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Revolutions of 1848
1
Revolutions of 1848
Revolutions of 1848
[1][2]
Barricade on the rue Soufflot,
an 1848 painting by Horace Vernet. The Panthéon is shown in the background.
Other names Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples, Year of Revolution
Participants
People of France, the German states, the Austrian Empire, the Italian states, Denmark, Wallachia, Poland, and others
Location
Western and Central Europe
Date
23 February 1848-early 1849
Result
Little overall structural change
Significant overall social and cultural change
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as
the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples[3] or the Year
of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout
Europe in 1848. It was the only Europe-wide collapse of
traditional authority to date, but within a year, reactionary forces
had won out, and the revolutions collapsed.
This revolutionary wave began in France in February and
immediately spread to most of Europe and parts of Latin America.
Over 50 countries were affected, but there was no coordination or
cooperation among the revolutionaries in different countries. Five
factors were involved: the widespread dissatisfaction with the
political leadership; the demand for more participation and
democracy; the demands of the working classes; the upsurge of
nationalism; and finally, the regrouping of the reactionary forces
based in the royalty, the aristocracy, the army, and the peasants.[4]
The uprisings were led by shaky ad-hoc coalitions of reformers,
the middle classes and workers, but it could not hold together for
long. Tens of thousands of people were killed, and many more
1848 painting titled Germania, by Philipp Veit
forced into exile. The only significant lasting reforms were the
abolition of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute
monarchy in Denmark, as well as the definitive end of the Capetian monarchy in France. The revolutions were most
important in France, Germany, Poland, Italy, and the Austrian Empire, and did not reach Russia, Great Britain,
Spain, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman Empire.[5]
Revolutions of 1848
Origins
These revolutions arose from such a wide variety of causes that it is difficult to view them as resulting from a
coherent movement or social phenomenon. Numerous changes had been taking place in European society throughout
the first half of the 19th century. Both liberal reformers and radical politicians were reshaping national governments.
Technological change was revolutionizing the life of the working classes. A popular press extended political
awareness, and new values and ideas such as popular liberalism, nationalism and socialism began to emerge. Some
historians emphasize the serious crop failures, particularly those of 1846, that produced hardship among peasants and
the working urban poor.
Large swathes of the nobility were discontented with
royal absolutism or near-absolutism. In 1846 there had
been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia,
which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose
up against the nobles.[6] Additionally, an uprising by
democratic forces against Prussia occurred in Greater
Poland.
Next the middle classes began to agitate. Working class
objectives tended to fall in line with those of the middle
class. Although Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels had
written at the request of the Communist League in
London (an organization consisting principally of
Galician slaughter (Polish: Rzeź galicyjska) by Jan Lewicki
German workers) The Communist Manifesto (published
(1795–1871), depicting the massacre of Polish nobles by Polish
in German in London on February 21, 1848), once they
peasants in Galicia in 1846.
began agitating in Germany following the March
insurrection in Berlin, their demands were considerably
reduced. They issued their "Demands of the Communist Party in Germany"[7] from Paris in March; the pamphlet
only urged unification of Germany, universal suffrage, abolition of feudal duties, and similar middle class goals.
The middle and working classes thus shared a desire for reform, and agreed on many of the specific aims. Their
participations in the revolutions, however, differed. While much of the impetus came from the middle classes, much
of the cannon fodder came from the lower. The revolts first erupted in the cities.
Urban workers
The population in French rural areas had rapidly risen, causing many peasants to seek a living in the cities. Many in
the bourgeoisie feared and distanced themselves from the working poor. Many unskilled laborers toiled from 12 to
15 hours per day when they had work, living in squalid, disease-ridden slums. Traditional artisans felt the pressure of
industrialization, having lost their guilds. Revolutionaries such as Marx built up a following.[8]
The situation in the German states was similar. Parts of Prussia were beginning to industrialize. During the decade of
the 1840s, mechanized production in the textile industry brought about inexpensive clothing that undercut the
handmade products of German tailors.[9] Reforms ameliorated the most unpopular features of rural feudalism, while
industrial workers remained dissatisfied with these and pressed for greater change.
