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1800–1914 W hy It Matters The period of world history from 1800 to 1914 was characterized by two major developments: the growth of industrialization and Western domination of the world. The Industrial Revolution became one of the major forces for change, leading Western civilization into the industrial era that has characterized the modern world. At the same time, the Industrial Revolution created the technological means, including new weapons, by which the West achieved domination over much of the rest of the world. Primary Sources Library See pages 772–773 for primary source readings to accompany Unit 2. Use The World History Primary Source Document Library CD-ROM to find additional primary sources about An Era of European Imperialism. 244 SuperStock International Zulu lodging Zulu king Cetewayo meeting with British ambassadors Hulton Deutsch Collection/CORBIS An Era of European Imperialism —Cecil John Rhodes Bridgeman Art Library Int’l. Ltd. (U.S.) “The world’s surface is limited, therefore the great object should be to take as much of it as possible.” ➋ ➊ Industrialization ➌ The rise of industry changed the world forever. So dramatic were the changes that historians have labeled the period the Industrial Revolution. Although the revolution began in Britain, it eventually touched every nation on Earth. 1705 Thomas Newcomen perfects the steam engine 1769 James Watt patents a more efficient steam engine 1787 Edmund Cartwright patents a power loom ➊ Great Britain Workshop of the World The birth of industry needed certain preconditions: the technology, incentive, and money to build machines; a labor force to run them; raw materials and markets to make the system profitable; and efficient farms to feed a new group of workers. By the early 1700s, Great Britain possessed all these conditions. Industry grew from the innovations of individuals who developed machines to do work formerly done by humans and animals. Inventors built upon each other’s ideas. For example, in 1769 James Watt improved upon Thomas Newcomen’s primitive steam engine. Other inventors then adapted Watt’s engine to run cloth-making machines. Business owners soon brought machines and workers together in factories. By the 1800s, industry had catapulted Great Britain into a position of world leadership. “[Britain has] triumphantly established herself as the workshop of the world,” boasted one leader. Soon, however, America would be humming with its own workshops. James Watt’s steam engine 246 Stock Montage ➋ The United States The Revolution Spreads Great Britain prohibited the export of machines and machine operators. In 1789, however, a factory supervisor named Samuel Slater escaped by disguising himself as a farmhand and boarding a ship to New York. Working from memory, Slater built a cotton mill in Rhode Island in 1793. Soon after, the United States began churning out its own industrial inventors. Standardized parts and the assembly line led to mass production—a concept that would revolutionize people’s lives around the globe. Samuel Slater’s mill 1793 Samuel Slater opens the first machine-run cotton mill in the U.S. 1855 Henry Bessemer patents an inexpensive method of producing steel 1913 Henry Ford uses assembly lines to mass produce cars 1914 Japan expands foreign trade ➌ Japan The Search for Markets In 1853, the Industrial Revolution traveled to Japan in the form of a fleet of United States steamships sent to open the islands to trade. “What we had taken as a fire at sea,” recalled one Japanese observer, “was really smoke coming out of the smokestacks.” The military power produced by United States industry shook the Japanese. They temporarily gave in to American trade demands, but they also vowed that they too would possess industry. By 1914, Japan’s merchant fleet was the sixth largest in the world, and its trade had increased one hundredfold in value in 50 years. Matthew Perry’s steamship in Tokyo Bay Why It Matters The increase in industry made it necessary to find new sources of raw materials and new markets for manufactured goods. How could competition for resources and markets lead to the wars of the twentieth century? UNIT 4 An Era of European Imperialism 247 (t)Library of Congress, (b)Laurie Platt Winfrey Science Museum/Science & Society Picture Library 1800–1870 Industrialization and Nationalism . The Big Ideas , SECTION 1: The Industrial Revolution New technologies can revolutionize the way people live, work, interact, and govern. When coal and steam engines powered new industry, people migrated to expanding cities to find jobs. SECTION 2: Reaction and Revolution Throughout history people have struggled for rights. In 1848, liberals and nationalists rebelled against many of the conservative governments of Europe. SECTION 3: National Unification and the National State The quest for national self-determination is universal. In the mid-1800s, the German and Italian peoples succeeded in creating their own nations, but not all national groups were able to reach that goal. SECTION 4: Culture: Romanticism and Realism New technologies can revolutionize the way people live, work, interact, and govern. Artistic movements were influenced by the society around them. Romanticism was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, while progress in science contributed to realism. World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 4 video, “The Romantic Era,” chronicles cultural and social changes in nineteenthcentury Europe. 1830 First public railway line opens in Britain 1814 Congress of Vienna meets 1800 1810 1807 Robert Fulton builds the first paddle-wheel steamboat 248 Bettmann/CORBIS 1820 1830 The Clermont, built by Robert Fulton Coalbrookedale by Night by Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg Artists painted the dramatic changes brought on by the Industrial Revolution. Francis I, Austrian emperor 1865 U.S. Confederate troops surrender 1848 Revolutions erupt in Europe 1840 1850 1837 Victoria becomes queen of Great Britain 1853 Crimean War begins Queen Victoria 1860 1861 Czar Alexander II frees the Russian serfs 1871 German unification achieved HISTORY Chapter Overview Visit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Web site at wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 4– Chapter Overview to preview chapter information. 1870 Czar Alexander II of Russia 249 249 (t)Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS, (bl br)Mary Evans Picture Library A uthors often use details and vivid description to create a picture of a person or event. They want to make the text come alive for the reader by appealing to the senses. When you form a picture in your mind, or hear a sound, or remember a smell while reading, you are visualizing. Good readers take the time to use their imagination and visualize. You can visualize by noticing when an author is using specific details and language that appeals to the senses. You can also look for photos and other images in the text that further help you visualize what you are reading about. Read the following paragraph from this chapter describing industrial working conditions. Notice the number of details the author uses: VISUALIZING Use photographs, diagrams, and charts to support your ability to visualize. Look at the photograph on page 263 of the child miners. Does this help you imagine their situation better? Coal miners also faced harsh and dangerous conditions. Steam-powered engines could lift the coal from the pits to the surface, but deep below ground, miners had to dig out this “black gold” with sledges, pick axes, and chisels. Horses, mules, women, and children worked underground, too, hauling carts full of coal on rails to the lift. Caveins, explosions, and gas fumes . . . were a way of life. The cramped conditions in mines—tunnels were often only three or four feet high—and their constant dampness led to deformed bodies and ruined lungs. After you visualize what life was like for a coal miner, discuss the image with a partner. How closely did your partner’s image match your mental picture? Now read the passage again. Did your ideas change? 250 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Chronological and Spatial Thinking: Standard CS 3 Students use a variety of maps and documents to interpret human movement, including major patterns of domestic and international migration, changing environmental preferences and settlement patterns, the frictions that develop between population groups, and the diffusion of ideas, technological innovations, and goods. O ne important way historians and geographers analyze change is by tracking large-scale migration—why it happens and the impact it has on societies. Sometimes people are moving from a rural area to an urban area. Sometimes they move across national, and even international, boundaries. Read this excerpt from Chapter 4 about rural-to-urban migration and its effects in the early years of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain: • In 1800, Great Britain had one major city, London, with a population of 1 million, and six more cities had populations of 50,000 to 100,000. Fifty years later, London’s population had swelled to nearly 2,500,000. . . . nine cities had more than 100,000 residents. . . . By 1850, half of the people were urban residents. • Cities grew faster than the basic facilities like a clean water supply and sewers. . . . industrial cities bred dirt and disease as workers crowded into ramshackle housing. . . . reformers called for government action. . . . Consider what kind of lifestyle changes had to occur to move from an agricultural to an industrial society. What do you think happened in the countryside when a large part of its population moved to urban areas? As you read this chapter, keep a running list of the causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution. Don’t forget to notice primary sources, graphs, and maps. Once you’ve completed your list, focus on how migration was connected to the successes and problems of the Industrial Revolution. 251 Austrian emperor Francis I (left) hosted the Congress of Vienna. The Congress of Vienna I n the fall of 1814, hundreds of foreigners began to converge on Vienna, the capital city of the Austrian Empire. Many of these foreigners were members of European royalty—kings, archdukes, princes, and their wives—accompanied by their political advisers and scores of servants. Their congenial host was the Austrian emperor Francis I, who was quite willing to spend a fortune to entertain the visitors. A Festivals Committee arranged entertainment on a daily basis for nine months. Francis I never tired of providing Vienna’s guests with glittering balls, hunting parties, picnics, hot-air balloon displays, and sumptuous feasts. A banquet for 40 tables of guests was held every night in the Hofburg Palace. Then, too, there were the concerts. Actors, actresses, singers, and composers were engaged to entertain, and Beethoven even composed a new piece of music for the event. One participant remembered, “Eating, fireworks, public illuminations. For eight or ten days, I haven’t been able to work at all. What a life!” Of course, not every waking hour was spent in pleasure during this gathering of notables, known to history as the Congress of Vienna. These people were representatives of all the states that had fought Napoleon. Their real business was to arrange a final peace settlement after almost 10 years of war. 252 (l)Stock Montage/SuperStock, (r)Bettmann/CORBIS Why It Matters The Congress of Vienna tried to find a way to undo the changes brought about by the French Revolution and Napoleon. However, the new forces of change had become too powerful to be contained. They called forth political revolutions that would shake Europe for years to come. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, another kind of revolution began to transform the economic and social structure of Europe. The Industrial Revolution led to the industrialization that shaped the modern world. History and You List several inventions developed during your lifetime. What are their purposes? Do they save time or make manual work easier? Have they affected society as a whole? Have there been negative consequences to any of these inventions? Write a paper summarizing your thoughts. The Industrial Revolution Guide to Reading Section Preview When coal and steam engines powered new industry, people migrated to expanding cities to find jobs. • Industrialization urbanized Europe and created new social classes, as well as the conditions for the rise of socialism. (p. 259) Content Vocabulary • Plentiful natural resources, workers, wealth, and markets explain why Great Britain was the country where the Industrial Revolution began. (p. 254) • The pace of industrialization in Europe, the United States, and Japan depended on many factors, including government policy. (p. 257) Preview of Events ✦1750 1764 Hargreaves invents spinning jenny ✦1770 Reading Objectives 1. Trace the advances that made the Industrial Revolution possible. 2. Describe how the Industrial Revolution affected women and children. Reading Strategy enclosure movement, capital, entrepreneur, cottage industry, puddling, industrial capitalism, socialism Categorizing Information Use a table like the one below to name important inventors and their inventions. Academic Vocabulary dynamic, migrate Inventors Inventions People to Identify James Watt, Robert Fulton ✦1790 1782 Watt builds steam engine to drive machinery ✦1810 ✦1830 1807 Steamboats make transport easier 1833 Factory Act passed in Britain ✦1850 1840 Steamships cross the Atlantic California Standards in This Section Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards. 10.3: 10.3.1: 10.3.2: 10.3.3: Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Revolution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Analyze why England was the first country to industrialize. Examine how scientific and technological changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pasteur, Thomas Edison). Describe the growth of population, rural to urban migration, and growth of cities associated with the Industrial Revolution. 10.3.4: Trace the evolution of work and labor, including 10.3.5: 10.3.6: CHAPTER 4 the demise of the slave trade and the effects of immigration, mining and manufacturing, division of labor, and the union movement. Understand the connections among natural resources, entrepreneurship, labor, and capital in an industrial economy. Analyze the emergence of capitalism as a dominant economic pattern and the responses to it, including Utopianism, Social Democracy, Socialism, and Communism. Industrialization and Nationalism 253 The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain Plentiful natural resources, workers, wealth, and markets explain why Great Britain was the country where the Industrial Revolution began. Reading Connection Think about how computers are rapidly changing today’s world. Read to understand how the Industrial Revolution changed life in the nineteenth century. