Download Chapter 4: Industrialization and Nationalism, 1800-1870

1800–1914
W
hy It Matters
The period of world history from 1800 to 1914 was characterized by two major developments: the growth of industrialization and Western domination of the world. The
Industrial Revolution became one of the major forces for
change, leading Western civilization into the industrial era
that has characterized the modern world. At the same
time, the Industrial Revolution created the technological
means, including new weapons, by which the West
achieved domination over much of the rest of the world.
Primary Sources Library
See pages 772–773 for primary source readings to
accompany Unit 2.
Use The World History Primary Source
Document Library CD-ROM to find additional
primary sources about An Era of European Imperialism.
244
SuperStock International
Zulu lodging
Zulu king Cetewayo meeting
with British ambassadors
Hulton Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
An Era of
European
Imperialism
—Cecil John Rhodes
Bridgeman Art Library Int’l. Ltd. (U.S.)
“The world’s surface is
limited, therefore the great
object should be to take as
much of it as possible.”
➋
➊
Industrialization
➌
The rise of industry changed the world forever. So dramatic were
the changes that historians have labeled the period the Industrial
Revolution. Although the revolution began in Britain, it eventually
touched every nation on Earth.
1705
Thomas Newcomen
perfects the steam engine
1769
James Watt patents a
more efficient steam engine
1787
Edmund Cartwright
patents a power loom
➊ Great Britain
Workshop of the World
The birth of industry needed certain preconditions: the technology, incentive,
and money to build machines; a labor force to run them; raw materials and
markets to make the system profitable; and efficient farms to feed a new group
of workers. By the early 1700s, Great Britain possessed all these conditions.
Industry grew from the innovations of individuals who developed
machines to do work formerly done by humans and animals. Inventors built
upon each other’s ideas. For example, in 1769 James Watt improved
upon Thomas Newcomen’s primitive steam engine. Other inventors
then adapted Watt’s engine to run cloth-making machines. Business
owners soon brought machines and workers together in factories.
By the 1800s, industry had catapulted Great Britain into a
position of world leadership. “[Britain has] triumphantly
established herself as the workshop of the world,” boasted
one leader. Soon, however, America would be humming with
its own workshops.
James Watt’s steam engine
246
Stock Montage
➋ The United States
The Revolution Spreads
Great Britain prohibited the export of machines and machine operators. In
1789, however, a factory supervisor named Samuel Slater escaped by disguising
himself as a farmhand and boarding a ship to New York. Working from memory, Slater built a cotton mill in Rhode Island in 1793.
Soon after, the United States began churning out its own industrial inventors.
Standardized parts and the assembly line led to mass production—a concept
that would revolutionize people’s lives around the globe.
Samuel Slater’s mill
1793
Samuel Slater opens the first
machine-run cotton mill in the U.S.
1855
Henry Bessemer patents an inexpensive method of producing steel
1913
Henry Ford uses assembly
lines to mass produce cars
1914
Japan expands
foreign trade
➌ Japan
The Search for Markets
In 1853, the Industrial Revolution traveled to Japan in the form
of a fleet of United States steamships sent to open the islands to
trade. “What we had taken as a fire at sea,” recalled one Japanese
observer, “was really smoke coming out of the smokestacks.”
The military power produced by United States industry shook
the Japanese. They temporarily gave in to American trade
demands, but they also vowed that they too would possess industry. By 1914, Japan’s merchant fleet was the sixth largest in the
world, and its trade had increased one hundredfold in value in
50 years.
Matthew Perry’s steamship in Tokyo Bay
Why It Matters
The increase in industry made it necessary to find new sources of raw materials and new markets for manufactured goods. How could competition for
resources and markets lead to the wars of the twentieth century?
UNIT 4
An Era of European Imperialism
247
(t)Library of Congress, (b)Laurie Platt Winfrey
Science Museum/Science & Society Picture Library
1800–1870
Industrialization
and Nationalism
. The Big Ideas ,
SECTION 1: The Industrial Revolution
New technologies can revolutionize the way people live, work, interact, and govern.
When coal and steam engines powered new industry, people migrated to expanding cities to
find jobs.
SECTION 2: Reaction and Revolution
Throughout history people have struggled for rights. In 1848, liberals and nationalists
rebelled against many of the conservative governments of Europe.
