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94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi OPPOSITION IN ENGLISH AND ARABIC A CONTRASTIVE STUDY Lecturer Dr. Enas Naji Al-Mussawi University of Wasit- College of Education Department of English Abstract Elements of the sentence completes each other as in a chain in which every connected parts closely completes the other. Sometimes the main elements of the sentences such as nouns , verbs , adjective and adverbs may not be convenient in the sentence. They might need other parts to complete and clarify their meanings .One example of such elements of clarification is the apposition which refers to nouns or pronouns placed beside other nouns to identify or describe it. This research deals with the appositives , appositive phrases and clauses , the types of apposition and their application in both English and Arabic languages. 1- Opposition in English Language 1-1 Definition of Apposition Apposition is defined by Crystal (1985:20) as "a traditional term retained in some models of GRAMMATICAL description for a sequence of units which are CONSTITUENTS at the same grammatical LEVEL , and which have an identity or similarity of REFERENCE". This definition presents two ideas including 'CONSTITUENS' and 'LEVELS'. The first one is closely associated 13 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi with the type of units including nouns and pronouns and the second one is closely associated with the level in which these units are used. Similarity of the grammatical level identifies clearly that what will come after a nouns and pronoun will be an apposition. Hartman and Stork (1972 : 17 ) give another definition which is " A word or phrase modifying a preceding noun phrase or clause". So , this definition stands for a preceding noun or noun phrase and considers the appositives as modifiers. 1-2-Appositives An appositive may be a single word. Many appositives in English are single-word appositives. 1-My dog, Spot, is a great watchdog. 2-Kevin's niece Julie went alone to the prom. 3-Qatana's two dogs, a spaniel and a collie, ran away last night. (An appositive can be compound, as in this example.) The term 'Appositive' comes from the Latin verb meaning "to put near or next to". It refers to the word(s) which follow a noun , rename it or describe it in another way. The appositive, usually, immediately follows another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The noun or pronoun preceding the appositive, i.e., the appositive's referent, or the word to which the appositive refers, is called the 'antecedent'. The appositive is said to be in apposition to its antecedent, or preceding, noun or pronoun (muslowords, 2009). 4- Your friend Bill is in trouble. In this example the noun is 'friend' which is the antecedent, and the appositive is 'Bill'. It is clearly identified that the antecedent has the same grammatical function of its appositive as is shown in the example below : 14 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi 5-The altitude of Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, is over 12,000 feet. 6-The altitude of the capital of Tibet, Lhasa, is over 12,000 feet. 7- The altitude of Lhasa is over 12,000 feet. 8-The altitude of the capital of Tibet is over 12,000 feet. This example shows that appositives can always be exchanged with the nouns they modify. In short, then, appositives are not considered modifiers of nouns and pronouns (as, for example, are adjectives). Instead, appositives become an integral part of the antecedent, essentially identical in function. (eslbee.com, 2009) . An appositive is an interjection into a sentence. In other words, this part of the sentence may provide clarification ,yet , the thought expressed by the sentence can stand fully on its own without the appositive. As is shown in the following example: 9-She, my sister, is always late. 10-She is always late. In the preceding example 'my sister' is the appositive of the antecedent ' she' and hence it presented useful information of who is the girl who is always late. Yet, this appositive can be omitted without changing its meaning ( Praninskas , 1959 : 50). 