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain sometime around 1780. Within about fifty years, industrialization took hold in the rest of Western Europe, but why did it occur in Britain first? When a nation industrializes, a major transformation occurs. A society is transformed from a stable agricultural world to an industrial society of constant growth. For the workers of the day, this transformation could be traumatic. The new factories forced employees to comply with a new kind of discipline. In 1844, a factory in Berlin posted the following rules: “ The normal working day begins at all seasons at 6 A.M. precisely and ends, after the usual break of half an hour for breakfast, an hour for dinner and half an hour for tea, at 7 P.M. . . . Workers arriving 2 minutes late shall lose half an hour’s wages; whoever is more than 2 minutes late may not start work until after the next break, or at least shall lose his wages until then. . . . No worker may leave his place of work otherwise than for reasons connected with his work. . . . All conversation with fellow-workers is prohibited. . . . ” A number of factors are necessary in order for this dynamic process of industrialization to occur. Contributing Factors First, Britain was producing much more food in the eighteenth century because its agriculture had improved. More farmland, better transportation, and new crops like the potato dramatically increased the food supply. More people could be fed at lower prices with less labor. 254 Culver Pictures, Inc. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Second, with more abundant food supplies, the population increased dramatically. At the same time, Parliament passed laws in the 1700s that allowed landowners to fence off common lands. As a result of this enclosure movement, many peasants were forced to move to towns to find work. Britain thus had a plentiful supply of labor. Third, Britain had a ready supply of money, or capital, to invest in the new industrial machines and the factories needed to house them. Some wealthy people, called entrepreneurs, sought new business opportunities and new ways to make profits. Fourth, natural resources were plentiful in Britain. The country’s many rivers provided the water power for the steam engine, as well as transportation for raw materials and finished products. The British landscape was also rich in the coal and iron ore that was necessary for manufacturing. Fifth, Britain had a relatively free society. Its government did not heavily regulate the economy, and ideas also circulated freely. Inventors and capitalists felt they had the freedom to act on their ideas. Finally, the British had a ready market in their vast empire, and British ships could transport manufactured goods anywhere in the world. At home, too, the market was growing because the population was growing. Since food was cheaper, the mass of the population were able to buy more than just their daily bread. With demand expanding, capitalists— those with money to invest—had a huge incentive to find methods to expand production. Supervisors ensuring constant work Factory workers Changes in Cotton Production In the eighteenth century, Great Britain had already surged ahead of other countries in making inexpensive cotton goods. Making cotton cloth was a two-step process. First, spinners made thread from raw cotton. Then, weavers wove the thread into cloth on looms. In the eighteenth century, people performed this work in their rural cottages, so the production method was called a cottage industry. A series of technological advances in the eighteenth century made the cottage industry inefficient and outdated. First, the invention of the “flying shuttle” made weaving faster. Now, the weavers needed spinners to produce thread more quickly since they could make cotton faster. In 1764 James Hargreaves invented a machine called the spinning jenny, which met this need. Other inventors made similar contributions. The spinning process became so quick that thread was being produced faster than weavers could use it. Yet another invention allowed the weavers to catch up. This was a water-powered loom, invented by Edmund Cartwright by 1787. It now became more efficient to bring workers to the new machines and have them work in factories near streams and rivers, whose water powered the early machines. The cotton industry became even more productive when Scottish engineer James Watt improved the steam engine in the 1760s. Then, in 1782, Watt made changes that allowed the steam engine to drive machinery. Women beating and lapping cotton by hand (above); (below) a machine performing the same function A series of complex developments brought about the Industrial Revolution—two of these developments included increased demand and the fact that some businesspeople had capital to invest. Another major step forward came when steam power could be used to spin and weave cotton. Because steam engines were fired by coal, they did not need to be located near rivers. Before long, cotton mills powered by steam engines were found all over Britain. British cotton cloth production increased dramatically. In 1760, Britain had imported 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton—or 1.14 million kilograms— for use in cottage industries. In 1787, imports rose to 22 million pounds (10 million kg), and by this time, most cotton was spun on machines. By 1840, 366 million pounds (166 million kg) were imported each year. Factory-made cotton cloth was Britain’s most valuable product and was sold everywhere in the world. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 255 (tl)National Trust/Art Resource, NY, (tr)Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art and Architecture, (b)Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art and Architecture The Coal and Iron Industries Since the steam engine was crucial to the Industrial Revolution, Britain had to have the coal for its engine. In Britain, coal seemed to lie everywhere under the ground. As more factories were built, more coal was needed. Inventors found ways to use coal more efficiently. These new methods aided another important industry—the iron industry. Britain had plenty of iron ore as well as coal. In the early 1700s, the process of making iron had changed very little since the Middle Ages. In the 1780s, however, Henry Cort developed a way to produce better iron with a process called puddling. In puddling, coke, a coal derivative, was used to purify crude iron. The result was higher-quality iron, and the iron industry boomed. In 1740, 17,000 tons (15,419 t) had been sold, but once the puddling process came into use, production jumped to about 70,000 tons (63,490 t). In 1852, Britain produced more iron than the rest of the world combined—almost 3 million tons (2.7 million t). The new iron was used to make machines and to build railroads. History through Art Biermeister and Wain Steel Forge by P.S. Kroyer Industry’s raw power captured the imagination of many artists. Kroyer, a Norwegian-born Dane, painted this scene in 1875. How do the conditions for workers compare to industry today? 256 Superstock CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Railroads In the eighteenth century, roads and canals had already made moving goods more efficient. It was railroads, however, that dramatically improved Britain’s transportation. In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive ran on an industrial rail line. It pulled 10 tons (9 t) of ore and 70 people at 5 miles per hour (8.05 km per hour). Better locomotives followed. The Rocket moved on the first public railway line, which opened in 1830 between Liverpool and Manchester. Today the trip would take an automobile a half hour, but in 1830, it took the Rocket two hours as it sped along at 16 miles per hour (25.7 km per hour). Within 20 years, the speed of locomotives almost tripled. By 1850, railroads crisscrossed much of the country—about 6,000 miles (9,654 km). Railroad expansion caused a ripple effect in the economy. Building railroads created more jobs and less expensive transport made goods cheaper to buy. Cheaper goods created more sales and more sales led to more factories. When business owners profited, they invested profits in new and better equipment, which increased economic growth. In the old agricultural society, growth was rare and intermittent. In an industrial society, economic growth is permanent. The Spread of Industrialization The New Factories The factory was very important to industrialization. Early on, factories were situated near water and powered by mills. When new energy sources were developed, however, factories could be located in cities near workers. This new industrial economy created an entirely new labor system. Because factory owners wanted their machines producing goods constantly, workers were forced to work in shifts to keep the machines going. Early factory workers migrated from rural areas. In the country, they were used to periods of hectic work, followed by periods of rest. Factory owners wanted workers to work without stopping. They disciplined workers to a system of regular hours and repetitive tasks. Anyone who came to work late was fined, or quickly dismissed for misconduct, especially for drunkenness. Child workers were often beaten. The pace of industrialization in Europe, the United States, and Japan depended on many factors, including government policy. Reading Connection Are some groups more willing to change than others? Read about the factors that help explain why nations adapt to change at different speeds. 30 24.0 15 Population (in millions) Population (in millions) By the mid-nineteenth century, Great Britain, the world’s first industrial nation, was also the richest. It produced half the world’s output of coal and manufactured goods. Its cotton industry alone was equal in size to the combined industries of all other European countries. Most of them were just beginning to industrialize. The Industrial Revolution spread to continental Europe at different times and speeds. Countries with more urban areas and a tradition of trade industrialReading Check Describing Why did employers feel ized earlier. Belgium and France did not have all of they needed to discipline factory workers? Britain’s advantages, but both countries showed significant industrial growth after 1830. In the German states, it was another story. Comparing Britain and the United States* There was no single nation, but more than Britain United States 30 states, many very small. Instead of sell90 90 ing goods in a national market, manufac76.0 turers had to face multiple governmental 75 75 units and regulations. 60 60 In the early 1830s, Prussia, one of the 45 45 41.0 38.6 largest German states, took an important 31.0 0 1830 1870 30 15 12.9 0 1900 1830 Britain 210 150 120 90 60 .032 11.0 18.6 1830 1870 1900 Railroad Track (in thousands of miles) Railroad Track (in thousands of miles) 180 30 1900 United States 210 0 1870 195.0 180 150 120 90 60 53.0 30 0 .023 1830 1870 1900 *As you compare, keep in mind the vast difference in area between Britain and the United States. Britain (England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland) totals 94,548 square miles (244,879 sq km); the continental United States, 3,717,796 square miles (9,629,091 sq km). Britain was the leading industrial nation in the early and mid-nineteenth century, but countries such as the United States eventually surpassed Britain in industrial production. 1. Comparing How did Britain’s population growth, from 1830 to 1870 and 1870 to 1900, compare to the United States’s growth? How did Britain’s expansion in railroad tracks compare to that of the United States during the same period? 2. Problem Solving Which country had the highest percentage of railroad track miles in comparison to total square miles in 1870? In 1900? CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 257 Industrialization of Europe by 1870 5°W 0° N 55 °N W Edinburgh Glasgow UNITED KINGDOM Bradford Liverpool Manchester Birmingham 50° N 20°E Oslo NORWAY Stockholm E S SWEDEN North Sea Copenhagen Leeds Sheffield l Ba DENMARK Hamburg NETH. London Brussels BELGIUM Berlin Vis t u la R. R. POLAND Breslau Cologne Paris N e man PRUSSIA Amsterdam Bristol Atlantic Ocean St. Petersburg Se a 10°W tic 15°W GERMANY Warsaw R U S SIA Prague Lo . ire R 45°N Munich FRANCE Vienna SWITZERLAND Pest AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Bordeaux Turin Milan Po R. Da Chamberlin Trimetric projection n ub e R. Florence . Medi t Rome a ITALY SERBIA ri n anea err Ad R ro Eb Marseille 400 kilometers 0 Venice Genoa SPAIN 400 miles 0 tic Black Sea Se a Se a Manufacturing and industrial area Major industrial center Major railways by 1870 Industry: Coal mining Iron working Textile production step by creating a free trading zone. Industrialization began, but it did not transform the economy until 1870 when Germany was united. In Britain, a freer society, private entrepreneurs took the lead. In France, Belgium, and the German states, governments tended to be active in promoting industrialization. Often governments funded roads, canals, and railroads. One of the most important facts in modern history is that Western Europe and the United States industrialized first. They therefore had an immense advantage in becoming wealthy, powerful nations, nations that soon dominated other parts of the world. 258 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism The Industrial Revolution spread throughout nineteenthcentury Europe. 1. Interpreting Maps What was the predominant industry in the United Kingdom? 