bigger and more vivid
on the image. The worker is standing with the goods from the shop and presented as
happy and satisfied with his life where everything is available to him. He is wearing
an expensive coat with fur collar and a fur hat, which in the Soviet Union were
considered to be a sign of a prosperous life. Behind the figure of the worker, there are
45
depicted buildings of the university, cinema, factory and cultural center; it shows that
in the Soviet Union there is not only a variety of opportunities, but also a developed
infrastructure for its workers. Interestingly enough that Soviet posters never
mentioned the reality of how “goods” were obtained such as standing in the
kilometers long lines for food and on waiting list for years for cars or real estate.
The image “ Who gets the national income?” is a valid example of the rhetoric in
Soviet Union propaganda of differentiating between “us” and “them” during the Cold
War period.
Figure 26: “Under Capitalism…Under Socialism!” poster by V. Koretskij from
1948.
The poster “Under Capitalism, Under Socialism” continues to follow the rhetoric of
the contrast between the Soviet Union and the United States of America. On the left
side of the image, it is possible to see a young black boy who is in chains with a
46
bleeding head; he is portrayed in front of the Statue of Liberty. The main colors of the
left side of the image are black, gray and white. It can be said that it creates an
atmosphere of gloominess, unhappiness, and despair. Meanwhile, the right side of the
image represents the part “under socialism” which depicts happy Soviet citizens. The
fact that it is possible to see the crowd of people can be interpreted as the idea that in
the Soviet Union people are working and building the bright Communist future in a
collective way that gives them strength and confidence. Here the Soviet propaganda
attacks the politics of individualism of the United States by giving two opposing
images of social structure. The main colors of the right part of the image are red and
white. The combination of black and red colors gives the desired effect by the
propaganda peace, contrasting between lives in the two countries. The fact that the
depicted boy is black is also significant. Haslem (2011) states that the Soviet
propaganda actively attacked the United States by condemning its politics of
segregation in the 1950-s and discrimination against the African –American
population by referring to the images of tortured and wretched African-American
people (Haslem, 2011).
During the long period of the Cold War, the representation of the Soviet Union as the
world’s superpower became the central theme of the Soviet propaganda. The
paradigm of the greatness of the Soviet Union and presentation of the socialist regime
as the only right way of existence/social structure developed with the help of its
constant opposition to the “rotten” capitalism and condemnation of its core values and
basis. Robert Service (2005), a professor of the University of London’s School of
Slavonic and Eastern Studies, states in his book A History of Modern Russia: from
Nicholas II to Putin, that the glorification of the ordinary Soviet worker continued
47
and, from the beginning of the Cold War the prosperity of the Soviet people was
deliberately shown in opposition with the oppressed capitalist system workers of the
United States (Service, 2005).
The purpose of the Soviet propaganda was directed, first of all, to the maintenance of
the utopian image of the Soviet reality as well as to the glorification of the Soviet
socialist regime. Capitalism was presented as an exploitative, unacceptable social
system under which people suffer and have no chance for better life. David Painter
(1999), an associate professor of the international history and an expert on the Cold
War and the United States foreign policy, in his book The Cold War: an International
History states that in the Soviet propaganda, the United States of America was
presented as the world’s greatest threat and a country with ambitions to gain world’
supremacy. Whereas its main rival, the Soviet Union, was shown as a peacemaker and
the only country that could confront the US for the sake of the rest of the world
(Painter, 1999).
VI. Perestroika (late 1980s - the beginning of 1990s)
The term Perestroika refers to the common name for the reforms and new ideology of
the Soviet Union and is used to define major changes in economic and political
structures of the Soviet Union in the second part of 1980-s and the beginning of 1990s. The main purpose of the reform was a comprehensive democratization of the
established order in the USSR socio-political and economic system. Even though
Mikhail Gorbachev, the eighth (and last) General Secretary of the Soviet Union is
considered to be an initiator of the democratic reorganization of the Soviet Union, the
48
idea of reconstruction was first developed by Yuri Andropov, who suddenly died in
1984 and did not manage to turn the plans of the reformation into reality. Nor did the
next General Secretary Konstantin Chernenko, who also passed away after leading the
Soviet Union for only thirteen months.(Brown, 1984) Melissa M. Smith (2007) states
in her article Giving Voice to Change: Shift in Soviet Media Paradigm Helps Bring
about Democratic Elections: “ By many accounts, Gorbachev inherited a Soviet
Union that was becoming stagnating and whose populace was suffering a ‘profound
dissatisfaction’ with the political situation in the country”. (Smith, 2007) She also
claims: “It was easy to predict there would be an attempt to “reinvigorate” the system
after Brezhnev’s death”. (Smith, 2007) Thus, Mikhail Gorbachev had a ready plan
that he started to carry out immediately when he took the office in 1985.