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Revolutions of 1848
Urban workers had no choice but to spend half of their income on
food, which consisted of bread and potatoes. As a result of harvest
failures, food prices soared and the demand for manufactured goods
decreased, causing an increase in unemployment. During the
revolution, to address the problem of unemployment, workshops were
organized for men interested in construction work. Officials also set up
workshops for women when they felt they were excluded. Artisans and
unemployed workers destroyed industrialized machines when their
social demands were neglected.[10]
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Map of Europe, showing the major events of
1848 and 1849
Rural areas
Rural population growth had led to food shortages, land pressure, and migration, both within Europe and out from
Europe, especially to North America. In the years 1845 and 1846, a potato blight caused a subsistence crisis in
Northern Europe. The effects of the blight were most severely manifested in the Great Irish Famine,[11] but also
caused famine-like conditions in the Scottish Highlands and throughout Continental Europe.
Aristocratic wealth (and corresponding power) was synonymous with the ownership of farm lands and effective
control over the peasants. Peasant grievances exploded during the revolutionary year of 1848.
Role of ideas
Despite forceful and often violent efforts of established and reactionary powers to keep them down, disruptive ideas
gained popularity: democracy, liberalism, nationalism, and socialism.[12]
In the language of the 1840s, democracy meant universal male suffrage. Liberalism fundamentally meant consent of
the governed and the restriction of church and state power, republican government, freedom of the press and the
individual. Nationalism believed in uniting people bound by (some mix of) common languages, culture, religion,
shared history, and of course immediate geography; there were also irredentist movements. At this time, what are
now Germany and Italy were collections of small states. Socialism in the 1840s was a term without a consensus
definition, meaning different things to different people, but was typically used within a context of more power for
workers in a system based on worker ownership of the means of production.
Revolutions of 1848
4
Events
Italian states
Although little noticed at the time, the first major
outbreak came in Sicily, starting in January 1848.
There had been several previous revolts against
Bourbon rule; this one produced an independent state
that lasted only 16 months before the Bourbons came
back. During those months the constitution was quite
advanced for its time in liberal democratic terms, as
was the proposal of an Italian confederation of states.
The failed revolt was reversed a dozen years later as the
Bourbon kingdom of the Two Sicilies collapsed in
1860–61 with the Risorgimento.
la Barricade de la rue Soufflot, Paris, Feb 1848, by Horace Vernet.
France
The "February Revolution" in France was sparked by the suppression of the campagne des banquets. This revolution
was driven by nationalist and republican ideals among the French general public, who believed that the people
should rule themselves. It ended the constitutional monarchy of Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French
Second Republic. This government was headed by Louis-Napoleon, who, after only four years, returned France to a
monarchy with the establishment of the Second French Empire in 1852.
Alexis de Tocqueville remarked in his Recollections of the period that "society was cut in two: those who had
nothing united in common envy, and those who had anything united in common terror."[13]
German states
The "March Revolution" in the German states took
place in the south and the west of Germany, with large
popular assemblies and mass demonstrations. Led by
well educated students and intellectuals,[14] they
demanded German national unity, freedom of the
press, and freedom of assembly. The uprisings were
not well coordinated but had in common a rejection of
traditional, autocratic political structures in the
thirty-nine independent states of the German
Confederation. The middle class and working class
components of the Revolution split, and in the end the
conservative aristocracy defeated it, forcing many
liberals into exile.[15]
Cheering revolutionaries after fighting in March 1848
Denmark
Denmark had been governed by a system of absolute monarchy since the seventeenth century. King Christian VIII, a
moderate reformer but still an absolutist, died in January 1848 during a period of rising opposition from farmers and
Revolutions of 1848
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liberals. The demands for constitutional monarchy, led by the National Liberals, ended with a popular march to
Christiansborg on March 21. The new king, Frederick VII, met the liberals' demands and installed a new Cabinet that
included prominent leaders of the National Liberal Party. The national-liberal movement wanted to abolish
absolutism but retain a strongly centralized state. The king accepted a new constitution agreeing to share power with
a bicameral parliament called the Rigsdag. Although army officers were dissatisfied, they accepted the new
arrangement which, in contrast to the rest of Europe, was not overturned by reactionaries.[16] The liberal constitution
did not extend to Schleswig, leaving the Schleswig-Holstein Question unanswered.
Schleswig
Schleswig, a region containing both Danes and
Germans, was a part of the Danish monarchy but
remained a duchy separate from the Kingdom of
Denmark. Spurred by pan-German sentiment, Germans
of Schleswig took up arms to protest a new policy
announced by Denmark's National Liberal government,
which would have fully integrated the duchy into
Denmark. The German population in Schleswig and
Holstein revolted, inspired by the Protestant clergy.