SECTION 3: National Unification and the National State
The quest for national self-determination is universal. In the mid-1800s, the German
and Italian peoples succeeded in creating their own nations, but not all national groups were
able to reach that goal.
SECTION 4: Culture: Romanticism and Realism
New technologies can revolutionize the way people live, work, interact, and govern.
Artistic movements were influenced by the society around them. Romanticism was a reaction to
the Industrial Revolution, while progress in science contributed to realism.
World History—Modern Times Video The Chapter 4 video,
“The Romantic Era,” chronicles cultural and social changes in nineteenthcentury Europe.
1830
First public railway
line opens in Britain
1814
Congress of
Vienna meets
1800
1810
1807
Robert Fulton
builds the first
paddle-wheel
steamboat
248
Bettmann/CORBIS
1820
1830
The Clermont, built
by Robert Fulton
Coalbrookedale by Night by Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg Artists painted the dramatic changes
brought on by the Industrial Revolution.
Francis I,
Austrian emperor
1865
U.S.
Confederate
troops
surrender
1848
Revolutions
erupt in
Europe
1840
1850
1837
Victoria
becomes
queen of
Great Britain
1853
Crimean
War
begins
Queen Victoria
1860
1861
Czar
Alexander II
frees the
Russian serfs
1871
German
unification
achieved
HISTORY
Chapter Overview
Visit the Glencoe World
History—Modern
Times Web site at
wh.mt.glencoe.com
and click on Chapter 4–
Chapter Overview to
preview chapter information.
1870
Czar Alexander II
of Russia
249
249
(t)Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS,
(bl br)Mary Evans Picture Library
A
uthors often use details and vivid description to create a picture of a
person or event. They want to make the text come alive for the reader
by appealing to the senses. When you form a picture in your mind, or hear
a sound, or remember a smell while reading, you are visualizing. Good
readers take the time to use their imagination and visualize.
You can visualize by noticing when an author is using specific details
and language that appeals to the senses. You can also look for photos
and other images in the text that further help you visualize what you
are reading about.
Read the following paragraph from this chapter describing industrial working conditions. Notice the number of details the author
uses:
VISUALIZING
Use photographs, diagrams, and
charts to support your ability to
visualize. Look at the photograph on page 263 of the child
miners. Does this help you
imagine their situation better?
Coal miners also faced harsh and dangerous
conditions. Steam-powered engines could lift the
coal from the pits to the surface, but deep below
ground, miners had to dig out this “black gold”
with sledges, pick axes, and chisels. Horses, mules,
women, and children worked underground, too,
hauling carts full of coal on rails to the lift. Caveins, explosions, and gas fumes . . . were a way of
life. The cramped conditions in mines—tunnels
were often only three or four feet high—and their
constant dampness led to deformed bodies and
ruined lungs.
After you visualize what life was
like for a coal miner, discuss the
image with a partner. How closely
did your partner’s image match
your mental picture? Now read the
passage again. Did your ideas
change?
250
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Chronological and Spatial Thinking: Standard CS 3 Students use a variety
of maps and documents to interpret human movement, including major patterns of domestic and international migration, changing environmental preferences and settlement patterns, the frictions that develop between population
groups, and the diffusion of ideas, technological innovations, and goods.
O
ne important way historians and geographers analyze change is by tracking
large-scale migration—why it happens and the impact it has on societies.
Sometimes people are moving from a rural area to an urban area. Sometimes they
move across national, and even international, boundaries.
Read this excerpt from Chapter 4 about rural-to-urban migration and its effects in
the early years of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain:
•
In 1800, Great Britain had one major city, London, with a population of 1 million, and six
more cities had populations of 50,000 to 100,000. Fifty years later, London’s population
had swelled to nearly 2,500,000. . . . nine cities had more than 100,000 residents. . . . By
1850, half of the people were urban residents.
•
Cities grew faster than the basic facilities like a clean water supply and sewers. . . .
industrial cities bred dirt and disease as workers crowded into ramshackle housing. . . .
reformers called for government action. . . .
Consider what kind of lifestyle changes had to occur to move from an
agricultural to an industrial society. What do you think happened in the
countryside when a large part of its population moved to urban areas?