2. Applying Geography Skills What patterns do you see in the distribution of the major industries? What geographical factors could account for these patterns? One Asian country, Japan, followed the Western example. Japan had seen the importance of industrial power in 1853. In that year, American admiral Matthew Perry steered his steam-powered ship into the Japanese harbor and demanded that Japan trade with the United States. Many Asian countries hesitated to change their culture and adopt some Western ways, but the new Japanese government of 1868 decided that it must copy Western technology to become a strong nation. In the United States, the pace of industrializing was fairly quick, especially considering that Americans were also busy expanding across the continent. In 1800, six of seven American workers were farmers, and no city had more than 100,000 people. Between 1800 and 1860, the population of the United States grew from about 5 million to 30 million. In the same period, cities grew, too. Nine cities had populations over 100,000, and now only half of Americans worked as farmers. Once the United States extended to the Pacific, a national transportation system was vital. Thousands of miles of roads and canals were built to link east and west. Robert Fulton built the first paddle-wheel steamboat, the Clermont, in 1807. By 1860, a thousand steamboats plied the Mississippi River and made transportation easier on the Great Lakes and along the Atlantic coast. It was the railroad that really brought the nation together. In 1830, there were fewer than 100 miles of track (160.9 km). By 1860, about 30,000 miles of track (48,270 km) had been built. In the early years, factory workers came from the farms of the Northeast. Women and girls made up a History This English train of the mid-1840s shows early passenger travel. The first line to handle both passengers and goods opened between Liverpool and Manchester in 1830. What does the style of the rail coaches remind you of? substantial majority of textile workers. Early capitalists even advertised for whole families. In Utica, New York, one newspaper ran this ad: “Wanted: A few sober and industrious families of at least five children each, over the age of eight years, are wanted at the cotton factory in Whitestown. Widows with large families would do well to attend this notice.” Reading Check Evaluating Why was the railroad important to the industrialization of the United States? Social Impact in Europe Industrialization urbanized Europe and created new social classes, as well as the conditions for the rise of socialism. Reading Connection Do you know any entrepreneurs who run their own businesses? Read about how early entrepreneurs contributed to the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution drastically changed the societies of Europe and, eventually, the world. The major signs of this change were the growth of cities and the emergence of two new social classes, the industrial middle class and the industrial working class. Growth of Population and Cities In 1750, European population stood at an estimated 140 million. By 1850, the population had almost doubled to 266 million. The key to this growth was a decline in death CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 259 Lambert/Archive Photos/Hulton Archive rates, wars, and diseases such as smallpox and plague. Because of an increase in the food supply, more people were better fed and resistant to disease. Famine largely disappeared from Western Europe. Cities and towns in Europe grew dramatically in the first half of the 1800s. The growth was directly related to industrialization. By 1850, especially in Great Britain and Belgium, many factories were located in cities, which now grew rapidly—factories were a magnet for anyone looking for work. In 1800, Great Britain had one major city, London, with a population of 1 million, and six more cities had populations of 50,000 to 100,000. Fifty years later, London’s population had swelled to nearly 2,500,000. Growth was seen all over Britain now—nine cities had more than 100,000 residents, and 18 had populations between 50,000 and 100,000. By 1850, half of the people were urban residents. This process of urbanization was going on in other European countries, but it happened more quickly and more completely in Britain than in many other countries. History A late-nineteenth-century photo shows housing conditions in England. Typically, houses backed up against one another, creating narrow alleyways that did not allow for a patch of grass. How did the Industrial Revolution contribute to such scenes? 260 CHAPTER 4 Mary Evans Picture Library Industrialization and Nationalism Cities grew faster than the basic facilities like a clean water supply and sewers. Thus industrial cities bred dirt and disease as workers crowded into ramshackle housing. Upset by disease and human suffering, reformers called for government action, but their pleas were not met until later in the century. The Industrial Middle Class Capitalism had existed since the Middle Ages, when men with capital could invest in long-distance trade for profit. In this period, industrial capitalism, an economic system based on manufacturing, took hold. With a new kind of economy, a new social group emerged—the industrial middle class. In earlier times the term bourgeoisie, or middle class, referred to burghers, or town dwellers. They were merchants, artisans, professionals such as lawyers or doctors, and government officials. The bourgeoisie were not noble, but they were not poor. Some were quite wealthy. During the Industrial Revolution, a new group was added to the middle class. The industrial middle class were the men who built the factories, bought the machines, and figured out where the markets were. They had initiative, vision, ambition, and quite often, greed. As one manufacturer put it, “Getting of money . . . is the main business of the life of men.” The Industrial Working Class The Industrial Revolution also created a new kind of worker, the industrial worker. Industrial workers worked from 12 to 16 hours a day, six days a week, with only a half hour for lunch and dinner. They had no minimum wage and could be fired at a moment’s notice. In the cotton mills, the heat was stifling. “In the cotton-spinning work,” it was reported, “these creatures are kept, 14 hours in each day, locked up, summer and winter, in a heat of from 80 to 84 degrees.” Dirt and dust filled the air, and machines operated without safety codes for the workers. Coal miners also faced harsh and dangerous conditions. Steam-powered engines could lift the coal from the pits to the surface, but deep below ground, miners had to dig out this “black gold” with sledges, pick axes, and chisels. Horses, mules, women, and children worked underground, too, hauling carts full of coal on rails to the lift. Cave-ins, explosions, and gas fumes (called “bad air”) were a way of life. The cramped conditions in mines—tunnels were often only three or four feet high—and their constant dampness led to deformed bodies and ruined lungs. As in the United States, women and children made up a high percentage of workers in the cotton industry —about two-thirds by 1830. Reformers condemned the factories for enslaving children. The situation improved after the Factory Act of 1833. It set 9 years of age as the minimum for child labor, but children between 9 and 13 could still work 9 hours a day, and those between 13 and 18 years of age could work 12 hours. As the number of working children declined, more women were employed, and before 1870 they made up half of the labor force in British textiles. Women were mostly unskilled and were paid half or less than half of what men received. Excessive working hours for women were outlawed in 1844. One reason women and children began by working such long hours in factories was that families were accustomed to working together in cottage industry. When laws limited working hours for women and children, a new pattern began to be established. Men would be expected to work outside the home, while women took over running the home. Women continued to add to family income by taking low-paying jobs that could be done at home, such as washing laundry or sewing. Early Socialism The transition to factory work was not easy. Although workers’ lives eventually improved, they suffered terribly during the early decade of industrialization. Their family life was disrupted, they were separated from the countryside, hours were long, and pay was low. Some reformers opposed a capitalist system which they saw as responsible for destroying people’s lives. They advocated socialism. Socialism is an economic system in which society, usually in the form of the government, owns and controls important parts of the economy, such as factories and utilities. In socialist theory, this public ownership of the means of production would allow wealth to be distributed more equally to everyone. Early socialists wanted to replace competition with cooperation. They wrote books about the ideal society that might be created, a hypothetical society where workers could use their abilities and where everyone would be cared for. Later socialists said that these ideas were impractical dreams. Karl Marx contemptuously called earlier reformers of this group utopian socialists. (He borrowed the term from Utopia, a medieval work describing an ideal society by Sir Thomas More.) To this day, we refer to the early socialists in this way. One utopian socialist was Robert Owen, a British cotton manufacturer. Owen believed that if only people lived in a cooperative environment, they would show their natural goodness. At New Lanark in Scotland, Owen transformed a squalid factory town into a flourishing community. He created a similar community at New Harmony, Indiana, in the 1820s, which failed. Not everyone was as committed to sharing and caring as Owen himself, and New Harmony split up in the late 1820s. Reading Check Describing How did socialists respond to new and harsh working conditions? HISTORY For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Study Central. Checking for Understanding 1. Vocabulary Define: dynamic, enclosure movement, capital, entrepreneur, cottage industry, puddling, migrate, industrial capitalism, socialism. Critical Thinking 4. Connecting Ideas Analyze how the Industrial Revolution changed the way families lived and worked. CA HI 1 2. People Identify: James Watt, Robert Fulton. 5. Cause and Effect Use a diagram like the one below to list the causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution. Reviewing Big Ideas 3. Describe the importance of the railroads in the growth of cities in Europe and the United States. Causes Study Central Effects Industrial Revolution CHAPTER 4 Analyzing Visuals 6. Examine the picture of female textile workers shown on page 255 of your text. How does this picture reflect the role that women played in the Industrial Revolution? 7. Informative Writing You are a nineteenth-century journalist. Write a brief article depicting the working conditions in cotton mills and an explanation of how mill owners defend such conditions. CA WA2.3b Industrialization and Nationalism 261 The Industrial Revolution C hildren had been an important part of the family economy in preindustrial times. They worked in the fields or at home in cottage industries. In the Industrial Revolution, however, child labor was exploited. Children represented a cheap supply of labor. In 1821, 49 percent of the British people were under 20 years of age. Hence, children made up a large pool of workers. Children were paid only about one-sixth to one-third of what a man was paid. The owners of cotton factories in England found child labor especially useful. Children had a delicate touch as spinners. Their smaller size made it easier for them to move under machines to gather loose cotton. They were also more easily trained to factory work than adults. In the cotton factories in 1838, children under the age of 18 made up 29 percent of the total workforce. In cotton mills, children as young as age seven worked 12 to 15 hours per day, six days a week. Discipline was often harsh. A report from a British parliamentary inquiry into the condition of child factory workers in 1838 stated: It is a very frequent thing at Mr. Marshall’s . . . for Mr. Horseman to start the mill earlier in the morning than he formerly did; and provided a child should be drowsy, the overlooker walks round the room with a stick in his hand, and he touches that child on the shoulder, and says, ‘Come here.’ In a corner of the room there is an iron cistern; it is filled with water; he takes this boy, and takes him up by the legs, and dips him over head in the cistern, and sends him to work for the remainder of the day. . . . What means were taken to keep the children to their work?—Sometimes they would tap them over the head, or nip them over the nose, or give them a pinch of snuff, or throw water in their faces, or pull them off where they were, and job them about to keep them awake. The same inquiry also reported that, in some factories, children were often beaten with a rod or whip to keep them at work. “ ” ➤ CORBIS The textile industry was the earliest to be industrialized. This young American textile worker stands next to the spinning machine that she worked at for long hours. In the 21st century, child labor can still be found in the textile industry, especially in Asia. ➤ ➤ ➤ This American poster used sarcasm to convey its reform message: Fresh-faced girls of 10 are shown at the top, but their life of factory work will present them with the “delights” of tuberculosis, low wages, and early death. Boys who worked in coal mines were typically between the ages of 8 and 15. They often worked underground where they might lead horses dragging wagons, or help miners fill them. Above ground, they might pick out slate and other impurities from chutes of coal. In this engraving, a young boy of the upper class comforts a factory boy. The father in the background might be a reformer, asking the factory manager questions. The image was for an 1840 novel, The Life and Adventures of Michael Armstrong, the Factory Boy. CONNECTING TO THE PAST 1. Identifying What kind of working conditions did children face in the factories during the early Industrial Revolution? 2. Analyzing Why did factory owners permit such conditions and child labor? 3. Writing about History Write an essay contrasting current factory conditions with those of 100 years ago. 263 (tl)Library of Congress, (tr)Time Life Pictures/Getty Images, (b)CORBIS Reaction and Revolution Guide to Reading Section Preview Content Vocabulary Reading Objectives In 1848, liberals and nationalists rebelled against many of the conservative governments of Europe. conservatism, principle of intervention, liberalism, universal male suffrage, multinational state 1. Evaluate the work of the Congress of Vienna. 2. Explain why revolutions broke out in Europe in 1848. Academic Vocabulary • After Napoleon’s defeat, the victors met and redrew the map of Europe to create a balance of power and to strengthen conservatism. (p. 265) • Liberals and nationalists opposed the existing political system and threatened conservative regimes. (p. 266) • Beginning in France in 1848, the spirit of revolution spread quickly over Europe, but the uprisings were largely suppressed. (p. 268) Reading Strategy stability, beneficial People and Events to Identify Congress of Vienna, Klemens von Metternich, Bill of Rights, Louis-Napoleon, German Confederation Cause and Effect Use a chart like the one below to identify the causes of the revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848. Places to Locate Revolution of 1830 Vienna, Prague Revolution of 1848 Preview of Events ✦1810 ✦1820 1814 Congress of Vienna meets to create balance of power ✦1830 1830 Liberals overthrow Charles X and establish a constitutional monarchy in France ✦1840 1848 Revolutions sweep through Europe ✦1850 1849 Austria reestablishes control over Lombardy California Standards in This Section Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards. 10.2: Students compare and contrast the Glorious Revolution of England, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution and their enduring effects worldwide on the political expectations for self-government and individual liberty. 10.2.5: Discuss how nationalism spread across Europe with Napoleon but was repressed for a generation under the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe until the Revolutions of 1848. 