The Russian word “perestroika” (Russian: Перестройка) can be translated into the
English language as reconstruction or restructuring. The period of Perestroika in the
Soviet Union is characterized by the significant changes not only in the economic
sphere of the system (for instance, by the appearance of market economy) and
revision of international relations with the West, but also can be seen as a period of a
great transformation of the Soviet ideology regarding freedom of speech and
democratization of the society.
49
VI.I.1. “Glasnost” (English: Openness)
The term of glasnost can be explained as a politics of maximum openness in the
activities of public institutions and freedom of information. It also refers to a new
policy of inadmissibility of the understatement of the problems in economy and
society, a significant weakening of the censorship and the removal of the many
barriers to information that existed in the Soviet society.
As a political term, the word “glasnost” started to be used for the first time in the
Russian Empire in the end of 1850-s, and indicated a weakening of the censorship
control over time-based seal (periodicals). Later, it also indicated openness in
decision-making processes and the functioning of some official institutions,
particularly, the courts per the framework of judicial reform of Alexander II, which
replaced the “clerical secrecy”.
Robert Horvath (2005), author of the book The Legacy of Soviet Dissent: Dissidents,
Democratization and Radical Nationalism in Russia, states that glasnost, unlike the
freedom of speech, implied the idea that people are allowed to speak out only about
what the government wants to hear (Horvath, 2005). David Lane (1992), states that
even though the politics of glasnost was seen as beneficial, it turned to be a dangerous
factor for the Soviet ideology (Lane, 1992). The results of the hard work of the Soviet
propaganda shattered when people started to learn more about the past and present of
the country such as: when it became allowed to know and talk about atrocities of
Joseph Stalin’s period; when the bureaucracy and hypocrisy of the authorities started
50
to be discussed openly and when problems such as alcoholism, low life expectancy,
and overall low level of life quality became revealed and discussed.
Figure 27: “Go Ahead, Comrade! Glasnost is Our Strength!” poster from 1986.
The image “Go Ahead, Comrade! Glasnost is our strength!” depicts two figures of a
man: one is in front of the loudspeaker and the other is behind it. By looking at the
size of the figures it is possible to assume that the idea of the poster is to show the
value of transparency through the contrasting sizes of the figures. The first one is
extremely small in comparison with the second. Thus, it makes sense to go back to the
name of the poster that says: “glasnost is our strength”. It can be assumed, that the
image implies the idea that glasnost is not only a way for personal improvement but
also a way for the progress in society. According to Joseph Gibbs (1999), author of
the book Gorbachev’s Glasnost: The Soviet Media in the First Phase of Perestroika,
after the new policy was accepted the main purpose of the Soviet propaganda was to
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encourage the Soviet people to speak openly and also not to be intimidated to seek
information that was not available to them before. (Gibbs, 1999)
Nevertheless, the situation was different regarding the freedom of the Soviet
journalism. Melissa Smith (2007) provides the information about I. Bozhko, a
member of the Union of Journalists of the USSR in Odessa, who complained in his
letter to the magazine Ogonyok that “journalists are required to get a special pass
from an official at the Ministry of Internal Affairs before being admitted to a meeting,
gathering, demonstration, marsh or other ‘extraordinary event.’” (Bozhko, 1990)
Bozhko (1990) saw it as a “government’s attempt to install additional regulations on
the members of the media and thereby put a muzzle on glasnost and get it under their
control.” (Bozhko, 1990)
Figure 28: “1935-1940” poster.
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First of all, it is very significant to point out that it will be inaccurate to call the
“1935-1940” poster a product of the official Soviet propaganda, even though this
image was not “banned” by the officials and was accessible to the public. The image
“1935-1940” can be seen as a vivid example of an “author’s art” poster. According to
Lane (1992), the new movement of the free artists started to develop in the Soviet
Union during the period of Perestroika and glasnost, when the threat of the prison for
drawing condemning pictures had disappeared. (Lane, 1992) The poster “1935-1940”
can be observed as a clear allusion to the period of Joseph Stalin’s repressions (19211953) when approximately 3.8 million of the Soviet people who supposedly
committed “political crime” were considered to be “unlawful”, “not loyal” or
dangerous for the Soviet government. They were either sent to the working camps
such as GULAG or killed. The train that is going in an unknown direction with men,
women and children can be interpreted as a metaphor for the imprisoned or vanished
victims of the repressions, whose destinies were destroyed. The image is also
constructed in a very different manner compared to the norms of the Soviet
propaganda way. It is possible to see the absence of bright colors (such as
omnipresent red) and shouting slogans.
53
Figure 29: “Disabled People Cannot Wait Any Longer” poster.