As you read this chapter, keep a running list of the causes and effects of the
Industrial Revolution. Don’t forget to
notice primary sources, graphs, and
maps. Once you’ve completed your
list, focus on how migration was connected to the successes and problems
of the Industrial Revolution.
251
Austrian emperor Francis I (left) hosted the Congress of Vienna.
The Congress of Vienna
I
n the fall of 1814, hundreds of foreigners began to converge
on Vienna, the capital city of the Austrian Empire. Many of
these foreigners were members of European royalty—kings,
archdukes, princes, and their wives—accompanied by their
political advisers and scores of servants.
Their congenial host was the Austrian emperor Francis I,
who was quite willing to spend a fortune to entertain the visitors. A Festivals Committee arranged entertainment on a daily
basis for nine months. Francis I never tired of providing
Vienna’s guests with glittering balls, hunting parties, picnics,
hot-air balloon displays, and sumptuous feasts.
A banquet for 40 tables of guests was held every night in
the Hofburg Palace. Then, too, there were the concerts. Actors,
actresses, singers, and composers were engaged to entertain,
and Beethoven even composed a new piece of music for the
event. One participant remembered, “Eating, fireworks, public illuminations. For eight or ten days, I haven’t been able to
work at all. What a life!”
Of course, not every waking hour was spent in pleasure
during this gathering of notables, known to history as the
Congress of Vienna. These people were representatives of all
the states that had fought Napoleon. Their real business was to
arrange a final peace settlement after almost 10 years of war.
252
(l)Stock Montage/SuperStock, (r)Bettmann/CORBIS
Why It Matters
The Congress of Vienna tried to find
a way to undo the changes brought
about by the French Revolution and
Napoleon. However, the new forces
of change had become too powerful
to be contained. They called forth
political revolutions that would
shake Europe for years to come.
At the beginning of the nineteenth
century, another kind of revolution
began to transform the economic
and social structure of Europe. The
Industrial Revolution led to the
industrialization that shaped the
modern world.
History and You List several
inventions developed during your
lifetime. What are their purposes?
Do they save time or make manual
work easier? Have they affected
society as a whole? Have there been
negative consequences to any of
these inventions? Write a paper
summarizing your thoughts.
The Industrial
Revolution
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
When coal and steam engines powered
new industry, people migrated to expanding cities to find jobs.
• Industrialization urbanized Europe and
created new social classes, as well as
the conditions for the rise of socialism.
(p. 259)
Content Vocabulary
• Plentiful natural resources, workers,
wealth, and markets explain why Great
Britain was the country where the
Industrial Revolution began. (p. 254)
• The pace of industrialization in Europe,
the United States, and Japan depended
on many factors, including government
policy. (p. 257)
Preview of Events
✦1750
1764
Hargreaves invents
spinning jenny
✦1770
Reading Objectives
1. Trace the advances that made the
Industrial Revolution possible.
2. Describe how the Industrial Revolution
affected women and children.
Reading Strategy
enclosure movement, capital, entrepreneur, cottage industry, puddling, industrial capitalism, socialism
Categorizing Information Use a table
like the one below to name important
inventors and their inventions.
Academic Vocabulary
dynamic, migrate
Inventors
Inventions
People to Identify
James Watt, Robert Fulton
✦1790
1782
Watt builds steam engine
to drive machinery
✦1810
✦1830
1807
Steamboats make
transport easier
1833
Factory Act
passed in Britain
✦1850
1840
Steamships cross
the Atlantic
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.
10.3:
10.3.1:
10.3.2:
10.3.3:
Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Revolution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and
the United States.
Analyze why England was the first country to
industrialize.
Examine how scientific and technological
changes and new forms of energy brought about
massive social, economic, and cultural change
(e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James
Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pasteur, Thomas Edison).
Describe the growth of population, rural to urban
migration, and growth of cities associated with the
Industrial Revolution.
10.3.4: Trace the evolution of work and labor, including
10.3.5:
10.3.6:
CHAPTER 4
the demise of the slave trade and the effects of
immigration, mining and manufacturing, division
of labor, and the union movement.
Understand the connections among natural
resources, entrepreneurship, labor, and capital in
an industrial economy.
Analyze the emergence of capitalism as a dominant economic pattern and the responses to it,
including Utopianism, Social Democracy, Socialism, and Communism.