264 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism ✦1860 The Congress of Vienna After Napoleon’s defeat, the victors met and redrew the map of Europe to create a balance of power and to strengthen conservatism. Reading Connection Does the United Nations intervene in international disputes? Read about Great Power decisions affecting European countries at the Congress of Vienna. With Napoleon gone, representatives of the Great Powers—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia— gathered in Vienna in September 1814. In that city’s glittering palaces, they agreed at the Congress of Vienna to work to restore the old order. The most influential leader there was the haughty foreign minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich (MEH•tuhr•NIHK). For 30 years, Metternich worked tirelessly to repress the “revolutionary seed,” as he called it, spread by Napoleon Bonaparte. In his memoirs, he wrote: The first principle to be followed by the mon“ archs, united as they are by the coincidence of their desires and opinions, should be that of maintaining the stability of political institutions against the disorganized excitement which has taken possession of men’s minds. . . . The first and greatest concern for the immense majority of every nation is the stability of the laws, and their uninterrupted action—never their change. Therefore, let the governments govern, let them maintain the groundwork of their institutions, both ancient and modern; for it is at all times dangerous to touch them. To achieve a balance of power, some territories were divided up, and some boundaries were changed. As one example, land on the west bank of the Rhine River was taken away from France and given to Prussia. In this way, the strong Prussian army would be able to restrain France if it threatened to overrun Europe again. The policies of the Congress were a victory for rulers who wanted to contain the new forces unleashed during the French Revolution. Like Metternich, these rulers believed in the political philosophy known as conservatism. Conservatism is based on tradition and social stability. Conservatives of this period favored obedience to political authority. They also believed that established religions were beneficial to social order. They hated revolutions and were unwilling to accept demands for representative governments or more individual rights. To maintain the new balance of power, Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and later France, agreed to meet occasionally if it was necessary to take action to maintain order. Their meetings came to be called the Concert of Europe. Eventually, the Great Powers adopted a principle of intervention. It said that the Great Powers had the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions in order to keep monarchs in power. Britain argued against this principle because it did not want to interfere in the internal affairs of other states, but Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France used military force to crush revolutions in Spain and Italy. Reading Check Analyzing Explain the goals of European leaders at the Congress of Vienna. Klemens von Metternich conferring with Napoleon ” Metternich claimed that he was guided by the principle of legitimacy. He meant that the lawful monarchs who had ruled before Napoleon swept through Europe should be restored to their thrones. This had already been done in France, where the Bourbon king had been put back on the throne. The principle of legitimacy was used, however, only if it helped balance power in Europe. None of the victors—Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia—wanted France or any other nation, for that matter, to become too powerful. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 265 Woldemar Friedrich in Die Deutschen Befreigskriege/Mary Evans Picture Library Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815 60°N KINGDOM OF NORWAY AND SWEDEN N Se UNITED KINGDOM N DENMARK c E S 50 ° 400 kilometers 0 Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection a North Sea ti W 400 miles 0 l Ba RUSSIAN EMPIRE NETH. PRUSSIA GERMAN STATES Atlantic Ocean Vienna SWITZ. AUSTRIAN EMPIRE AL FRANCE 40° Black Sea UG N ITALIAN STATES PO RT SPAIN 0° O T TO M A N Constantinople E M P I R E 10°E German Confederation Mediterranean Sea 30°E The Congress of Vienna tried to create a new balance of power in Europe. Forces of Change Liberals and nationalists opposed the existing political system and threatened conservative regimes. Reading Connection Have you heard news reports about national conflicts in Bosnia? Read about the first stirrings of nationalism among ethnic groups in the Austrian Empire. Between 1815 and 1830, conservative governments throughout Europe worked to maintain the old order. Powerful forces for change were also at work, however: liberalism and nationalism. Liberalism Liberalism is a political philosophy that grew out of the Enlightenment. Liberalism held that people should be as free as possible from government restraint. Liberals believed that all people had the right to basic civil liberties—equality before the law, and freedom of assembly, speech, and the press. Liberals wanted the rights of the individual to be protected in 266 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 1. Interpreting Maps Within what political boundaries is Vienna located? Of what nation is Vienna the capital today? 2. Applying Geography Skills Compare this map to the map of Napoleonic Europe shown on page 233 of your text. What territories that belonged to the French Empire in 1812 were not part of France after the Congress of Vienna? What land did Russia gain? a written document, as they were in the American Bill of Rights. Liberals were also committed to religious toleration and to separation of church and state. A typical liberal favored a limited monarchy in which a king must follow the law. It was very important to liberals to have the basic laws for government embodied in a written constitution. Finally, liberals were great supporters of a representative assembly, or legislature. This legislature was to be elected, but liberals did not think everyone should vote for representatives. Liberals were not democrats who believed in universal suffrage. They believed that only people with property should vote because property owners were the ones who had a long-term, serious interest in the community. These attitudes were middle-class attitudes. It was the new industrial middle class that was acquiring wealth. They felt important and wanted representation, as well as protection from the mobs who might threaten their property. They said that workers should not have the vote until they became as educated and hardworking as the middle class. Nationalism In the nineteenth century, nationalism was an even more powerful force than liberalism. Nationalism arose when people began to identify themselves as part of a community defined by a distinctive language, religion, and customs. In earlier centuries, people’s loyalty went to a king, or their town or region. In this period, people began to feel that their chief loyalty was to the nation. It was the French Revolution that made nationalism a potent force. Everywhere, people with a common language and traditions began to feel that they were the nation, not a royal ruler. Germans living in tiny states ruled by princes yearned for unity. Writers and poets writing about German folk legends and heroes urged national unity. Ethnic and religious groups in the Austrian and Ottoman Empires wanted to break away from the empire and be a nation. Nationalism was a particular threat to empires that contained many ethnic and language groups, but conservatives everywhere fought the forces of nationalism. Nationalism was so strong that it eventually overcame some of the principles of liberalism. Liberals had argued that freedom could flourish only if each people had its own sovereign state. Nationalists became more and more passionate about their own nation. Often, they forgot about the rights of other national groups. They were willing to expand their Klemens von Metternich 1773–1859—Austrian statesman There was no greater symbol of conservatism in the first half of the nineteenth century than Prince Klemens von Metternich. Born in the Rhineland of Germany, he fled to Austria in 1794 and joined the Austrian diplomatic service. He was made Austrian foreign minister in 1809. History In 1830, Charles X of France dissolved the French legislature and suspended freedom of the press. Revolution followed. The rebels demanded a republic. How was Louis-Philippe involved in these events? own nation at the expense of others. In this way, nationalism weakened some liberal principles. Revolutionary Outbursts Beginning in 1830, the forces of change—liberalism and nationalism— began to break through conservative domination of Europe. In France, upper middle-class liberals overthrew the Bourbon monarch Charles X in 1830 because he ignored the law. The new government was a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe, a cousin of Charles X. An experienced diplomat, Metternich was conceited and self-assured. He described himself in his memoirs in 1819: “There is a wide sweep about my mind. I am always above and beyond the preoccupation of most public men; I cover a ground much vaster than they can see. I cannot keep myself from saying about twenty times a day: ‘How right I am, and how wrong they are.’” When revolution erupted in 1848, Metternich fled to England. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 267 (t)Giraudon/Art Resource, NY, (b)Austrian Information Service History In 1848, revolution broke out in Paris again. In 1830, opposition to press censorship was a major cause. This time, working conditions played a bigger role. What major change had occurred in working conditions? In the same year, 1830, there were three more revolutions. Nationalism was the chief force in all of them. Belgium, which had been annexed to the former Dutch Republic in 1815, rebelled and created an independent state. Nationalists in Poland and Italy also tried to create their own nations, but they were not successful. Russian forces crushed the Poles’ revolt, and the Austrian army put down revolts in a number of Italian states. Reading Check Evaluating How did liberalism and nationalism begin to break through the conservative domination of Europe? The Revolutions of 1848 Beginning in France in 1848, the spirit of revolution spread quickly over Europe, but the uprisings were largely suppressed. Reading Connection Did you know that popular revolutions in 1989 and 1990 destroyed communist governments in Eastern Europe? In 1848, popular revolutions also ignited, but they failed to achieve most of their goals. In the first half of the nineteenth century, conservatism still dominated Europe. In 1848, however, liberalism and nationalism triggered another outburst against the status quo—the established groups in society that had long held power and expected to keep it. 268 Stock Montage CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Another French Revolution France again provided the spark for revolution. Severe problems in the French economy in 1846 brought untold hardship in France to the lower middle class, workers, and peasants. At the same time, members of the middle class clamored for the right to vote, but the government refused to make changes. The monarchy was finally overthrown in 1848. A group of moderate and radical republicans set up a provisional, or temporary, government. The republicans were people who wished France to be a republic—a government in which leaders are elected and there is no monarch. The provisional government called for the election of representatives to a Constituent Assembly that would draw up a new constitution. Election was to be by universal male suffrage, meaning all adult men could vote. The provisional government also set up national workshops to provide work for the unemployed. From March to June, the number of unemployed enrolled in the national workshops rose from about 66,000 to almost 120,000. This emptied the treasury and frightened the moderates, who reacted by closing the workshops on June 21. The workers refused to accept this decision and poured into the streets. In four days of bitter and bloody fighting, government forces crushed the working-class revolt. Thousands were killed, and Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS thousands more were sent to the French prison colony of Algeria in northern Africa. The new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848, set up a republic, called the Second Republic. The new government had a single legislature elected by universal male suffrage. An elected president served for four years. In December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, known as Louis-Napoleon, was elected president by a huge margin. His victory was attributed to the fact that everyone knew his famous uncle. Trouble in the German States News from France led to upheaval in other parts of Europe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 had recognized the existence of 38 independent German states called the German Confederation. Of these, Austria and Prussia were the two great powers. The other states varied in size. In 1848, cries for change led many German rulers to promise constitutions, a free press, and jury trials. Revolutionists even formed an all-German parliament, the Frankfurt Assembly, to fulfill a liberal and nationalist dream—the preparation of a constitution for a united German nation. Deputies to the parliament were elected by universal male suffrage. Russian Troops in Hungary On November 1, 1956, Imre Nagy, leader of Hungary, declared Hungary a free nation and promised new elections. Hungary was at that time under the control of the Soviet Union. Fearing that these elections would mean the end of Communist rule in Hungary, Nikita Khrushchev, leader of the Soviet Union, reacted dramatically. On November 4, two hundred thousand Soviet (mostly Russian) troops and four thousand Soviet tanks invaded Budapest, Hungary’s capital city. An estimated fifty thousand Hungarians died on that day. Nagy fled but was later arrested and executed. The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 had failed. To Hungarians who knew their country’s history, the use of Russian troops to crush their independence had an all-too-familiar ring. In 1848, Louis Kossuth had led a revolt that forced Hungary’s Austrian rulers to grant Hungary its own legislature and a separate national army. In April 1849, the Hungarian legislature declared Hungary a republic. Kossuth was made the new president. Ultimately, however, the Frankfurt Assembly failed to achieve its goal. The members drafted a constitution but had no real means of forcing the German rulers to accept it. German unification was not achieved. Revolutions in Central Europe The Austrian Empire also had its problems. The empire was a multinational state—a collection of different peoples, including Germans, Czechs, the Magyars in Hungary, Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians, and Italians. Only the German-speaking Hapsburg dynasty held the empire together. German speakers played a lead role in the empire, although they represented only a quarter of the population. In March 1848, popular demonstrations led to the dismissal of Metternich. In Vienna, revolutionaries took control of the capital and demanded a liberal constitution. To appease them, the government gave Hungary its own legislature. In Bohemia, the Czechs clamored for their own government. Austrian officials made concessions, but they were determined to reestablish control. In June 1848, Austrian forces crushed the Czech rebels in Prague. By the end of October, the rebels in Vienna had been defeated as well. With the help of a Russian army of Meanwhile, the Austrians were unwilling to give up their control of Hungary. Unable to subdue the Hungarians, the Austrian government asked the Russians for help. Czar Nicholas I of Russia, who feared revolution anywhere, gladly agreed. A Russian army of 140,000 men crushed the Hungarian forces, and Kossuth fled abroad. The Hungarian Revolution of 1848–1849 had failed. Soviet tanks in Hungary There have been more recent revolts against repressive governments that have been violent. Review recent newsmagazines to locate one such event. Write a historical account of the event, using both primary and secondary sources. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 269 140,000 men, the Hungarian revolutionaries were finally subdued in 1849. The revolutions in the Austrian Empire had failed. Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849 Center of revolution 300 miles 0 300 kilometers 0 Chamberlin Trimetric projection N W E S 50°N Berlin PRUSSIA BELGIUM Frankfurt Paris Dresden GERMANY Prague Krak´ow Munich FRANCE 45°N RUSSIA Warsaw Vienna AUSTRIAN Venice Lyon Milan Buda EMPIRE Florence Livorno OTTOMAN EMPIRE PAPAL STATES Corsica Rome 40°N Naples Sardinia Mediterranean Sea 5°E KINGDOM OF THE TWO SICILIES Palermo 10°E GREECE Sicily 20°E Revolts in the Italian States The Congress of Vienna had set up nine states in Italy. They were the Kingdom of Piedmont in the north; the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily); the Papal States; a handful of small states; and the northern provinces of Lombardy and Venetia as part of the Austrian Empire. In 1848, Italians rebelled against the Austrian government in Lombardy and Venetia. Revolutionaries in other Italian states also took up arms and sought to create liberal constitutions and a unified Italy. By 1849, however, the Austrians had reestablished control over Lombardy and Venetia. The old order also won out in the rest of Italy. In 1848, popular revolts at first succeeded. Middleclass liberals and radicals cooperated to achieve liberal governments and constitution. When these two groups began to fight over goals, however, the conservatives were able to regain control. Still the forces of nationalism and liberalism had been unleashed, and for the rest of the century, they remained a powerful political force. Reading Check Identifying What countries experiIn 1848 and 1849, revolution spread through Europe. 1. Interpreting Maps How far south did the revolutions of 1848 to 1849 extend? 2. Applying Geography Skills Pose and answer one question about the pattern in world history shown on this map. enced revolutions in 1848? HISTORY Study Central For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Study Central. Checking for Understanding 1. Vocabulary Define: conservatism, stability, beneficial, principle of intervention, liberalism, universal male suffrage, multinational state. Critical Thinking 5. Sequence and Change How did industrialization contribute to the spread of liberalism? 2. People and Events Identify: Congress of Vienna, Klemens von Metternich, Bill of Rights, Louis-Napoleon, German Confederation. 6. Compare and Contrast Use a table like the one below to compare and contrast the ideologies of conservatism, liberalism, and nationalism. 3. Locate Vienna, Prague. Conservatism Liberalism Nationalism CA CS2 Reviewing Big Ideas 4. Explain the effect of conservatism in 1848. 270 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Analyzing Visuals 7. Examine the painting on page 268. Can you identify a worker and a middle-class person among the rebels? How is it possible to distinguish them? 8. Expository Writing Select one ideology: conservatism, liberalism, or nationalism. Write an essay identifying contemporary ideas it has influenced. CA 10WA2.3 National Unification and the National State Guide to Reading Section Preview In the mid-1800s, the German and Italian peoples succeeded in creating their own nations, but not all national groups were able to reach that goal. • By taking opposite sides in the Crimean War, the Great Powers of Europe ended decades of cooperation. (p. 272) Content Vocabulary Reading Stategy • Germany was united under Prussian leadership through three wars planned by the Prussian prime minister, Otto von Bismarck. (p. 274) reliance, levy, successor ✦1855 1852 Second Empire begins in France Reading Objectives 1. Explain how Camillo di Cavour and Otto von Bismarck worked to unify their countries. 2. Outline the causes of the American Civil War. • Italians wanted their own nation and drove their Austrian rulers out of Italy. (p. 273) ✦1850 Piedmont, Alsace, Lorraine, Budapest • Unified by the War of 1812, the United States later split over slavery, but the Union survived a bloody civil war that lasted from 1861 to 1865. (p. 278) militarism, kaiser, plebiscite, emancipation, abolitionism, secede Preview of Events Places to Locate • After 1848, Great Britain liberalized, while the governments of France, Austria, and Russia grew more authoritarian. (p. 276) Academic Vocabulary Summarizing Information Use a table like the one below to list changes in these countries during the nineteenth century. Great Britain People to Identify France Austrian Empire Russia Giuseppe Garibaldi, Otto von Bismarck, Queen Victoria, Czar Alexander II ✦1860 1861 Kingdom of Italy proclaimed ✦1865 1867 The British North America Act is passed ✦1870 1870 Franco-Prussian War begins ✦1875 1871 William I becomes kaiser of a united Germany California Standards in This Section Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards. 10.2.5: Discuss how nationalism spread across Europe with Napoleon but was repressed for a generation under the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe until the Revolutions of 1848. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 271 Breakdown of the Concert of Europe By taking opposite sides in the Crimean War, the Great Powers of Europe ended decades of cooperation. Giuseppe Garibaldi Reading Connection Can you think of an example in recent times when access to water caused conflict? Read to learn what happened when nations fought for access to the Mediterranean Sea. The revolutions of 1848 had failed. By 1871, however, both Germany and Italy would be unified. Both countries had waited many decades to be united, and in each, nationalist feeling was passionate. One sign of the times was the response people gave to their leaders. On June 13, 1860, the Times of London described a public tour by Garibaldi, one of the most colorful leaders in the struggle to unify Italy: In the afternoon, Garibaldi made a tour of “ inspection round [Palermo]. The popular idol [Garibaldi], in his red flannel shirt, with a loose colored handkerchief around his neck, was walking on foot among those cheering, laughing, crying, mad thousands; and all his few followers could do was to prevent him from being bodily carried off the ground. The people threw themselves forward to kiss his hands, or at least, to touch the hem of his garment. Children were brought up, and mothers asked on their knees for his blessing. ” Why did these nations each finally unify after the 1850s? The answer lies partly with the Crimean War. This war shifted the balance of power in Europe, and allowed Germany and Italy to unify. The Crimean War was the result of a very old struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Empire, centered in what is now Turkey, had long controlled most of the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, the Ottoman Empire was in decline, and its authority over the Balkans was weakening. Russia was a nation with little access to warmwater ports. It had always coveted territory in the Balkans because having this would allow Russian ships to sail through the Dardanelles, the straits 272 CHAPTER 4 Museo Civico Modigliana, Italy/Dagli Orti/Art Archive Industrialization and Nationalism between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. If Russians could achieve this goal, they would be a major power in eastern Europe and would even be able to challenge British control of the eastern Mediterranean. European powers feared Russian ambitions, and they, too, hoped to gain some territory if the Ottoman Empire collapsed. In 1853, the Russians made a move. They invaded Moldavia and Walachia, Balkan provinces controlled by the Ottoman Turks. The Turks declared war on Russia. Britain and France were afraid that Russia would grow too powerful and so, in 1854, they too declared war on Russia. This was the Crimean War, named for the Russian peninsula in the Black Sea where important battles took place. The war was poorly planned and poorly fought, but Russia lost so many troops that it finally asked for peace. In the Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1856, Moldavia and Walachia were placed under the protection of the Great Powers. The Ottoman Empire was weaker, and the Russians had been held back, but no single nation had gained a significant advantage. The Crimean War ended the old Concert of Europe in which Russia and Austria had operated as the chief powers working for the conservative status quo. Now it was clear that Austria and Russia were rivals in eastern Europe. Austria too wanted territory in the Balkans and had refused to support Russia during the Crimean War. A defeated and humiliated Russia withdrew from European affairs for the next 20 years. Austria was now without friends among the Great Powers. This new situation was very important for the forces of nationalism: It opened the door for the unification of Italy and of Germany. Reading Check Explaining How did the Crimean War destroy the Concert of Europe? Unification of Italy, 1859–1870 0 200 miles AUSTRIA 0 200 kilometers Chamberlin Trimetric projection SWITZERLAND LOMBARDY VENETIA Po R . Venice PARMA NA TES Florence Ad ri at ic Se a Rome ILIE S Fr. Tyrrhenian Sea NAPLES Naples SIC Corsica PAP AL TUSCANY E W S STA NICE N DE Turin To France Genoa 1860 MO PIED OY MO NT SAV ET WO 40°N DO NG 10°E Kingdom of Piedmont before 1859 Added to Kingdom of Piedmont, 1859 Added to Kingdom of Piedmont, 1860 Added to Kingdom of Italy, 1866 Added to Kingdom of Italy, 1870 M OF TH Sardinia KI In 1850, the Austrian Empire dominated the Italian Peninsula, as it had for decades. Often, Austrian control was exercised through the ties of the Austrian emperor with the kings and royalty of the many small Italian states. After the failure of the 1848 revolts, Italian nationalists focused their hopes for independence on Piedmont. The royal house of Savoy was not connected to the Austrian emperor. In 1849, King Victor Emmanuel II took the throne of Piedmont, which included Nice, Savoy, and the island of Sardinia. In 1852, the king appointed Camillo di Cavour his prime minister. Cavour was a skilled statesman. He wanted a strong state and a strong army so that Piedmont could lead the independence movement. Cavour knew, however, that no matter how much he could increase state revenues and build a stronger army, his king would need additional help to defeat the Austrians. Cavour therefore made an alliance with the French emperor, Louis-Napoleon. If the emperor would help them against the Austrians, the Kingdom of Piedmont would give the areas of Nice and Savoy to the French. Once the agreement was signed, Cavour provoked the Austrians so that they invaded Piedmont in 1859. War soon broke out. When the short war ended, the peace treaty gave Nice and Savoy to France. The Austrians kept control of Venetia, another small northern province, while Piedmont received the province of Lombardy. Cavour’s success caused Italian nationalists living in other northern states—Parma, Modena, and Tuscany—to revolt and join their states with Piedmont. While northern Italians were clamoring for greater unity, a new nationalist leader arose in southern Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi, a dedicated Italian patriot, raised an army of a thousand volunteers to fight for independence. They were called Red Shirts because of the color of their uniforms. One of the strongest states in the southern part of Italy was the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Sicily and Naples. This kingdom was ruled by a branch CE Reading Connection If you had the power to start a war, could you justify doing so? Read to learn how and why the Italian state of Piedmont started a war with Austria. AN Italians wanted their own nation and drove their Austrian rulers out of Italy. of the Bourbon dynasty. When a revolt broke out in Sicily against the king, Garibaldi’s Red Shirts landed on the island of Sicily and by late July 1860, they were in control. In August, the revolutionary forces crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian peninsula. In early September, Naples and the entire Kingdom of the Two Sicilies fell. Garibaldi was a man of the people. He had led revolts in South America and could inspire the common people. He might have fought for a popular republic to be created in a new Italian nation. Instead he chose to turn over his conquests to Piedmont. On March 17, 1861, a new kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under King Victor Emmanuel II. Unification was not yet complete. Venetia lay outside the new Italy. So too did the Papal States where the pope ruled from Rome. The Papal States had the strong backing of Catholic France. FR Italian Unification Mediterranean Sea Sicily 20°E From 1859 to 1870, Italy fought for national unity. 1. Interpreting Maps Looking at the map, explain the sequence of events in Italian unification. 