Similarly to the previous poster, the image “Disabled People Cannot Wait Any
Longer” is “author’s art”. Disabled people and the issue of their poor living
conditions was never discussed or reflected in the Soviet media. The images of
suffering, physically disabled people did not fit the official paradigm of a happy,
healthy and satisfied Soviet citizen. Sarah D. Phillips (2009) provides a very
interesting story in her article There are no Invalids in the USSR: A Missing Soviet
Chapter in the New Disability History. She writes: “During the 1980 Olympic Games
in Moscow, a Western journalist inquired whether the Soviet Union would participate
in the first Paralympic games, scheduled to take place in Great Britain later that year.
The reply from the Soviet representative was swift, firm and puzzling: ‘There are no
invalids in the USSR!)’” (Phillips, 2009) Phillips (2009) also states: “Historically
throughout the former Soviet bloc, persons with physical and mental disabilities have
been stigmatized, hidden from the public, and thus made seemingly invisible.”
(Phillips, 2009) Glasnost appeared to be an opportunity for the artists to create images
54
that would express the harsh reality that nobody wanted to talk about. The poster says
that “Disabled People Cannot Wait Any Longer” and it refers to the idea that the
government had to take action in order to create the facilities that did not even exist,
as well as infrastructure and decent living conditions for the disabled.
It might be claimed that the politics of glasnost and the impetuous flow of information
was a great shock as well as a psychological challenge for the Soviet people.
Nevertheless, the politics of glasnost lead to the situation where the open discussion
about serious social and historical problems became possible and significantly
contributed to the formation of a new, post-Soviet mentality.
VI.I.2. Changing of Political and Economic Regimes
The politics of glasnost was not the only reform in the program of Perestroika. The
idea of democratization spread not only to the social sphere and ideology but also
brought about change in Soviet politics and economics. In regards to economics, one
of the main examples of change is the fact that the legislation was modified so people
obtained a right to have a private business (so-called “cooperatives”) and register as
individual entrepreneurs. The planned changes in politics can be characterized by
such factors as minimization of the role of the Communist Party in all spheres of life,
improvement of the relationships with the capitalist West and the struggle with
bureaucracy, stagnation, and red tape.
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Figure 30: “Perestroika, Democracy, Reform, Glasnost” poster from 1986.
The image “Perestroika, Democracy, Reform, Glasnost” can be analyzed as a
traditional product of the Soviet propaganda that cultivated the new course of the
Communist Party. At the top of the image, it is possible to see the words
“perestroika”, “democracy”, “reform” and “glasnost”. These notions were announced
as the main aim and direction of the politics of Perestroika. In the middle of the
image, it is possible to see the figure of a big red “boulder” with the written words:
“Communist party of the Soviet Union”. The “boulder” is crushing such notions as
bureaucracy, demagogy, red tape, conformism, dogmatism, and voluntarism. It can be
assumed that the image implies the idea that the Communist Party, by approving the
new politics of Perestroika, is planning to bring significant positive changes to the
country such as reforms and democracy and fight with the detrimental obstacles such
as bureaucracy and others.
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Figure 31: “Let Live Pluralism!” poster.
On the 15 of March 1990, the Third Congress of People’s Deputies of the Soviet
Union passed an amendment to the Constitution of the Soviet Union authorizing a
multiparty system (Lane, 1992). The Communist Party thus lost its absolute
monopoly on the political arena and the idea of pluralism was not unlawful anymore.
The image “Let Live Pluralism” follows the classical approach of the Soviet
propaganda and could be interpreted as conforming to the Soviet ideology due to the
fact that it preserves the main identification symbols of the Soviet power – the
hammer and sickle. The poster “Let Live Pluralism” depicts three separate figures of
the joined hammer and sickle and could be interpreted as a metaphor for the desire in
the Soviet Union for a system where there are a variety of political parties and thus
different political directions would be possible.
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According to Smith (2007), by 1989 it was common for the newspapers and
magazines to receive letters from the readers who asked for the adoption of a
multiparty political system. (Smith, 2007) The following is an excerpt from the letter
of one of the readers that was received by the Soviet magazine Ogonyok in 1989:
“We must reject the Stalinist stereotype of the benefit of a one-party system and move
toward creating a multiparty state…The introduction of a multiparty system will make
it possible to bring the people into politics; to take into account the broad spectrum of
their interests and opinions; and to guarantee that the best procedures are used for
selecting programs, measures and leaders”. (Nikerov, 1990)
Figure 32: “Hit, More Hit!” poster from 1990.
The day of 15th of March 1990 was also significant because the Third Congress of
People’s Deputies of the Soviet Union abolished the 6th article of the Constitution of
the Soviet Union that stated: “The Communist Party is the leading and the guiding
58
force in the state.” (Lane, 1992) The image “Hit, More Hit” is showing the common
Soviet Union practice of “carpet beating” where people cleaned their carpets of dust
by taking them outside and beating them with a special carpet beater given that the
vacuum cleaner was a novelty that was not available to the common people. Instead
of a carpet, the artist has depicted the Soviet Constitution with article number 6
“flying” out it. It is also possible to observe that the authors draw an analogy between
the Soviet Constitution and the carpet. As the unwanted dust must be beaten from the
carpet, so too the unnecessary and hindering articles of the constitution must be rid of.