Industrialization and Nationalism
253
The Industrial Revolution
in Great Britain
Plentiful natural resources, workers, wealth,
and markets explain why Great Britain was the country
where the Industrial Revolution began.
Reading Connection Think about how computers are
rapidly changing today’s world. Read to understand how the
Industrial Revolution changed life in the nineteenth century.
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain
sometime around 1780. Within about fifty years,
industrialization took hold in the rest of Western
Europe, but why did it occur in Britain first?
When a nation industrializes, a major transformation occurs. A society is transformed from a stable
agricultural world to an industrial society of constant
growth. For the workers of the day, this transformation could be traumatic.
The new factories forced employees to comply
with a new kind of discipline. In 1844, a factory in
Berlin posted the following rules:
“
The normal working day begins at all seasons
at 6 A.M. precisely and ends, after the usual break
of half an hour for breakfast, an hour for dinner
and half an hour for tea, at 7 P.M. . . . Workers
arriving 2 minutes late shall lose half an hour’s
wages; whoever is more than 2 minutes late may
not start work until after the next break, or at least
shall lose his wages until then. . . . No worker may
leave his place of work otherwise than for reasons
connected with his work. . . . All conversation with
fellow-workers is prohibited. . . .
”
A number of factors are necessary in order for this
dynamic process of industrialization to occur.
Contributing Factors
First, Britain was producing
much more food in the eighteenth century because its
agriculture had improved. More farmland, better
transportation, and new crops like the potato dramatically increased the food supply. More people
could be fed at lower prices with less labor.
254
Culver Pictures, Inc.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Second, with more abundant food supplies, the
population increased dramatically. At the same time,
Parliament passed laws in the 1700s that allowed
landowners to fence off common lands. As a result of
this enclosure movement, many peasants were
forced to move to towns to find work. Britain thus
had a plentiful supply of labor.
Third, Britain had a ready supply of money, or
capital, to invest in the new industrial machines and
the factories needed to house them. Some wealthy
people, called entrepreneurs, sought new business
opportunities and new ways to make profits.
Fourth, natural resources were plentiful in Britain.
The country’s many rivers provided the water power
for the steam engine, as well as transportation for
raw materials and finished products. The British
landscape was also rich in the coal and iron ore that
was necessary for manufacturing.
Fifth, Britain had a relatively free society. Its government did not heavily regulate the economy, and
ideas also circulated freely. Inventors and capitalists
felt they had the freedom to act on their ideas.
Finally, the British had a ready market in their vast
empire, and British ships could transport manufactured goods anywhere in the world. At home, too,
the market was growing because the population was
growing. Since food was cheaper, the mass of the
population were able to buy more than just their
daily bread. With demand expanding, capitalists—
those with money to invest—had a huge incentive to
find methods to expand production.
Supervisors ensuring constant work
Factory workers
Changes in Cotton Production
In the eighteenth
century, Great Britain had already surged ahead of
other countries in making inexpensive cotton goods.
Making cotton cloth was a two-step process. First,
spinners made thread from raw cotton. Then,
weavers wove the thread into cloth on looms. In the
eighteenth century, people performed this work in
their rural cottages, so the production method was
called a cottage industry.
A series of technological advances in the eighteenth century made the cottage industry inefficient
and outdated. First, the invention of the “flying shuttle” made weaving faster. Now, the weavers needed
spinners to produce thread more quickly since they
could make cotton faster.
In 1764 James Hargreaves invented a machine
called the spinning jenny, which met this need. Other
inventors made similar contributions. The spinning
process became so quick that thread was being produced faster than weavers could use it.
Yet another invention allowed the weavers to
catch up. This was a water-powered loom, invented
by Edmund Cartwright by 1787. It now became more
efficient to bring workers to the new machines and
have them work in factories near streams and rivers,
whose water powered the early machines.
The cotton industry became even more productive
when Scottish engineer James Watt improved the
steam engine in the 1760s. Then, in 1782, Watt made
changes that allowed the steam engine to drive
machinery.
Women beating and lapping cotton by hand (above);
(below) a machine performing the same function
A series of complex developments brought about
the Industrial Revolution—two of these developments included increased demand and the fact that
some businesspeople had capital to invest. Another
major step forward came when steam power could
be used to spin and weave cotton.
Because steam engines were fired by coal, they did
not need to be located near rivers. Before long, cotton
mills powered by steam engines were found all over
Britain.