1-3 Appositive Phrases and Clauses Adams (1973: 34) states that a word, a phrase, or a clause modifying an appositive will be adjectival. The appositive is formed of a noun or a pronoun modified by either a single-word adjective or an adjective phrase, or an adjective clause. Hence, appositive phrases and clauses consist of the appositive itself (always a noun or pronoun) together with its modifiers as is seen in the examples below: 11- Richard Burton, explorer, discovered the source of the Nile . 12- Richard Burton , the celebrated explorer, discovered the source of the Nile . 15 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi 13-Richard Burton, the celebrated explorer who discovered the source of the Nile, was a man of many talents. In the first example the word " explorer' is an appositive of the antecedent 'Richard Burton ' , while in the second example 'explorer' , the appositive, is modified by the past participle 'celebrated', which functions as a single-word adjective. The highlighted text is called an appositive phrase ). In the third example the appositive is modified by the adjective clause 'who discovered the source of the Nile’. The highlighted text is called an appositive clause. Therefore, English sentences can be injected with appositive phrases and clauses. Appositive phrases defined in perfectyourenglish.com (2006) as "nouns or pronouns with modifiers. They provide additional information and description to the sentence". Like all solitary appositives, appositive phrases preceded by the noun or pronoun they describe. For example: 14- Paradise Lost, the great epic poem in English, was written by Milton. (Ibid. ) An appositive phrase is a type of noun phrase that follows the noun or pronoun it modifies and amplifies or restricts its meaning (The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc..2001). 1-4 The Grammatical Level of the Opposition Grammarians have considered apposition as a kind of relation which existed among the units higher than the phrase. However, they state that it is to be found for the most part in noun phrases. Those noun phrases may have the following elements as heads. a- Common noun 15-John, the leader, made the decision. (Robert, 1967: 249) b- Proper noun c- Personal pronoun 16 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi 16-Melody, my horse, saw me from the corral. (McGraw, 1952:4) d- Demonstrative 17-He's a complete idiot, that brother of yours.(Qurik etal, 1973; 279) e- Indefinite 18--The house, an imposing building, dominated the street. (ibid:281) The other grammatical units which exist in the appositive relation are the following: a- Adj + Adj b- Adv. p + Adv. p c- Prep + Prep From the syntactic view, these structures in the appositive relation are either simple or complex. The head of the noun phrase may stand alone or accompanied by other elements, such as determiners and modifiers. 1-5 The pragmatical level of apposition By using apposition the speaker adds a certain aspect of the discourse, an aspect which has great importance in the interchange between the interlocutors. Pragmatically, the apposition (the second element) is generally an explanation of the first element. It usually adds information that the speaker or narrator considers necessary to clarify what they previously expounded. In some cases apposition a voids possible ambiguity. E. Koktov's words (1985: 40-41) summarize some psychological properties of apposition. "From a psychological viewpoint, apposition should be viewed as the speaker's commentary, as an after thought, as an implicit predication, or as a secondary information, as a message which deflects from the mainstream of communication and which should 17 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi be kept distinct from the proper assertion (main information) of a sentence". 