2. Applying Geography Skills What geographic factors explain Piedmont’s leadership in unification? CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 273 Once again, the Italians were successful in their cause because they took advantage of a rivalry between other powers. When Austria became involved in a war with Prussia, the Italians helped the Prussians. When the Prussians won, they rewarded the Italians with Venetia. During this same war, French troops had to withdraw from Rome. This allowed the Italian army to move on Rome. It was annexed on September 20, 1870, and became the capital of the new Italian state. Reading Check Explaining How did Giuseppe Garibaldi contribute to Italian unification? German Unification Germany was united under Prussian leadership through three wars planned by the Prussian prime minister, Otto von Bismarck. Reading Connection Have you heard arguments about the role of ethics in politics? Read to understand the policy of realpolitik Bismarck followed to unite Germany. Germans had been longing for a unified national state for many decades. Like the Italians, Germans too had been disappointed by the events of 1848. Now they looked to Prussia for leadership in the cause of unification. In the course of the nineteenth century, Prussia had become a strong and prosperous state. Its government was authoritarian. The Prussian king had firm control over both the government and the army. Prussia was also known for its militarism, or reliance on armed force. In the 1860s, King William I tried to enlarge the Prussian army. When the Prussian legislature refused to levy new taxes for the proposed military changes, William I appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck has often been seen as the foremost nineteenth-century practitioner of realpolitik—the “politics of reality,” or politics based on practical matters rather than on theory or ethics. Bismarck was open about his strong dislike of anyone who opposed him. Bismarck ignored the legislative opposition to the military expansion. He declared that “Germany does not look to Prussia’s liberalism but to her power.” Bismarck proceeded to collect taxes and strengthen the army. From 1862 to 1866, he governed Prussia without approval of the parliament. In the meantime, he followed an activist foreign policy, which soon led to war. After defeating Denmark with Austrian help in 1864 and gaining control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, Bismarck created tension with the Austrians and forced them into a war on June 14, 1866. The Austrians, no match for the well-disciplined Prussian army, were decisively defeated on July 3. Prussia now organized the German states north of the Main River into a North German Confederation. Bismarck stands at the center as William I is proclaimed emperor of the Second German Empire. “The great questions of the day are decided . . . by blood and iron.” —Otto von Bismarck 274 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism “Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles”, 1871, Anton von Werner, Photo Bildarchiv Preussicher Kulturbesitz, Berlin Unification of Germany, 1866–1871 North Sea 50°N 0 DENMARK 20°E SWEDEN S Ba 150 miles SCHLESWIG 0 150 kilometers Chamberlin Trimetric projection HOLSTEIN Em s R . Amsterdam NETHERLANDS lbe c K¨onigsberg NIA RA WEST PRUSSIA P OLDENBURG E MECKLENBURG HANOVER lti E OM Hamburg Memel ea 15°E 10°E 5°E EAST PRUSSIA R. Berlin Warsaw R hin e R. BRANDENBURG O de Brussels BELGIUM WESTPHALIA HESSECologne KASSEL Trier LUX. Mainz Frankfurt . in R ALSACE Da WÜRTTEMBERG Added in 1871 Annexed in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War nu ES R. IA R. HOHENZOLLERN N W u ist Bismarck la K¨oniggr¨atz be Munich Prussia before 1866 SWITZERLAND Added 1866–1867 as the North German Confederation Breslau SIL RUSSIAN EMPIRE V AUSTRIA Nuremberg LORRAINE Strasbourg FRANCE Prague HESSEDARMSTADT Ma BADE N Sedan Verdun . Dresden SAXONY 40°N r R Leipzig E S Battle The southern German states, which were largely Catholic, feared Protestant Prussia, but they also feared France, their western neighbor. As a result, they signed military alliances with Prussia for protection against France. Prussia now dominated all of northern Germany, but problems with France soon arose. Bismarck realized that France would never be content with a strong Germany because it could threaten France. In 1870, Prussia and France became embroiled in a dispute over the candidacy of a relative of the Prussian king for the throne of Spain. Bismarck took advantage of the misunderstandings between the French and Prussians to goad the French into declaring war on Prussia on July 19, 1870. This conflict was called the Franco-Prussian War. The French proved to be no match for the betterled and better-organized Prussian forces. The southern German states honored their military alliances with Prussia and joined the war effort against the French. Prussian armies advanced into France. At Sedan, on September 2, 1870, an entire French army and the French ruler, Napoleon III, were captured. On January 18, 1871, the united German states formed the Second German Empire. 1. Interpreting Maps Looking at the map, explain the sequence of German unification. 2. Applying Geography Skills Compare this map with the map of Italian unification shown on page 273. What geographic factors influenced the process of unification for both Germany and Italy? Paris finally surrendered on January 28, 1871, and an official peace treaty was signed in May. France had to pay 5 billion francs (about $1 billion) and give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. This loss left the French burning for revenge. Even before the war had ended, the southern German states had agreed to enter the North German Confederation. On January 18, 1871, Bismarck and six hundred German princes, nobles, and generals filled the Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, 12 miles outside Paris. William I of Prussia was proclaimed kaiser, or emperor, of the Second German Reich, or Empire. (The First German Reich was the medieval Holy Roman Empire.) German unity had been achieved by the Prussian monarchy and the Prussian army. The authoritarian and militaristic values of Prussia were triumphant in the new German state. With its industrial resources and military might, the new state had become the strongest power on the European continent. Reading Check Summarizing What events led to German unification? CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 275 Gianni Dagli Orti/CORBIS Nationalism and Reform in Europe After 1848, Great Britain liberalized, while the governments of France, Austria, and Russia grew more authoritarian. Reading Connection Have you ever been to Paris or seen it depicted in the movies? Read about why the wide boulevards and public squares were originally built. While Italy and Germany were unifying, other states in Europe were also experiencing changes. Great Britain Great Britain managed to avoid the revolutionary upheavals of the first half of the nineteenth century. At the time of the Congress of Vienna, the nation was governed by aristocratic landowning classes, which dominated both houses of Parliament. In 1832, Parliament passed a bill that increased the number of male voters, chiefly from the industrial middle class. By giving them a vote, Britain avoided revolution. In the 1850s and 1860s, Parliament continued to make reforms that helped the country to remain stable. Another reason for Britain’s stability was continuing economic growth. In 1851, the nation held the Crystal Palace Exhibition in London to show off its industrial production and prosperity. The middle class was already prosperous, but after 1850, working class income increased. From 1850 to 1870, the real wages of laborers increased more than 25 percent. British national pride was reflected in Queen Victoria, whose reign from 1837 to 1901 was the longest in English history. Her sense of duty and moral respectability reflected her era, which ever since has been known as the Victorian Age. France In France, events after the Revolution of 1848 moved toward the restoration of the monarchy. Four years after his election as president in 1848, LouisNapoleon asked the people to approve a return to the empire. He held a plebiscite, an election in which people can vote only yes or no to a proposition, and 97 percent responded with a yes vote. On December 2, 1852, Louis-Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III, Emperor of France. (Although the first Napoleon’s son had never ruled in France, the child’s title had been Napoleon II.) The Second Empire had begun. This image commemorating Victoria’s golden jubilee in 1887 shows off Windsor and Balmoral castles and is decorated with the national flowers of the British Isles. 276 CHAPTER 4 Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS Industrialization and Nationalism Napoleon III History through Art La Place Clichy by Eugene Galien-Laloue Napoleon III had Baron Haussmann beautify Paris with broad boulevards and public parks. How does this reflect the economy of the era? As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative government, because members were elected by universal male suffrage for six-year terms, but they could not initiate legislation or affect the budget. Napoleon III completely controlled the government and limited civil liberties, but the first five years of his reign were a spectacular success. He focused on expanding the economy and subsidized the construction of railroads, harbors, roads, and canals. Napoleon III also carried out a vast rebuilding of Paris. Narrow streets and walls were replaced by broad boulevards, spacious buildings, public squares, an underground sewage system, a new public watersupply system, and gaslights. The new Paris served a military purpose as well. Broad streets made it difficult for rebels to throw up barricades and easier for troops to move through the city. In the 1860s, opposition to some of Napoleon’s policies arose. In response, he began to liberalize his regime. For example, he gave the legislature more power. In a plebiscite on his reign in 1870, the French voted their approval of Napoleon. This triumph was short-lived. Soon the French would be defeated in a war with the Prussians, and the Second Empire fell. The Austrian Empire As we have seen, nationalism was a major force in nineteenth-century Europe. However, one of Europe’s most powerful states—the Austrian Empire—was a multinational empire that had been able to frustrate the desire of its ethnic groups for independence. After the Hapsburg rulers crushed the revolutions of 1848 and 1849, they restored centralized, autocratic government to the empire. Austria’s defeat at the hands of the Prussians in 1866, however, forced the Austrians to make concessions to the fiercely nationalistic Hungarians. The result was the Compromise of 1867. This compromise created the dual monarchy of AustriaHungary. Each of these two components of the empire now had its own constitution, its own legislature, its own government bureaucracy, and its own capital (Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary). Holding the two states together were a single monarch (Francis Joseph was both emperor of Austria and king of Hungary) and a common army, forHISTORY eign policy, and system of finances. In domestic affairs, then, Web Activity Visit the the Hungarians had become Glencoe World History— an independent nation. Modern Times Web site However, the compromise at wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 4– did not satisfy the other Student Web Activity minorities that made up to learn more about the multinational Austro- Queen Victoria. Hungarian Empire. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 277 David David Gallery, Philadelphia/SuperStock, (inset)Musee du Chateau de Versailles/Dagli Orti/Art Archive ers wanted more and faster change. Conservatives thought that the czar was trying to destroy the basic institutions of Russian society. When a group of radicals assassinated Alexander II in 1881, his son and successor, Alexander III, turned against reform and returned to the old methods of repression. Reading Check Examining How was Great Britain able to avoid a revolution in 1848? Nationalism in the United States Russian peasants had to pay for the poor-quality land they received from the government. Russia At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Russia was overwhelmingly rural, agricultural, and autocratic. The Russian czar was still regarded as a divine-right monarch with unlimited power. The Russian government—based on soldiers, secret police, repression, and censorship—withstood the revolutionary fervor of the first half of the nineteenth century. Then, in 1856, the Russians suffered a humiliating defeat in the Crimean War described earlier. Even staunch conservatives now realized that Russia was falling hopelessly behind the western European powers. Czar Alexander II decided to make serious reforms. Serfdom was the largest problem in czarist Russia. On March 3, 1861, Alexander issued an emancipation edict, which freed the serfs. Peasants could now own property and marry as they chose. The government provided land for the peasants by buying it from the landlords. ; (See page 772 to read excerpts from Czar Alexander II’s Emancipation Manifesto in the Primary Sources Library.) The new land system, however, did not help the peasants much. Landowners often kept the best lands. The peasants soon found that they did not have enough good land to support themselves. Emancipation of the serfs, then, led not to a free, landowning peasantry, but to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry that largely followed old ways of farming. Alexander II attempted other reforms as well, but he soon found that he could please no one. Reform278 Ullstein Bilderdeinst, Berlin CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Unified by the War of 1812, the United States later split over slavery, but the Union survived a bloody civil war that lasted from 1861 to 1865. Reading Connection Do you remember reading about the upheaval of the American and French Revolutions? Read to learn how the United States responded to national upheaval in the 1800s. The government under the U.S. Constitution had committed the United States to two of the major forces of the first half of the nineteenth century: liberalism and nationalism. National unity had not come easily, however. Two factions had fought bitterly about the division of power in the new government. The Federalists had favored a strong central government. The Republicans, fearing central power, had wanted the federal government to be subordinate to the state governments. These early divisions had come to an end when the War of 1812 against the British began. A surge of national feeling had served to cover over the nation’s divisions. The election of Andrew Jackson as president in 1828 had opened a new era in American politics. Property qualifications for voting had been reduced. The right to vote was eventually extended to almost all adult white males. By the mid-nineteenth century, however, slavery had become a threat to American national unity. There were four million African American slaves in the South by 1860, compared with one million in 1800. The South’s economy was based on growing cotton on plantations, chiefly by slave labor. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 had made it easier to clean cotton of its seeds, thus increasing cotton production. The South was determined to maintain both its cotton economy and plantation-based slavery. At the same time, abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, arose in the North and challenged the Southern way of life. As opinions over slavery grew more divided, compromise became less possible. Abraham Lincoln said in a speech in Illinois in 1858 that “this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.” When Lincoln was elected president in November 1860, war became certain. On December 20, 1860, a South Carolina convention voted to secede, or withdraw, from the United States. In February 1861, six more Southern states did the same, and a rival nation—the Confederate States of America—was formed. In April, fighting erupted between North and South—the Union and the Confederacy. The American Civil War was an extraordinarily bloody struggle which lasted from 1861 to 1865. More than 600,000 men died in battle or from deadly diseases spawned by filthy camp conditions. The Union’s superior resources and population gradually wore down the Confederacy. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation declared most of the nation’s slaves “forever free.” The surrender of Confederate forces Checking for Understanding 1. Vocabulary Define: militarism, reliance, levy, kaiser, plebiscite, emancipation, successor, abolitionism, secede. 