British cotton cloth production increased dramatically. In 1760, Britain had imported 2.5 million
pounds of raw cotton—or 1.14 million kilograms—
for use in cottage industries. In 1787, imports rose to
22 million pounds (10 million kg), and by this time,
most cotton was spun on machines. By 1840, 366 million pounds (166 million kg) were imported each
year. Factory-made cotton cloth was Britain’s most
valuable product and was sold everywhere in the
world.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
255
(tl)National Trust/Art Resource, NY, (tr)Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art and Architecture, (b)Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art and Architecture
The Coal and Iron Industries
Since the steam
engine was crucial to the Industrial Revolution,
Britain had to have the coal for its engine. In Britain,
coal seemed to lie everywhere under the ground. As
more factories were built, more coal was needed.
Inventors found ways to use coal more efficiently.
These new methods aided another important industry—the iron industry.
Britain had plenty of iron ore as well as coal. In the
early 1700s, the process of making iron had changed
very little since the Middle Ages. In the 1780s, however, Henry Cort developed a way to produce better
iron with a process called puddling.
In puddling, coke, a coal derivative, was used to
purify crude iron. The result was higher-quality iron,
and the iron industry boomed. In 1740, 17,000 tons
(15,419 t) had been sold, but once the puddling
process came into use, production jumped to about
70,000 tons (63,490 t). In 1852, Britain produced more
iron than the rest of the world combined—almost 3
million tons (2.7 million t). The new iron was used to
make machines and to build railroads.
History through Art
Biermeister and Wain Steel Forge by P.S. Kroyer
Industry’s raw power captured the imagination of many
artists. Kroyer, a Norwegian-born Dane, painted this scene
in 1875. How do the conditions for workers compare to
industry today?
256
Superstock
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Railroads
In the eighteenth century, roads and
canals had already made moving goods more efficient. It was railroads, however, that dramatically
improved Britain’s transportation.
In 1804, the first steam-powered locomotive ran
on an industrial rail line. It pulled 10 tons (9 t) of ore
and 70 people at 5 miles per hour (8.05 km per hour).
Better locomotives followed. The Rocket moved on
the first public railway line, which opened in 1830
between Liverpool and Manchester. Today the trip
would take an automobile a half hour, but in 1830, it
took the Rocket two hours as it sped along at 16 miles
per hour (25.7 km per hour). Within 20 years, the
speed of locomotives almost tripled. By 1850, railroads crisscrossed much of the country—about 6,000
miles (9,654 km).
Railroad expansion caused a ripple effect in the
economy. Building railroads created more jobs and
less expensive transport made goods cheaper to buy.
Cheaper goods created more sales and more sales led
to more factories. When business owners profited,
they invested profits in new and better equipment,
which increased economic growth. In the old agricultural society, growth was rare and intermittent. In an
industrial society, economic growth is permanent.
The Spread of Industrialization
The New Factories
The factory was very important
to industrialization. Early on, factories were situated
near water and powered by mills. When new energy
sources were developed, however, factories could be
located in cities near workers.
This new industrial economy created an entirely
new labor system. Because factory owners wanted
their machines producing goods constantly, workers
were forced to work in shifts to keep the machines
going.
Early factory workers migrated from rural areas.
In the country, they were used to periods of hectic
work, followed by periods of rest. Factory owners
wanted workers to work without stopping. They disciplined workers to a system of regular hours and
repetitive tasks. Anyone who came to work late was
fined, or quickly dismissed for misconduct, especially for drunkenness. Child workers were often
beaten.
The pace of industrialization in Europe, the
United States, and Japan depended on many factors,
including government policy.
Reading Connection Are some groups more willing to
change than others? Read about the factors that help explain
why nations adapt to change at different speeds.
30 24.0
15
Population (in millions)
Population (in millions)
By the mid-nineteenth century, Great Britain, the
world’s first industrial nation, was also the richest. It
produced half the world’s output of coal and manufactured goods. Its cotton industry alone was equal
in size to the combined industries of all other European countries. Most of them were just beginning to
industrialize.
The Industrial Revolution spread to continental
Europe at different times and speeds. Countries with
more urban areas and a tradition of trade industrialReading Check Describing Why did employers feel
ized earlier. Belgium and France did not have all of
they needed to discipline factory workers?