The German states sent in an army but Danish victories
in 1849 led to the Treaty of Berlin (1850) and the
Danish soldiers return victorious
London Protocols (1852). They reaffirmed the
sovereignty of the King of Denmark, while prohibiting union with Denmark. The violation of the latter provision led
to renewed warfare in 1863 and the Prussian victory in 1864.
Habsburg Empire
From March 1848 through July 1849, the Habsburg
Austrian Empire was threatened by revolutionary
movements, which often had a nationalist character.
The empire, ruled from Vienna, included Austrian
Germans, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Croats,
Slovaks, Ukrainians/Ruthenians, Romanians, Serbs and
Italians, all of whom attempted in the course of the
revolution to either achieve autonomy, independence,
or even hegemony over other nationalities. The
nationalist picture was further complicated by the
simultaneous events in the German states, which
moved toward greater German national unity.
Proclamation of Serbian Vojvodina in Sremski Karlovci.
Revolutions of 1848
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Hungary
The Hungarian revolution of 1848 started on the 15
March 1848, when Hungarian patriots organized mass
demonstrations in Pest and Buda (today Budapest)
which forced the Imperial governor to accept their
twelve points of demands. This resulted in Klemens
von Metternich, the Austrian prince and foreign
minister, resigning. In turn, Emperor Ferdinand
promised Hungary a constitution, an elected
parliament, and the end of censorship. The revolution
grew into a war for independence from the Austrian
Empire when Josip Jelačić, Ban of Croatia, crossed the
border, in order to restore Habsburg control. The new
government, led by Lajos Kossuth, was initially
successful against the Habsburg forces, but eventually,
after one and a half years of fighting, the revolution
was crushed when Russian Tsar Nicholas I marched
into Hungary with over 300,000 troops. Hungary was
thus placed under brutal martial law, with the Austrian
government restored.[17] On the long run, the passive
resistance following the revolution led to the
Austro-Hungarian Compromise (1867), which event
marked the birth of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
Battle of Buda, May 1849, by Mór Than
Switzerland
Hungarian hussars in battle during the Hungarian Revolution.
Switzerland, already an alliance of republics, also saw
major internal struggle. The creation of the Sonderbund
led to a short Swiss civil war in November 1847. In 1848, a new constitution ended the almost-complete
independence of the cantons and transformed Switzerland into a federal state.
Western Ukraine
The center of the Ukrainian national movement was in Eastern Galicia. On April 19, 1848, a group of representatives
lead by the Greek Catholic clergy launched a petition to the Austrian Emperor. It expressed wishes that in those
regions of Galicia where Ruthenian (Ukrainian) population represented majority the Ukrainian language should be
taught at schools and used to announce official decrees for the peasantry; local officials were expected to understand
it and Ruthenian clergy was to be equalized in their rights with the clergy of all other denominations.[18]
On May 2, 1848 the Supreme Ruthenian (Ukrainian) Council was established. The Council (1848-1851) was headed
by the Greek-Catholic Bishop Gregory Yakhimovich and consisted of 30 permanent members. Its main goal was the
administrative division of Galicia into Western (Polish) and Eastern (Ruthenian/Ukrainian) parts within the borders
of the Habsburg Empire, and formation of a separate region with a political self-governance.[19]
Revolutions of 1848
Greater Poland
Polish people mounted a military insurrection in the Grand Duchy of Poznań (or the Greater Poland region) against
the occupying Prussian forces.
Danubian Principalities
A Romanian liberal and Romantic nationalist uprising began in June
in the principality of Wallachia. Closely connected with the 1848
unsuccessful revolt in Moldavia, it sought to overturn the
administration imposed by Imperial Russian authorities under the
Regulamentul Organic regime, and, through many of its leaders,
demanded the abolition of boyar privilege. Led by a group of young
intellectuals and officers in the Wallachian military forces, the
movement succeeded in toppling the ruling Prince Gheorghe
Bibescu, whom it replaced with a Provisional Government and a
Regency, and in passing a series of major liberal reforms, first
announced in the Proclamation of Islaz.