1-6 The semantic level of the apposition There are many semantic classifications of the apposition made by Quirk etal. (1973: 278- 282) . The semantic classes for the apposition relation are the following: a- appellation b- designate c- identification d- reformulation e- Inclusion a-Appellation With appellation, there is a unique reference between the two appositives. Both appositive noun phrases are commonly definite and the second is typically a proper noun. 19-The company commander, Captain Madison, assembled his men and announced their mission. (Quirk etal. 1973: 278). b- Designation With designation, there is also unique reference, but the second appositive is less specific than the first. Both appositives are commonly definite noun phrases. 20-Captain Madison, the company commander, assembled his men and announced their mission. (ibid: 279). c- Identification With identification, there is no unique equivalence. The second appositive is more specific, identifying what is given in the first, which is typically an indefinite noun phrase. 18 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi 21-A company commander, Captain Madison, assembled his men and announced their mission. (ibid: 279). d- Reformulation Reformulation is a rewording in the second appositive of the content of the first. The reformulation is based on two types of knowledge. If the reformulation is based on linguistic. Knowledge, the second appositive is a synonymous expression. 22-Sounds units of the language, technically phonemes. A synonymous word or phrase may replace the first formulation in order to avoid misinterpretation or provide a more familiar or a more technical term. If the reformulation is based on knowledge about the external world, the second appositive is a co-referential expression. 23-The United States of America, or America for short. The reformulation may be a correction of what was said. The correction may be due. Sometimes the apposition involving linguistic reformulation includes translations from foreign languages. Savoir (know in English). (ibid: 280). E- Inclusion Inclusion applies to cases of apposition where the reference of the first appositive is not identical with that of the second, but instead includes it. There are two types of inclusion: exemplification and particularization. 1- In exemplification, the second appositive exemplifies the more general term in the first appositive 24-His excuses, say the breakdown of his car, never seemed plausible. 19 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi 2- In particularization requires an explicit indicator. Some of these indicators are especially, particularly, in particular and mainly. 25-The children liked the animals, particularly the monkeys. (Quirk etal, 1973: 282). 1-7 The phonological level of the apposition Phonological features also mark nonrestrictive clauses (apposition). Such clauses are accompanied by a drop in pitch and preceded and followed by brief pauses. The intonation can also go down, then up before each comma. These phonological features are captured in writing by the use of commas, which set off the nonrestrictive relative clause (apposition) from the main clause in the sentence. (Murcia, 1999: 592) 26-The farmer, a lazy man, was poor. The + farmer----a + lazy + man ---- was + poor--- (Sledd, 1959: 118). 1-8 Punctuation of appositives The punctuation of the apposition is generally depends on the apposition itself. In some cases, when the noun being explained is too general with the appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. We do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone. If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then commas are necessary; place on before and one after the appositive. 27-John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches.(net –http: llowL. English purdue. Edu.l). Appositives are always separated from the body of the by punctuation, usually commas, but sometimes – when greater separation is desired – dashes are used. 20 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi 28-"What next I bring shall please you, be assured, your likeness, your fit help , yourself, your wish exactly to your heart's desire." –Milton , P. L. Viii, 45(1)"http: llen. Wikibooks- org /wiki/ English in use. " 1-9 Types of apposition Apposition may be non-restrictive or restrictive. The main features of these types of apposition are indicated in the following points: a- Non- restrictive apposition The appositives in non-restrictive apposition are in different information units, and the two appositives have different information value, one of them being subordinate in the distribution of information. In the non- restrictive appositive, the second element parenthetically modifies the first without changing its scope. Non- restrictive appositives are not crucial to the meaning of the sentence. 