Britain’s advantages, but both countries showed
significant industrial growth after 1830.
In the German states, it was another story.
Comparing Britain and the United States*
There was no single nation, but more than
Britain
United States
30 states, many very small. Instead of sell90
90
ing goods in a national market, manufac76.0
turers had to face multiple governmental
75
75
units and regulations.
60
60
In the early 1830s, Prussia, one of the
45
45
41.0
38.6
largest German states, took an important
31.0
0
1830
1870
30
15 12.9
0
1900
1830
Britain
210
150
120
90
60
.032
11.0
18.6
1830
1870
1900
Railroad Track
(in thousands of miles)
Railroad Track
(in thousands of miles)
180
30
1900
United States
210
0
1870
195.0
180
150
120
90
60
53.0
30
0
.023
1830
1870
1900
*As you compare, keep in mind the vast difference in area between
Britain and the United States. Britain (England, Scotland, Wales, and
Ireland) totals 94,548 square miles (244,879 sq km); the continental
United States, 3,717,796 square miles (9,629,091 sq km).
Britain was the leading industrial nation in the
early and mid-nineteenth century, but countries
such as the United States eventually surpassed
Britain in industrial production.
1. Comparing How did Britain’s population
growth, from 1830 to 1870 and 1870 to 1900,
compare to the United States’s growth? How
did Britain’s expansion in railroad tracks compare to that of the United States during the
same period?
2. Problem Solving Which country had the
highest percentage of railroad track miles in
comparison to total square miles in 1870?
In 1900?
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
257
Industrialization of Europe by 1870
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step by creating a free trading zone. Industrialization
began, but it did not transform the economy until
1870 when Germany was united.
In Britain, a freer society, private entrepreneurs
took the lead. In France, Belgium, and the German
states, governments tended to be active in promoting
industrialization. Often governments funded roads,
canals, and railroads.
One of the most important facts in modern history
is that Western Europe and the United States industrialized first. They therefore had an immense advantage in becoming wealthy, powerful nations, nations
that soon dominated other parts of the world.
258
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
The Industrial Revolution spread throughout nineteenthcentury Europe.
1. Interpreting Maps What was the predominant industry in the United Kingdom?
2. Applying Geography Skills What patterns do you
see in the distribution of the major industries? What
geographical factors could account for these patterns?
One Asian country, Japan, followed the Western
example. Japan had seen the importance of industrial
power in 1853. In that year, American admiral
Matthew Perry steered his steam-powered ship into
the Japanese harbor and demanded that Japan trade
with the United States. Many Asian countries hesitated to change their culture and adopt some Western
ways, but the new Japanese government of 1868
decided that it must copy Western technology to
become a strong nation.
In the United States, the pace of industrializing
was fairly quick, especially considering that Americans were also busy expanding across the continent.
In 1800, six of seven American workers were farmers,
and no city had more than 100,000 people. Between
1800 and 1860, the population of the United States
grew from about 5 million to 30 million. In the same
period, cities grew, too. Nine cities had populations
over 100,000, and now only half of Americans
worked as farmers.
Once the United States extended to the Pacific, a
national transportation system was vital. Thousands
of miles of roads and canals were built to link east and
west. Robert Fulton built the first paddle-wheel
steamboat, the Clermont, in 1807. By 1860, a thousand
steamboats plied the Mississippi River and made
transportation easier on the Great Lakes and along
the Atlantic coast. It was the railroad that really
brought the nation together. In 1830, there were fewer
than 100 miles of track (160.9 km). By 1860, about
30,000 miles of track (48,270 km) had been built.
In the early years, factory workers came from the
farms of the Northeast. Women and girls made up a
History
This English train of the mid-1840s shows early passenger travel. The first line to handle both passengers and
goods opened between Liverpool and Manchester in
1830. What does the style of the rail coaches remind
you of?
substantial majority of textile workers. Early capitalists even advertised for whole families. In Utica, New
York, one newspaper ran this ad: “Wanted: A few
sober and industrious families of at least five children each, over the age of eight years, are wanted at
the cotton factory in Whitestown. Widows with large
families would do well to attend this notice.”
Reading Check Evaluating Why was the railroad
important to the industrialization of the United States?
Social Impact in Europe
Industrialization urbanized Europe and created
new social classes, as well as the conditions for the rise of
socialism.