Belgium
In Belgium, the uprisings were local and concentrated in the
industrial basins of the Provinces of Liège and Hainaut. A more or
People in Bucharest during the 1848 events,
carrying the Romanian tricolor
less greater threat was coming from France, where among the
seasonal workers Communism was spread by the small Communist
clique of Belgium, basically the people were brought into a Belgian Legion, with the promise of a free ride home and
money. The Belgian Legion would 'invade' Belgium by train and travel to Brussels where the government and
monarchy had to be overthrown. Several smaller groups managed to infiltrate Belgium, but the reinforced Belgian
bordertroops was successful in splitting up the larger groups of the Legion, and the invasion eventually came to
nothing.[20]
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Revolutions of 1848
Ireland
The Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848 was a small, failed rebellion which broke out in Ballingarry, Co. Tipperary.
It was led by the Young Ireland movement, inspired by famine conditions in Ireland and the 1848 rebellions
throughout Europe.
Other English-speaking lands
Elsewhere in Britain, the middle classes had been
pacified by general enfranchisement in the Reform Act
1832; the consequent agitations, violence, and petitions
of the Chartist movement came to a head with their
peaceful petition to Parliament of 1848. The repeal in
1846 of the protectionist agricultural tariffs – called the
"Corn Laws" – had defused some proletarian
fervour.[21]
The Revolutions had little impact in British colonies,
aside from a modest influx of immigration from
German-speaking lands. In the United States, the main
Chartist meeting on Kennington Common 10 April 1848.
impact of Revolutions and their failure was
substantially increased immigration, especially from
Germany. This in turn fuelled the nativist "Know Nothing" movement in the years preceding the American Civil
War. The "Know Nothings" were opposed to immigration, especially immigration of German and Irish Catholics and
held the Pope, Pius IX responsible for the Revolutions' failure.
New Grenada
In Spanish Latin America, the Revolution of 1848 appeared in New Grenada, where Colombian students, liberals
and intellectuals demanded the election of General José Hilario López. He took power in 1849 and launched major
reforms, abolishing slavery and the death penalty, and providing freedom of the press and of religion. The resulting
turmoil in Colombia lasted four decades; from 1851 to 1885 the country was ravaged by four general civil wars and
fifty local revolutions.[22]
Brazil
In Brazil, the "Praieira revolt" was a movement in Pernambuco that lasted from November 1848 to 1852. Unresolved
conflicts left over from the period of the Regency and local resistance to the consolidation of the Brazilian Empire
that had been proclaimed in 1822 helped to plant the seeds of the revolution.
Legacy and memory
. . . We have been beaten and humiliated . . . scattered, imprisoned, disarmed and gagged. The fate of
European democracy has slipped from our hands.
—Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, [23]
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Revolutions of 1848
There were multiple memories of the Revolution.
Democrats looked to 1848 as a democratic revolution,
which in the long run insured liberty, equality, and
fraternity. Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of
working-class ideals by a bourgeoisie that was
indifferent to the legitimate demands of the proletariat.
For nationalists, 1848 was the springtime of hope when
newly emerging nationalities rejected the old
multinational empires. They were all bitterly
disappointed in the short run. 1848, at best, was a
glimmer of future hope, and at worst it was a
deadweight that strengthened the reactionaries and
delayed further progress.[24]
9
Caricature by Ferdinand Schröder on the defeat of the revolutions of
1848/49 in Europe (published in Düsseldorfer Monatshefte, August
1849).
In the post-revolutionary decade after 1848, little had
visibly changed and most historians considered the
revolutions a failure, given the seeming lack of permanent structural changes.
Nevertheless, there were a few immediate successes for some revolutionary movements, notably in the Habsburg
lands. Austria and Prussia eliminated feudalism by 1850, improving the lot of the peasants. European middle classes
made political and economic gains over the next twenty years; France retained universal male suffrage. Russia would
later free the serfs on February 19, 1861. The Habsburgs finally had to give the Hungarians more self-determination
in the Ausgleich of 1867. The revolutions inspired lasting reform in Denmark as well as the Netherlands.
Exceptions
Great Britain, the Netherlands, the Russian Empire (including Congress Poland), and the Ottoman Empire were the
only major European states to go without a national revolution over this period. Sweden and Norway were little
affected. Serbia, though formally unaffected by the revolt as it was a part of the Ottoman state, actively supported the
Serbian revolution in the Habsburg Empire.[25]
Russia's relative stability was attributed to the revolutionary groups' inability to communicate with each other. In the
Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, uprisings took place in 1830–31 (the November Uprising)
and 1846 (the Kraków Uprising). A final revolt took place in 1863–65 (the January Uprising), but none occurred in
1848.