29-Mr. Campbell, the lawyer, was here last night. The non-restrictive appositives must be preceded or set off by commas (Qurik etal,1973; 276). b- Restrictive apposition In a restrictive appositive, the second element limits or clarifies the foregoing one in some crucial way. For example: 30-My friend Alice is nice. The word "Alice" specifies to which friend the speaker is referring and is therefore restrictive. Restrictive apposition is common with such general noun phrases as the fact, the idea, the view…..etc. 31-I don't agree with the view that there is no advantage in being patient. 21 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi And an important use of restrictive apposition is found with citations and names of books, film, etc. 32-"The novel Crime and Punishment.." (Qurik, 1973: 283). 1-10 Apposition and Coordination Crystal(1967: 68 ) argues that appositives are not clauses. At deep-structure, they are coordinated to the matrix clause. Then some transformations are applied and turned the clause into a parenthetical, relative clause. Qurik etal. (1985: 130) state "Apposition resembles coordination that not only do coordinate constructions also involve the linking of units of the rank, but the central coordinators and or may themselves occasionally be explicit markers of apposition." Herndon (1976: 235) mentioned that there is an appositive transformation. He defined it as a construction which allows two noun phrases to stand side by side when the constituent sentence is of the NP be NP type and the first NP of the constituent sentence is identical to the matrix sentence NP. 1-11 The role of apposition in the discourse Apposition just like the other structural devices play an important function in the texts. It is created internal relations which may be expressed by certain markers. These markers created two types of internal appositive relations. These relations are exposition and exemplification. They correspond; structurally, not to coordination but to apposition. Among the items which occur frequently in this function are , in the expository sense, I mean, that is, that is to say, in other words, (or) to put it another way; in the exemplificatory sense, for instance, for example, thus. Even the word "or" also occurs alone as a marker of structural apposition, the sense being by another (alternative) name (Halliday, 1976: 248). 22 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi a-Expository 33-I wonder whether that statement can be backed up by adequate evidence. In other words, you don't believe me. a- Exemplificatory 34-'What sort of things do you remember best' Alice ventured to ask. 'Oh, things that happened the week after next', the Queen replied in a careless tone '. for instance , now', she went on… (Halliday, 1976: 248). 2-Opposition in Arabic 2-1 Introduction The notion of Arabic sentence has received much attention in Arabic grammar owing to its importance as an integral point on which many aspects of grammatical construction depend. Every Arabic sentence necessarily consists of two parts : a subject ()اﻟﻤﺴﻨﺪ and a predicate () اﻟﻤﺴﻨﺪ إﻟﯿﮫ.The predicate and the subject can take the form of ( ( )اﻟﺨﺒﺮpredicate ) and ( ( )اﻟﻤﺒﺘﺪأsubject ) and what is originally predicate and subject as: 1-(( )ﻋﻠﻲ ﯾﺮﻛﺾAli is running). (اﻟﺴﺎﻣﺮاﺋﻲ, 1998:5). ( اﺑﻦ ھﺸﺎم1979: 491) holds that a sentence can result from the combination of ( اﻟﻔﻌﻞverb) and ( اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞsubject) as for instance: 2-( ( )رﻛﺾ ﻋﻠﻲAli ran ) Also they can have the form of (( )اﻟﻔﻌﻞverb) and (( )اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞsubject) and/ or (( )ﻧﺎﺋﺐ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞsubject substitute), or (( )اﺳﻢ اﻟﻔﺎﻋﻞthe name of the verb) as: 3-( ( ) ﻗﺘﻞ اﻟﺮﺟﻞThe man is killed ) 4-( ( ) ﻋﻠﻲ ﻧﺎﺋﻢAli is sleeping ) Nassar (1967: 190) illustrates that there are two types of sentences in Arabic: dependent and independent. Dependent sentences are those which have either predicate or subject implied. 