The image is called “hit, more hit” which can be interpreted as public approval for the
changes in society and, perhaps, the acceptance of the fact that there were many more
areas that must be changed.
To conclude the section about the period of Perestroika, it is crucial to say that it was,
perhaps, one of the most controversial periods in the history of the Soviet Union.
From the one side, it can be interpreted as a great attempt of the country to start the
process of democratization of the society and can be seen as a new path for gaining
freedom and development for the country. From the other side, Perestroika left the
country in devastation and caused many sufferings and losses for the common
Russian people. The fact that Perestroika was the beginning of the end of the Soviet
Union cannot be rejected.
VI.I.3. Shift in the Soviet Paradigm
The main finding of the present thesis is the fact that in a gradual and purposeful
manner the Soviet propaganda created a paradigm that successfully existed and
59
developed before the collapse of the Soviet Union. It contributed to the maintenance
and obedience in the country as well as shaped people’s perception of reality and the
world around them. Before going to the conclusion, it is important to talk about the
process of appearance of the shift in the Soviet paradigm and analyze it as a
significant factor that ruined the paradigm from the inside.
As it was discussed in the previous sections, the paradigm of the ideal Soviet citizen
started its blossoming after the end of the Second World War. In periodicals,
magazines and images, the Soviet person was represented as honest, hard -working
and loyal to the political system. Relationships between people were shown as pure,
decent and proper. People looked for the happiness through hard work and dedication
to their motherland. Since the dominant paradigm was very powerful and appeared
almost everywhere, the Soviet people were significantly affected by it. It can be said
that from the post-war period till the early 1990s the paradigm of the decent, hardworking person, who loves his/her family and works for the flourishing communist
future existed.
The first signs of the shift of the paradigm began to appear from the new politics of
Perestroika that was discussed in the previous section. Mikhail Gorbachev’s policies
that are often considered to be beneficial for the country can be seen from another
perspective that believes his policies of modernization, glasnost and perestroika led to
economic and political disaster. The shift in the paradigm is characterized by the
dramatic changes in the representation of the Soviet person. After the collapse of the
Soviet Union in 1991, the shift in paradigm became stronger as the no longer existed,
60
people were left in limbo. The collapse saw a deficit in everything- a lack of products,
disorder in factories and politic that made life in the Soviet Union almost catastrophic.
Forbidden content such as pornography and gangster chronicles that was not available
in Soviet times, become accessible and people did not know how to handle the
enormous wave of information that was previously unknown or hidden. Since the
country is in a deplorable state, the shift in paradigm reached its acme: the Russian
person was presented as always drunk, lazy, stupid and basically degrading. The
national consciousness was almost destroyed, people saw their country, lives, culture
and traditions as useless, primitive and unworthy. Photographers and filmmakers
exaggerated the situation, “pouring oil on flames” and made it even more abhorrent.
Images of people, television programs and films were full of violence, sex, alcoholism
and moral leprosy.
Only approximately ten years after the collapse the country started to recover,
especially in a psychological sense
It can be said the shift in the Soviet paradigm after the collapse of the Soviet Union
can be considered as very dramatic, contrasting and sharp.
VII. Conclusion
In would be right to say that the domestic Soviet propaganda was an integral part of
the Soviet politics and ideology. It served probably one of the most important and
crucial functions: it shaped the mentality of the Soviet people. Not only did it
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contribute to the creation of an ideal Soviet citizen and for more than seventy years
strengthened the position of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, but it also
spread influenced people’s perception of family, human relationships, and the
homeland.
Thus, the Soviet propaganda penetrated into the every part of the social and personal
lives of people. The images that were taken for the analysis and consideration can be
seen as a vivid examples of the propaganda techniques and show how the Soviet
propagandists gradually developed the desired images and messages for the Soviet
government that were sent to the public. The analysis of the propaganda posters also
showed the existence of the paradigm that started to be constructed from the early
1920-s and continued its development until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
As it was discovered during the research and work under this thesis, the Soviet
propaganda followed the official line of the Soviet government and served merely the
interests of the Soviet authorities. The vulnerability and “informational slavery” of the
Soviet people to the propagandistic practices can be found in the absence of the
outside information and different perspectives, and in the “information bubble” that
people lived in for decades. The totalitarian character of the Soviet power and the fear
of the Soviet people to be punished for nonconformity significantly contributed to the
success and prosperity of the Soviet propaganda that operated for more than 70 years
in Russia.
62
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