Switzerland and Portugal were also spared in 1848, though both had gone through civil wars in the preceding years
(the Sonderbund war in Switzerland and the Liberal Wars in Portugal). The introduction of the Swiss Federal
Constitution in 1848 was a revolution of sorts, laying the foundation of Swiss society as it is today. In the
Netherlands no major unrests appeared because the king Willem II decided to alter the constitution to reform
elections and effectively reduce the power of the monarchy. While there were no major political upheavals in the
Ottoman Empire as such, political unrest did occur in some of its vassal states. In Serbia, feudalism was finally
abolished in 1838 and power of the Serbian prince was reduced with the Turkish constitution.
Revolutions of 1848
References
[1] 1848-06-24: "Battle at Soufflot barricades-1848" Location:Rue Soufflot, Paris48°50′48″N 2°20′37″E
[2] Mike Rapport (2009). 1848: Year of Revolution (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mRBYlHSKpjsC& pg=PA201& lpg=PA201). Basic
Books. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-465-01436-1. . "The first deaths can at noon on 23 June."
[3] Merriman, John, A History of Modern Europe: From the French Revolution to the Present, 1996, p 715
[4] R.J.W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds., The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849 (2000) pp v, 4
[5] Nor did it reach Spain, Belgium, Sweden, Portugal, or the Ottoman Empire. Evans and Strandmann (2000) p 2
[6] Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries, A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change, Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0-415-1611-8. p. 295 – 296.
[7] Demands of the Communist Party in Germany (http:/ / marxists. org/ archive/ marx/ works/ 1848/ 03/ 24. htm), Marx-Engels Collected
Works, vol 7, pp. 3ff (Progress Publishers: 1975–2005)
[8] Merriman, John (1996). A History of Modern Europe: From the Renaissance to the Present. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 718.
[9] Merriman, 1996, p. 724
[10] Breuilly, John ed. Parker, David (2000). Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition. New York: Routledge. p. 114.
[11] Helen Litton, The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Wolfhound Press, 1995, ISBN 0-86327-912-0
[12] Charles Breunig, The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 – 1850 (1977)
[13] Tocqueville, Alexis de. "Recollections," 1893
[14] Louis Namier, 1848: The Revolution of the Intellectuals (1964)
[15] Theodote S. Hamerow, Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1825–1870 (1958) focuses mainly on
artisans and peasants
[16] Weibull, Jörgen. "Scandinavia, History of." Encyclopædia Britannica 15th ed., Vol. 16, 324.
[17] The Making of the West: Volume C, Lynn Hunt, Pages 683–684
[18] Kost' Levytskyi, The History of the Political Thought of the Galician Ukrainians, 1848-1914, (Lviv, 1926), 17.
[19] Ibid., 26.
[20] Belgium in 1848 – Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions (http:/ / www. ohio. edu/ chastain/ ac/ belgium. htm)
[21] Henry Weisser, "Chartism in 1848: Reflections on a Non-Revolution," Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies Vol. 13,
No. 1 (Spring, 1981), pp. 12–26 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 4049111)
[22] J. Fred Rippy, Latin America: A Modern History (1958) pp 253–4
[23] Breunig, Charles (1977), The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 – 1850 (ISBN 0-393-09143-0)
[24] Robert Gildea, "1848 in European Collective Memory," in Evans and Strandmann, eds. The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849 pp 207–235
[25] http:/ / www. ohiou. edu/ ~Chastain/ rz/ serbvio. htm
Bibliography
Surveys
• Breunig, Charles (1977), The Age of Revolution and Reaction, 1789 – 1850 (ISBN 0-393-09143-0)
• Chastain, James, ed. (2005) Encyclopedia of Revolutions of 1848 online from Ohio State U. (http://www.ohio.
edu/chastain/contents.htm)
• Dowe, Dieter, ed. Europe in 1848: Revolution and Reform (Berghahn Books, 2000)
• Evans, R.J.W., and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds. The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform
to Reaction (2000), 10 essays by scholars excerpt and text search (http://www.amazon.com/
Revolutions-Europe-1848-1849-Reform-Reaction/dp/0198208405/)
• Pouthas, Charles. "The Revolutions of 1848" in J. P. T. Bury, ed. New Cambridge Modern History: The zenith of
European power 1830–70 (1960) pp 389–415 online excerpts (http://books.google.co.uk/
books?id=jRQ9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR5&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false)
• Langer, William. The Revolutions of 1848 (Harper, 1971), standard overview
• Rapport, Mike (2009), 1848: Year of Revolution ISBN 978-0-465-01436-1 online review (http://www.h-net.