2. People Identify: Giuseppe Garibaldi, Otto von Bismarck, Queen Victoria, Czar Alexander II. 3. Locate Piedmont, Alsace, Lorraine, Budapest. Reviewing Big Ideas 4. List the Prussian values and assets that caused the Second German Empire to become the strongest European state. Slavery challenged national unity in the United States. on April 9, 1865, meant that the United States would be “one nation, indivisible.” National unity had prevailed in the United States. Reading Check Explaining How did the election of Andrew Jackson influence American politics? HISTORY For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Study Central. Critical Thinking 5. Contextualizing Explain how the forces of liberalism and nationalism affected events in the United States during the 1800s. CA HI 3 6. Compare and Contrast Use a Venn diagram like the one below to compare and contrast Bismarck’s and Cavour’s methods for achieving unification in Germany and Italy. Bismarck Study Central Cavour Analyzing Visuals 7. Examine the photographs of a peasant and a slave family shown on pages 278 and 279. Based on the visual evidence of the two photographs, how do you think the living conditions of Russian peasants compared to living conditions of slaves in the United States? 8. Expository Writing Write an essay comparing the events and outcomes of the reigns of Bismarck and Napoleon III. What personal characteristics did each man have that contributed to his accomplishments? CA 10WA2.3 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 279 Bettmann/CORBIS Culture: Romanticism and Realism Guide to Reading Section Preview Artistic movements were influenced by the society around them. Romanticism was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, while progress in science contributed to realism. • In the arts, romanticism stressed individualism and emotion instead of the reason and universalism of the Enlightenment period. (p. 281) • Rapid advances in science and technology fueled industrial growth, made medical care more effective, and challenged religious faith. (p. 283) Preview of Events ✦1820 ✦1830 1820 Walter Scott writes Ivanhoe • The rise of science encouraged writers and artists to create realistic works that portrayed even the poor and degraded in society. (p. 284) Content Vocabulary Reading Objectives 1. List the main features of romanticism and realism. 2. Trace a cause-and-effect path from the Scientific Revolution to secularization. Reading Strategy romanticism, secularization, organic evolution, natural selection, realism Academic Vocabulary abandon, adapt, variation, controversy Summarizing Information Use a table like the one below to list popular literature from the romantic and realist movements. People to Identify Romanticism Ludwig van Beethoven, Louis Pasteur, Charles Darwin, Charles Dickens ✦1840 1849 Courbet paints The Stonebreakers ✦1850 ✦1860 1859 Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ✦1870 Realism ✦1880 1869 Mendeleyev presents his classification of material elements California Standards in This Section Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards. 10.3: Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Revolution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and the United States. 10.3.2: Examine how scientific and technological changes and new forms of energy brought about massive social, economic, and cultural change (e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James 280 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pasteur, Thomas Edison). 10.3.7: Describe the emergence of Romanticism in art and literature (e.g., the poetry of William Blake and William Wordsworth), social criticism (e.g., the novels of Charles Dickens), and the move away from Classicism in Europe. Larry Fisher/Masterfile Romanticism In the arts, romanticism stressed individualism and emotion instead of the reason and universalism of the Enlightenment period. Reading Connection Do you know of any group that strives to show by their dress that they disagree with mainstream values? Read to learn about the values that romantics were expressing. At the end of the eighteenth century, a new movement called romanticism emerged as a reaction against the Enlightenment. During that period, art and literature followed classicism. The ideals of classicism were reason, balance, and restraint in all things. Romantics went to the other extreme. They wanted the arts to express the feeling, emotion, and imagination of the individual artist or writer. Many romantic writers in England lived during the early Industrial Revolution, and they often expressed a horror of the conditions they saw. In his novel The Old Curiosity Shop, Charles Dickens wrote about the English mill town of Birmingham. An element of romanticism pervaded his description: A long suburb of red brick houses—some with “ patches of garden ground, where coal-dust and factory smoke darkened the shrinking leaves, and coarse rank flowers; and where the struggling vegetation sickened and sank under the hot breath of kiln and furnace . . . —a long, flat, straggling suburb passed, they came by slow degrees upon a cheerless region, where not a blade of grass was seen to grow; where not a bud put forth its promise in the spring; where nothing green could live but on the surface of the stagnant pools, which here and there lay idly sweltering by the black roadside. ” To the romantics, the inner feelings of each person were unique, even mysterious. Romantic novelists tended to create characters who were misunderstood or rejected by the society around them. Isolated, their individual feelings and ideas were their only barometer for right and wrong. They did not bow to middle-class conventions. They wore their hair long and grew beards. A woman might dress in a man’s pants and frock coat to show she was a poet. Romantics loved to think about past ages, especially medieval times. They felt it had a mystery and interest in the soul that their own industrial age did not. Romantic architects revived medieval styles and designed castles, cathedrals, railway stations, and city halls in a style called neo-Gothic. The Houses of Parliament in London reflect this style. Romantic literature was also inspired by the Middle Ages. Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe, for example, a best-seller in the early 1800s, told of clashes between knights in medieval England. By focusing on their nations’ past, many romantic writers were also reflecting the nationalism that was so strong in the nineteenth century. The exotic and unfamiliar also attracted many romantics. This attraction gave rise to Gothic literature. Chilling examples are Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories of horror. Some romantics even sought the unusual in their own lives by exploring their dreams and nightmares and seeking altered states of consciousness. Built between 1869 and 1892, this Bavarian castle reflects the romantic love of medieval style. History through Art Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog by Caspar David Friedrich A sense of isolation and a tragic fate characterize this 1819 painting by this German romantic. How would you compare the feeling of this art to the image on page 225? The romantics viewed poetry as the direct expression of the soul. Romantic poetry gave expression to one of the most important characteristics of the movement—its love of nature. Romantics believed that nature served as a mirror into which humans could look to learn about themselves. This feeling is especially evident in the poetry of William Wordsworth, the foremost English romantic poet of nature. His experience of nature was almost mystical: “ One impulse from a vernal wood May teach you more of man, Of moral evil and of good, Than all the sages can. ” The worship of nature also caused Wordsworth and other romantic poets to be critical of eighteenthcentury science, which they believed had reduced nature to a cold object of study. To Wordsworth, the 282 CHAPTER 4 (tl)Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS Industrialization and Nationalism scientists’ dry, mathematical approach left no room for the imagination or for the human soul. The human soul was a source of expression for William Blake, a poet and artist connected with romanticism, though he combined imagination with reality in a way other romantics did not. In two of his collections of lyric poems and their accompanying designs, Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience, Blake uses a child’s point of view to capture basic human emotions. He also used that point of view to write “The Chimney Sweeper,” “London,” and “The Tyger.” In these poems, he criticized the church and the state because he felt these institutions did not bring out the best in people. Like Blake, many romantics were convinced that industrialization would cause people to become alienated from their inner selves and from the natural world. This idea shows up in Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein: When science dares to try and conquer nature, a monster is created. Like the literary arts, the visual arts were deeply affected by romanticism. Romantic artists shared at least two features. First, to them, all art was a reflection of the artist’s inner feelings. A painting should mirror the artist’s vision of the world and be the instrument of the artist’s own imagination. Second, romantic artists abandoned classical reason for warmth and emotion. Eugène Delacroix (DEH•luh•KWAH) was one of the most famous romantic painters from France. His paintings showed two chief characteristics: a fascination with the exotic and a passion for color. His works reflect his belief that “a painting should be a feast to the eye.” In music, too, romantic trends dominated the first half of the nineteenth century. One of the most famous composers of this era was Ludwig van Beethoven. Some have called him a bridge between classical and romantic music. Others argue that he was such a rare genius, he cannot be easily classified. His early work fell within the classical framework. In his Third Symphony, first performed in 1805, however, the romantic elements were in place: powerful melodies and dramatic intensity. In one way, Beethoven was definitely a romantic. He thought of himself as an artist, not a craftsman. He had an intense and difficult personality, but was committed to writing music that reflected his deepest feelings: “I must write, for what weighs on my heart, I must express.” Reading Check Examining How did the popularity of Ivanhoe reflect the interests of the nineteenth century? New Age of Science Rapid advances in science and technology fueled industrial growth, made medical care more effective, and challenged religious faith. Reading Connection Have you heard of discoveries about our genetic makeup and its possible applications? Read to learn how discoveries changed society in the 1800s. The Scientific Revolution had created a modern, rational approach to the study of the natural world. For a long time, only the educated elite understood its importance. By the 1830s, however, new discoveries in science had led to many practical benefits that affected all Europeans. In 1796, for example, the English doctor Edward Jenner had discovered a vaccine for smallpox, a widespread disease that killed mostly infants and young children. In biology, the Frenchman Louis Pasteur proposed the germ theory of disease, which was crucial to the development of modern scientific medical practices. In chemistry, the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev in the 1860s classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights. In Great Britain, Michael Faraday put together a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of electric current. Dramatic material benefits such as these led Europeans to have a growing faith in science. This faith, in turn, undermined the religious faith of many people. It is no accident that the nineteenth century was an age of increasing secularization, indifference to or rejection of religion in the affairs of the world. For many people, truth was now to be found in science and in the material existence of human beings. More than anyone else, it was probably Charles Darwin who created the concept of humans as beings who were part of the natural world. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. His basic theory was that each species, or kind, of plant or animal had evolved over millions of years from earlier, simpler forms of life. Darwin called this principle organic evolution. How did this natural process work? According to Darwin, in every species, “many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive.” History through Art The Lion Hunt by Eugene Delacroix (1861) This French romantic artist was known for lush color and exotic scenes. If you were alive in the 1800s, what elements would strike you as exotic? CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 283 Burstein Collection/CORBIS This results in a “struggle for existence.” Darwin believed that some organisms are better able to adapt to changes in the environment than others. Those that are able to survive (“survival of the fittest”) reproduce and thrive, while the unfit do not. Darwin called this process natural selection. Survivors pass on the variations that allowed them to survive until a new, separate species emerges. In The Descent of Man, published in 1871, Darwin argued that human beings had animal origins and were not an exception to the rule governing other species. Darwin’s ideas raised a storm of controversy. Some people objected that his theory made human beings ordinary products of nature, not unique creations of God. Other people were bothered because they felt he was saying that life was a mere struggle for survival. “Is there a place in the Darwinian world for moral values?” they asked. Some believers felt Darwin had not granted God a role in creation. Gradually, however, many scientists and other intellectuals came to accept Darwinism. Reading Check Describing How did the theory of natural selection influence the way people saw the world? Realism The rise of science encouraged writers and artists to create realistic works that portrayed even the poor and degraded in society. Reading Connection Have you been to museums and noticed how technology is used in some modern art? Read how artists reflected intellectual trends at this time. History This friendly cartoon drawing of Charles Darwin was published in the magazine Vanity Fair in 1871. It shows the scientist in the wheeled chair he used to propel himself round his work room. 284 CHAPTER 4 Michael Nicholson/CORBIS Industrialization and Nationalism The belief that the world should be viewed realistically was closely related to the scientific outlook. In politics, Bismarck had practiced the “politics of reality.” In the literary and visual arts, realism became a movement as well. The literary realists of the mid-nineteenth century rejected romanticism. They wanted to write about ordinary characters from actual life rather than romantic heroes in exotic settings. They also tried to avoid emotional language by using precise description. They preferred novels to poems. Many literary realists combined their interest in everyday life with an examination of social issues. These artists expressed their social views through their characters. Although this type of realistic writing occurred worldwide, the French led the way. The realist novel was perfected by the French author Gustave Flaubert, who was a leading novelist of the 1850s and 1860s. His work Madame Bovary presents a critical description of small-town life in France. In Great Britain, Charles Dickens became a huge success with novels that showed the realities of life for the poor in the early Industrial Age. Novels like Oliver Twist and David Copperfield created a vivid picture of the brutal life of London’s poor, as well as of their humor and humanity. In fact, his characters were so sympathetic that they helped inspire social reform. In art, too, realism became dominant after 1850. Realist artists sought to show the everyday life of ordinary people and the world of nature with photo- History through Art The Stonebreakers by Gustave Courbet, 1849 As an artist of the realist school, Courbet broke with the mystical and imaginative romantic period. Which style do you prefer? graphic realism. The French became leaders in realist painting, just as they had become the leaders in realist writing. Gustave Courbet was the most famous painter of the realist school. He loved to portray scenes from everyday life. His subjects were factory workers, peasants, and the wives of saloon keepers. “I have never seen either angels or goddesses, so I am not interested in painting them,” Courbet once commented. One of Courbet’s famous works, The Stonebreakers, shows two roadworkers engaged in the deadening work of breaking stones to build a road. There were those who objected to Courbet’s “cult of ugliness” and who found such scenes of human misery scandalous. To Courbet, however, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly. Reading Check Evaluating What factors helped to produce the movement known as realism? HISTORY Study Central For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Study Central. Checking for Understanding 1. Vocabulary Define: romanticism, abandon, secularization, organic evolution, adapt, natural selection, variation, controversy, realism. 