23 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi Independent sentences have the two parts present. They have two main types : nominal and verbal. The former usually begins with nouns or qualities. The latter begins with verbs. 2-Oppositive or Substitution ()اﻟﺒﺪلin Arabic Language ( اﻟﺒﺪلpermutitive) is one kind of the followers ( )ﺗﻮاﺑﻊthat are used to coordinate between clauses in apposition to the ()اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻮع,that which is followed (by some word in opposition. Thus the complements which are coordinated with, or placed in opposition to , the subject or predicate, are called by Arab grammarians ()اﻟﺘﻮاﺑﻊ, followers or appositives, and the word to which they are placed in apposition is called ()اﻟﻤﺘﺒﻮع, that which is followed. They are generally connected with a noun, more rarely with a verb(ﺣﺴﻦ ,١٩٧٦:٤٣٤). اﻟﺒﺪلis always backward from the followed clause or word()اﻟﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ, and it follows the noun, and agrees with ()اﻟﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ in respect of determination or indetermination, as well as of gender, number, and case. ( اﻷﻧﺼﺎري٢٠٠٥:٤٢٢) has defined اﻟﺒﺪلas substitution ()اﻟﻌﻮض, and some Arab grammarians called it as translation ( )اﻟﺘﺮﺟﻤﺔor illustration ( )اﻟﺘﺒﯿﯿﻦor repetition (()اﻟﺘﻜﺮارsee: ﺣﺴﻦ,١٩٧٦:٦٦٣). The purpose of using اﻟﺒﺪلin Arabic sentence is to reinforce and clarify the previous judgment or saying and to remove any suspicion or ambiguity from the hearer's mind ( ﺣﺴﻦ,١٩٧٦:٦٦٥). (ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﯿﺪn.d:112-13)and (ﺣﺴﻦ1976:665-71) state that اﻟﺒﺪلis of four kinds: A-( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞthe substitution of the whole for the whole):in this kind both parts of the clauses have the same and equal meaning as in the following examples: 1-(٧-٦:( ﺻِﺮَاطَ اﻟﱠﺬِﯾﻦَ أَﻧْﻌَﻤْﺖَ ﻋَﻠَﯿْﮭِﻢْ() اﻟﻔﺎﺗﺤﺔ٦) َ) أھﺪﻧﺎ اﻟﺼﱢﺮَاطَ اﻟْﻤُﺴْﺘَﻘِﯿﻢ 24 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi B-( ﺑﺪل اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞthe substitution of the part for the whole) as in the following example: 2- ( أﻛﻠﺖ اﻟﺮﻏﯿﻒ ﺛﻠﺜﮫI ate the loaf, the third part of it) C-( ﺑﺪل اﻻﺷﺘﻤﺎلthe comprehensive substitution) which indicates a quality or circumstance possessed by or included in the previous substantive as in the following example: 3-اﻋﺠﺒﻨﻲ زﯾﺪ ﻋﻠﻤﮫ D-( اﻟﺒﺪل اﻟﻤﺒﺎﯾﻦ ﻟﻠﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ)ﺑﺪل اﻟﻤﺒﺎﯾﻨﺔ: here the permutative ( )اﻟﻤﺒﺪلis wholly different from the word which is substituted ()اﻟﻤﺒﺪل ﻣﻨﮫ.This type is of three sorts:( ﺣﺴﻦ,١٩٧٦:٦٧٠). a- ( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻐﻠﻂthe permutative of error) b-( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻨﺴﯿﺎنthe permutative of forgetfulness) The above subtypes may indicate the same meaning in which the followed clause is uttered merely by mistake, and the correct word is immediately substituted for it; as when one says:( ﻣﺮرت ﺑﻜﻠﺐ ﻓﺮسI passed by a dog, (I meant to say) a horse)(ibid:670-1). c- (ﺑﺪل اﻹﺿﺮابthe permutative of retractation) or ( ﺑﺪل اﻟﺒﺪاءthe substitution of a new statement), here one would like to substitute something for the original statement ; as, for example, when one says : ( )أﻛﻠﺖ ﺧﺒﺰاI ate bread, but then, preferring to state that he had eaten meat , adds the word ()أﻛﻠﺖ ﺧﺒﺰا ﻟﺤﻤﺎ( )ﻟﺤﻤﺎ.The ( ﺑﺪل اﻹﺿﺮابthe permutative of retractation) is equivalent to the use of the particle ( )ﺑﻞas ( ﻋﺒﺪ اﻟﺤﻤﯿﺪ()أﻛﻠﺖ ﺧﺒﺰا ﺑﻞ ﻟﺤﻤﺎ,n.d:112-13). while ( اﻷﻧﺼﺎري٢٠٠٥:٤٢٣ -٢٥) mentions six types of اﻟﺒﺪل. 