Reading Connection Do you know any entrepreneurs
who run their own businesses? Read about how early entrepreneurs contributed to the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution drastically changed the
societies of Europe and, eventually, the world. The
major signs of this change were the growth of cities and
the emergence of two new social classes, the industrial
middle class and the industrial working class.
Growth of Population and Cities In 1750, European population stood at an estimated 140 million.
By 1850, the population had almost doubled to 266
million. The key to this growth was a decline in death
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
259
Lambert/Archive Photos/Hulton Archive
rates, wars, and diseases such as smallpox and
plague. Because of an increase in the food supply,
more people were better fed and resistant to disease.
Famine largely disappeared from Western Europe.
Cities and towns in Europe grew dramatically in the
first half of the 1800s. The growth was directly related
to industrialization. By 1850, especially in Great Britain
and Belgium, many factories were located in cities,
which now grew rapidly—factories were a magnet for
anyone looking for work.
In 1800, Great Britain had one major city, London,
with a population of 1 million, and six more cities
had populations of 50,000 to 100,000. Fifty years later,
London’s population had swelled to nearly 2,500,000.
Growth was seen all over Britain now—nine cities
had more than 100,000 residents, and 18 had populations between 50,000 and 100,000. By 1850, half of the
people were urban residents. This process of urbanization was going on in other European countries,
but it happened more quickly and more completely
in Britain than in many other countries.
History
A late-nineteenth-century photo shows housing conditions in England. Typically, houses backed up against
one another, creating narrow alleyways that did not
allow for a patch of grass. How did the Industrial
Revolution contribute to such scenes?
260
CHAPTER 4
Mary Evans Picture Library
Industrialization and Nationalism
Cities grew faster than the basic facilities like a
clean water supply and sewers. Thus industrial cities
bred dirt and disease as workers crowded into ramshackle housing. Upset by disease and human suffering, reformers called for government action, but their
pleas were not met until later in the century.
The Industrial Middle Class
Capitalism had
existed since the Middle Ages, when men with capital could invest in long-distance trade for profit. In
this period, industrial capitalism, an economic system based on manufacturing, took hold. With a new
kind of economy, a new social group emerged—the
industrial middle class.
In earlier times the term bourgeoisie, or middle
class, referred to burghers, or town dwellers. They
were merchants, artisans, professionals such as
lawyers or doctors, and government officials. The
bourgeoisie were not noble, but they were not poor.
Some were quite wealthy.
During the Industrial Revolution, a new group was
added to the middle class. The industrial middle class
were the men who built the factories, bought the
machines, and figured out where the markets were.
They had initiative, vision, ambition, and quite often,
greed. As one manufacturer put it, “Getting of money
. . . is the main business of the life of men.”
The Industrial Working Class
The Industrial Revolution also created a new kind of worker, the industrial worker. Industrial workers worked from 12 to 16
hours a day, six days a week, with only a half hour for
lunch and dinner. They had no minimum wage and
could be fired at a moment’s notice.
In the cotton mills, the heat was stifling. “In the
cotton-spinning work,” it was reported, “these creatures are kept, 14 hours in each day, locked up, summer and winter, in a heat of from 80 to 84 degrees.”
Dirt and dust filled the air, and machines operated
without safety codes for the workers.
Coal miners also faced harsh and dangerous conditions. Steam-powered engines could lift the coal
from the pits to the surface, but deep below ground,
miners had to dig out this “black gold” with sledges,
pick axes, and chisels. Horses, mules, women, and
children worked underground, too, hauling carts full
of coal on rails to the lift. Cave-ins, explosions, and
gas fumes (called “bad air”) were a way of life. The
cramped conditions in mines—tunnels were often
only three or four feet high—and their constant
dampness led to deformed bodies and ruined lungs.
As in the United States, women and children made
up a high percentage of workers in the cotton industry
—about two-thirds by 1830. Reformers condemned
the factories for enslaving children. The situation
improved after the Factory Act of 1833. It set 9 years
of age as the minimum for child labor, but children
between 9 and 13 could still work 9 hours a day, and
those between 13 and 18 years of age could work 12
hours.
As the number of working children declined, more
women were employed, and before 1870 they made
up half of the labor force in British textiles. Women
were mostly unskilled and were paid half or less than
half of what men received. Excessive working hours
for women were outlawed in 1844.