org/reviews/showrev.php?id=25808), a standard survey
• Robertson, Priscilla (1952), Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (ISBN 0-691-00756-X), despite the subtitle
this is a traditional political narrative
• Sperber, Jonathan. The European revolutions, 1848–1851 (1994) online edition (http://quod.lib.umich.edu/
cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb01876.0001.001)
10
Revolutions of 1848
• Stearns, Peter N. The Revolutions of 1848 (1974). online edition (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&
d=30508731)
• Weyland, Kurt. "The Diffusion of Revolution: '1848' in Europe and Latin America," International Organization
Vol. 63, No. 3 (Summer, 2009) pp. 391–423 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/40345942)
France
• Duveau, Georges. 1848: The Making of a Revolution (1966)
• Fasel, George. "The Wrong Revolution: French Republicanism in 1848," French Historical Studies Vol. 8, No. 4
(Autumn, 1974), pp. 654–677 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/285857)
• Loubère, Leo. "The Emergence of the Extreme Left in Lower Languedoc, 1848–1851: Social and Economic
Factors in Politics," American Historical Review (1968), v. 73#4 1019–1051 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/
stable/1847387)
Germany and Austria
• Deak, Istvan. The Lawful Revolution: Louis Kossuth and the Hungarians, 1848–1849 (1979)
• Hahs, Hans J. The 1848 Revolutions in German-speaking Europe (2001)
• Hewitson, Mark. "'The Old Forms are Breaking Up, … Our New Germany is Rebuilding Itself':
Constitutionalism, Nationalism and the Creation of a German Polity during the Revolutions of 1848–49," English
Historical Review, Oct 2010, Vol. 125 Issue 516, pp 1173–1214 online (http://ehr.oxfordjournals.org/content/
CXXV/516/1173.extract)
• Macartney, C. A. "1848 in the Habsburg Monarchy," European Studies Review, 1977, Vol. 7 Issue 3, pp 285–309
online (http://ehq.sagepub.com/content/7/3/285.extract)
• O'Boyle Lenore. "The Democratic Left in Germany, 1848," Journal of Modern History Vol. 33, No. 4 (Dec.,
1961), pp. 374–383 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1877214)
• Robertson, Priscilla. Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952), pp 105–85 on Germany, pp 187–307 on
Austria
• Sked, Alan. The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848 (1979)
• Vick, Brian. Defining Germany The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity (Harvard University
Press, 2002) ISBN 978-0-674-00911-0).
Italy
• Ginsborg, Paul. "Peasants and Revolutionaries in Venice and the Veneto, 1848," Historical Journal, Sep 1974,
Vol. 17 Issue 3, pp 503–550 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2638387)
• Ginsborg, Paul. Daniele Manin and the Venetian Revolution of 1848–49 (1979)
• Robertson, Priscilla (1952). Revolutions of 1848: A Social History (1952) pp 309–401
Other
• Feyzioğlu, Hamiyet Sezer et al. "Revolutions of 1848 and the Ottoman Empire," Bulgarian Historical Review,
2009, Vol. 37 Issue 3/4, pp 196–205
11
Revolutions of 1848
Historiography
• Dénes, Iván Zoltán. "Reinterpreting a 'Founding Father': Kossuth Images and Their Contexts, 1848–2009," East
Central Europe, April 2010, Vol. 37 Issue 1, pp 90–117
• Hamerow, Theodore S. "History and the German Revolution of 1848," American Historical Review Vol. 60, No.
1 (Oct., 1954), pp. 27–44 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1842744)
• Jones, Peter (1981), The 1848 Revolutions (Seminar Studies in History) (ISBN 0-582-06106-7)
• Mattheisen, Donald J. "History as Current Events: Recent Works on the German Revolution of 1848," American
Historical Review, Dec 1983, Vol. 88 Issue 5, pp 1219–37 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/pss/1904890)
• Rothfels, Hans. "1848 – One Hundred Years After," Journal of Modern History, Dec 1948, Vol. 20 Issue 4, pp
291–319 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/pss/1871060)
External links
• The Revolutions of 1848 begin (http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/history/1848/revolution_of_1848.html)
12
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
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