1-( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻜﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞthe substitution of the whole for the whole) 2- ( ﺑﺪل اﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻜﻞthe substitution of the part for the whole) 3-( ﺑﺪل اﻻﺷﺘﻤﺎلthe comprehensive substitution) 4- ( ﺑﺪل اﻹﺿﺮابthe permutative of retractation) 5- ( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻐﻠﻂthe permutative of error) 6-( ﺑﺪل اﻟﻨﺴﯿﺎنthe permutative of forgetfulness) 25 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi Conclusions The paper finds that there are a number of issues in common between English and Arabic, represented in the fact that in both languages opposition is used to coordinate between clauses in apposition to the other word or clause. Moreover, opposition may also be used to attract and focus the addressee's attention to the intended action of certain verbal utterance. However, there are a number of differences between the two languages in question. In English, there is no need to focus on the agreement between the appositive clauses while in Arabic language there should be an agreement between the appositive clauses according to the gender, number, and case. The other point of difference is that in English there are two types of opposition, restrictive and nonrestrictive, while in Arabic there are four main types and three other subtypes. The last point of difference between the two languages is that opposition in English language may be used as a coordinator to link between the two clauses while in Arabic opposition is merely used as a follower to the main clause in order to pay the addressee's attention and to clarify the case to avoid any suspicion in the hearer's mind 26 94 ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ/ ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi References 1-English References Crystal,D .(2003) .A dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics . New York :Blackwell Published Ltd . Eckersley, C. E. & J.M. Eckersley. 1960 .A Comprehensive English Grammar . London: Longman Group Limited. Eslbee.com, (2009) Halliday, M.A.K.(1976). Discourse Analysis. London : Edward Arnold. Hartman, and Stork, (1972) Herndon, J.H. (1976). A survey of Modern Grammars. 2nd ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Leech, G. and Svartik, J. (1975) A communicative grammar of English. Singapore: Longman . Muslowords, (2009) . Murcia, C.M & Freeman,D.L. (1999). The Grammar Book.USA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers. Nasar, T. Raja (1967). The structure of Arabic. From sound to sentence. Librairie Du Liban. Riadsolh sequare, Beirut. Praninskas , (1959) Quirk, R.; and Greenbaum, S. (1973). A Concise Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,Inc. Quirk, R.; and Greenbaum, S. (1991).A Student's Grammar of the English Language. 3rd. ed.London: Longman. Quirk, R.; S. Greenbaum; G. Leech; and J. Svartvik. (1972). A Grammar of Contemporary English. London: Longman Group Ltd. Quirk, R. , S. Greenbaum; G. Leech, and J.Svartvik.(1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman Group Ltd. 27 ﻤﺠﻠﺔ ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻻﺩﺍﺏ /ﺍﻟﻌﺩﺩ 94 Lect. Dr. Enas Naji Al- Mussawi Quirk R.and S. Greenmaum. (1983). A University Grammar of English. London: Longman Group Ltd. & Roberts,P.(1967). Modern Grammar.USA: Harcourt, Brace World Inc. Sled, J. (1959) A short Introduction to English Grammar. USA: Scott, Foresman and Company. Shaw,H.and Shaffer, V.(1952). McGraw-Hill Handbook of English. USA: McGraw-Hill book company, Inc. Arabic References أﺑﻦ ھﺸﺎم ،ﺟﻤﺎل اﻟﺪﯾﻦ ) (١٩٧٩ﻣﻐﻨﻲ اﻟﻠﺒﯿﺐ ﻋﻦ ﻛﺘﺐ اﻻﻋﺎرﯾﺐ .ط .٥ﺗﺤﻘﯿﻖ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ د. ﻣﺎزن اﻟﻤﺒﺎرك ،أﺣﻤﺪ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺣﻤﺪ اﷲ وﻣﺮاﺟﻌﮫ ﺳﻌﯿﺪ اﻷﻓﻐﺎﻧﻲ .دار اﻟﻔﻜﺮ ،ﺑﯿﺮوت. اﻻﻧﺼﺎري،اﺑﻦ ھﺸﺎم.(٢٠٠٥).ﺷﺮح ﻗﻄﺮ اﻟﻨﺪى وﺑﻞ اﻟﺼﺪى .ﺗﺎﻟﯿﻒ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ دار اﻻﻋﺘﺼﺎم ﻟﻠﻄﺒﺎﻋﺔ واﻟﻨﺸﺮ. اﻟﻜﺮﺑﺎﺳﻲ. ﺣﺴﻦ ،ﻋﺒﺎس ) (١٩٧٦اﻟﻨﺤﻮ اﻟﻮاﻓﻲ ،ج .٤دار اﻟﻤﻌﺎرف ﺑﻤﺼﺮ. اﻟﺴﺎﻣﺮاﺋﻲ ،ﻓﺎﺿﻞ ﺻﺎﻟﺢ ) (١٩٩٨اﻟﺠﻤﻠﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ ﺗﺄﻟﯿﻔﮭﺎ وأﻗﺴﺎﻣﮭﺎ .دار اﻟﻜﺘﺐ واﻟﻮﺛﺎﺋﻖ ﺑﺒﻐﺪاد. ﻋﺒﺪاﻟﺤﻤﯿﺪ،ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﻣﺤﻲ اﻟﺪﯾﻦ)ﺑﻼ ﺗﺄرﯾﺦ(.ﺷﺮح اﺑﻦ ﻋﻘﯿﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﯿﺔ اﺑﻦ ﻣﺎﻟﻚ،ج.٣ ﺑﯿﺮوت:ﻣﻜﺘﺒﺔ اﻟﮭﺪاﯾﺔ. 28