2. People Identify: Ludwig van Beethoven, Louis Pasteur, Charles Darwin, Charles Dickens. Critical Thinking 5. Organizing Information Use a table like below to list scientists and their discoveries in the mid-nineteenth century. Scientist Reviewing Big Ideas 3. Explain how scientific developments affected the cultural movements of the nineteenth century. Analyzing Visuals 4. Compare and Contrast How did romanticism compare to the ideas of the Enlightenment? Discovery 6. Examine the painting by Eugène Delacroix shown on page 283 of your text. How does this painting reflect the characteristics of the romantic movement? 7. Expository Writing Read poetry by two different poets of romanticism. Write a paper describing the elements of romanticism found in the poems. Be sure to include quotaCA 10RL3.12 tions. CA 10WA2.2 Pasteur Mendeleyev Faraday Darwin CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 285 Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden, Germany/Bridgeman Art Library, London/SuperStock . . . people all full of business; not a beggar, not an idle person to be seen, except here and there an alms-house, where people antient1, decrepid, and past labour, might be found; for it is observable, that the people here, however laborious2, generally live to a great age, a certain testimony to the goodness and wholesomness of the country, which is, without doubt, as healthy as any part of England; nor is the health of the people lessen’d, but help’d and establish’d by their being constantly employ’d, and as we call it, their working hard; so that they find a double advantage by their being in business . . . Having thus fire and water at every dwelling, there is no need to enquire why they dwell thus dispers’d upon the highest hills, the convenience of the manufactures requiring it. Among the manufacturers houses are likewise scattered an infinite number of cottages or small dwellings, in which dwell the workmen which are employed, the women and children of whom, are always busy carding, spinning, &c. so that no hands being unemployed, all can gain their bread, even from the youngest to the antient . . . This is the reason also why we saw so few people without doors [outside]; but if we knock’d at the door of any of the master manufacturers, we presently saw a house full of lusty fellows, some at the dye-fat, some dressing the cloths, some in the loom, some one thing, some another, all hard at work, and full employed upon the manufacture, and all seeming to have sufficient business. ➤1 SOURCE 2: Child Labor SOURCE 1: An Industrial Village Daniel Defoe (1660–1731), best known for his novel Robinson Crusoe, describes an early industrial village in A Tour Through England and Wales. antient: ancient 2laborious: industrious; hardworking Gustave Doré’s engraving of rooftops in 1870s London In the 1830s, the British Parliament formed the Sadler Committee to investigate factory conditions. William Cooper testified about his work in factories as a boy. William Cooper, called in; and Examined What is your business?—I follow the cloth-dressing at present. What is your age?—I was eight-and-twenty last February. When did you first begin to work in mills or factories?—When I was about 10 years of age. With whom did you first work?—At Mr. Benyon’s flax mills, in Meadowland, Leeds. What were your usual hours of working?—We began at five, and gave over at nine; at five o’clock in the morning. And you gave over at nine o’clock?—At nine at night. . . . At what time had you to get up in the morning to attend to your labour?—I had to be up soon after four o’clock. Every morning?—Every morning. Stapleton Collection/CORBIS The Industrial Revolution did not appear overnight in England. A well-known author, a government report, and an economist trace the use of machinery and new styles of labor. What intermissions had you for meals?—When we began at five in the morning, we went on until noon, and then we had 40 minutes for dinner. . . . To keep you at your work for such a length of time, and especially towards the termination of such a day’s labour as that, what means were taken to keep you awake and attentive?—They strapped [beat] us at times, when we were not quite ready to be doffing3 the frame when it was full. . . . When your hours were so long, you had not any time to attend to a day-school?—We had no time to go to day-school, only to a Sunday-school, and then with working such long hours we wanted to have a bit of rest, so that I slept till the afternoon, sometimes till dinner, and sometimes after . . . After working at the mill to this excess, how did you find your health at last?—I found it very bad indeed; I found illness coming on me a long-time before I fell down. Did you at length become so ill as to be unable to pursue your work?—I was obliged to give it up entirely. . . . When you were somewhat recovered, did you apply for labour?—I applied for my work again, but the overlooker said I was not fit to work; he was sure of that, and he would not let me have it. I was then obliged to throw myself on the parish. [The parish church administered poor relief, or welfare, at that time]. Secondly, the advantage which is gained by saving the time commonly lost in passing from one sort of work to another is much greater than we should at first view be apt to imagine it. . . . Thirdly and lastly, everybody must be sensible how much labor is facilitated and abridged4 by the application of proper machinery. It is unnecessary to give any example. I shall only observe, therefore, that the invention of all those machines by which labor is so much facilitated and abridged seems to have been originally owing to the division of labor. Men are much more likely to discover easier and readier methods of attaining any object, when the whole attention of their minds is directed toward that single object, than when it is dissipated among a great variety of things. . . . A great part of machines made use of in those manufacturers in which labor is most subdivided were originally inventions of common workmen, who being each of them employed in some very simple operation, naturally turned their thoughts toward finding out easier and readier methods of performing it. ➤4 abridged: shortened SOURCE 3: The Division of Labor Adam Smith (1723–1790), is often called the father of economics. In this excerpt from The Wealth of Nations, Smith discusses the advantages of the division of labor. First, . . . the division of labor, by reducing every man’s business to some one simple operation, and by making this operation the sole employment of his life, necessarily increases very much the dexterity of the workman. A common smith, who though accustomed to handling the hammer, has never been used to make nails, if upon some particular occasion he is obliged to attempt it, will scarcely, I am assured, be able to make above two or three hundred nails in a day, and those too, very bad ones. . . . ➤3 CA HR 1, HR 2 Source 1: What is the general tone of Defoe’s piece describing labor in the textile-manufacturing village? Source 2: According to William Cooper, what hardships did child laborers face working in factories and mills? Source 3: What three advantages does Adam Smith see in dividing labor among individuals? Comparing and Contrasting Sources 1. How does Defoe’s description of workers’ health differ from the testimony of William Cooper to the Sadler Committee? 2. How might Adam Smith criticize the system of labor described by Daniel Defoe? doffing: taking off; removing CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 287 Standards 10.2, 10.2.5, 10.3, 10.3.1, 10.3.2, 10.3.3, 10.3.4, 10.3.5, 10.3.6, 10.3.7 Reviewing Content Vocabulary On a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence. 1. capital 2. entrepreneur 3. cottage industry 4. puddling 5. industrial capitalism 6. socialism 7. conservatism 8. principle of intervention 9. liberalism 10. universal male suffrage 11. militarism 12. kaiser 13. plebiscite 14. emancipation 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. abolitionism secede romanticism secularization organic evolution 20. natural selection 21. realism Reviewing Academic Vocabulary On a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence that reflects the term’s meaning in the chapter. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. dynamic migrate stability beneficial reliance levy successor abandon Section 2 35. What four nations were prepared to use military forces to crush revolts in other nations? 36. Name the social classes that tended to support liberalism. Section 3 37. What countries were involved in the Crimean War? What were the causes of the war? 38. Describe how Otto von Bismarck contributed to German unification. Section 4 39. What features can be found in paintings of the romantic style? 40. How did new discoveries in science in the 1800s provide practical benefits to Europeans? Critical Thinking 30. adapt 31. variation 32. controversy 41. Making Comparisons Compare the motives for Czar Alexander II’s emancipation of the serfs with Abraham Lincoln’s motives for the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. 42. Cause and Effect Describe how the Crimean War indirectly contributed to Italian and German unification. Reviewing the Main Ideas 43. Section 1 33. List the members of the new industrial middle class. 34. What were the goals of early socialists? Visualizing Imagine you are an Italian during Italy’s struggle for a unified nation. What would life be like? Use the paintings, literature, and quotations in your chapter to write a brief essay on Italian nationalism. In this chapter, you have studied developments from industry to art, faith to science, and liberalism to conservatism. The chart below summarizes some of these developments. Advances Conflict Change • Steam and coal are new sources of power. • Higher-quality iron leads to better railroads. • Nationalism and liberalism become forces for change. • Conservatives attempt to suppress nationalism. • People move to cities for factory work. • Italy unifies. • Germany emerges as a strong European power. 288 CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism Reaction • Russian czars oppose the forces of liberalism and nationalism. • Science has a greater impact on people, undermining religious faith. Diversity • Austria-Hungary contains many different ethnic groups seeking self-rule. • Romanticism and realism are opposite artistic styles. HISTORY Self-Check Quiz Visit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Web site at wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 4– Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test. Writing About History Analyzing Maps and Charts 44. Interpreting Migration Write an essay exploring the pros and cons of leaving a farm to work in a factory. Be sure to consider social and economic factors and come to a conclusion on whether it is a positive or negative move. CA CS 3 45. How did the political, economic, and social injustices that existed during the nineteenth century contribute to romanticism and realism? Study the map, Industrialization of Europe by 1870, that appears on page 258. Then answer the following questions. 51. In which part of the United Kingdom is industrialization concentrated? 52. What relationship exists between railways and industrial centers? Analyzing Sources Read the following excerpt from the poetry of William Wordsworth: “ One impulse from a vernal wood May teach you more of man, Of moral evil and of good, Than all the sages can. ” 46. What characteristic of romantic poetry is evident in Wordsworth’s poem? CA 10RL3.12 47. What message is Wordsworth trying to convey? Do you agree? Analyzing Sources Read the following lines from William Blake’s “The Chimney-Sweeper“: “ When my mother died I was very young, And my father sold me while yet my tongue Could scarcely cry ‘Weep! weep! weep! Weep! So your chimneys I sweep, and in soot I sleep. There’s little Tom Dacre, who cried when his head, That curled like a lamb’s back, was shaved’ so I said, ‘Hush, Tom! never mind it, for, when your head’s bare, You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair. ” 48. To whom is the chimney sweep speaking and why do you think Blake has him address that person? 49. According to Blake’s poem, what is the effect of the Industrial Revolution on families? 50. Why do you think Tom’s head is shaved? Standards Practice Directions: Choose the best answer to the following question. Use the information in the box and your knowledge of world history to answer the following question. British Economic Conditions During the Early 1800s • Canal miles tripled between 1760 and 1830. • Britain had built more than 6,000 miles (9,654 km) of railroad tracks by 1850. • Britain produced nearly 3 million tons (2.7 million t) of iron ore by 1852. • London’s population grew by 236 percent between 1800 and 1850. 53. Which of the following statements is based on the information in the box? A The Industrial Revolution led to massive urbanization. B London neighborhoods in the 1800s were sharply divided between rich and poor. C A boom in railroad and canal construction made transportation more difficult. D Parliament disagreed with the king over taxes and spending. CA Standard 10.3.3 Describe the growth of population, rural to urban migration and growth of cities associated with the Industrial Revolution. CHAPTER 4 Industrialization and Nationalism 289