One reason women and children began by working such long hours in factories was that families
were accustomed to working together in cottage
industry. When laws limited working hours for
women and children, a new pattern began to be
established. Men would be expected to work outside
the home, while women took over running the home.
Women continued to add to family income by taking
low-paying jobs that could be done at home, such as
washing laundry or sewing.
Early Socialism
The transition to factory work was
not easy. Although workers’ lives eventually
improved, they suffered terribly during the early
decade of industrialization. Their family life was disrupted, they were separated from the countryside,
hours were long, and pay was low.
Some reformers opposed a capitalist system which
they saw as responsible for destroying people’s lives.
They advocated socialism. Socialism is an economic
system in which society, usually in the form of the
government, owns and controls important parts of
the economy, such as factories and utilities. In socialist theory, this public ownership of the means of production would allow wealth to be distributed more
equally to everyone.
Early socialists wanted to replace competition
with cooperation. They wrote books about the ideal
society that might be created, a hypothetical society
where workers could use their abilities and where
everyone would be cared for. Later socialists said that
these ideas were impractical dreams. Karl Marx contemptuously called earlier reformers of this group
utopian socialists. (He borrowed the term from
Utopia, a medieval work describing an ideal society
by Sir Thomas More.) To this day, we refer to the
early socialists in this way.
One utopian socialist was Robert Owen, a British
cotton manufacturer. Owen believed that if only people lived in a cooperative environment, they would
show their natural goodness. At New Lanark in Scotland, Owen transformed a squalid factory town into
a flourishing community. He created a similar community at New Harmony, Indiana, in the 1820s,
which failed. Not everyone was as committed to
sharing and caring as Owen himself, and New Harmony split up in the late 1820s.
Reading Check Describing How did socialists
respond to new and harsh working conditions?
HISTORY
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and
click on Study Central.
Checking for Understanding
1. Vocabulary Define: dynamic, enclosure movement, capital, entrepreneur,
cottage industry, puddling, migrate,
industrial capitalism, socialism.
Critical Thinking
4.
Connecting
Ideas Analyze how the Industrial Revolution changed the way families lived
and worked. CA HI 1
2. People Identify: James Watt, Robert
Fulton.
5. Cause and Effect Use a diagram like
the one below to list the causes and
effects of the Industrial Revolution.
Reviewing Big Ideas
3. Describe the importance of the railroads in the growth of cities in Europe
and the United States.
Causes
Study Central
Effects
Industrial
Revolution
CHAPTER 4
Analyzing Visuals
6. Examine the picture of female textile
workers shown on page 255 of your
text. How does this picture reflect the
role that women played in the Industrial Revolution?
7. Informative Writing You are a
nineteenth-century journalist. Write
a brief article depicting the working
conditions in cotton mills and an
explanation of how mill owners
defend such conditions. CA WA2.3b
Industrialization and Nationalism
261
The Industrial Revolution
C
hildren had been an important part of
the family economy in preindustrial
times. They worked in the fields or at home
in cottage industries. In the Industrial Revolution, however, child labor was exploited.
Children represented a cheap supply of
labor. In 1821, 49 percent of the British
people were under 20 years of age. Hence,
children made up a large pool of workers.
Children were paid only about one-sixth to
one-third of what a man was paid.
The owners of cotton factories in England found child labor especially useful.
Children had a delicate touch as spinners.
Their smaller size made it easier for them
to move under machines to gather loose
cotton. They were also more easily trained
to factory work than adults.
In the cotton factories in 1838, children
under the age of 18 made up 29 percent
of the total workforce. In cotton mills, children as young as age seven worked 12 to
15 hours per day, six days a week.
Discipline was often harsh. A report
from a British parliamentary inquiry into
the condition of child factory workers in
1838 stated:
It is a very frequent thing at Mr. Marshall’s . . . for Mr. Horseman to start the
mill earlier in the morning than he formerly did; and provided a child should be
drowsy, the overlooker walks round the
room with a stick in his hand, and he
touches that child on the shoulder, and
says, ‘Come here.’ In a corner of the room
there is an iron cistern; it is filled with
water; he takes this boy, and takes him up
by the legs, and dips him over head in the
cistern, and sends him to work for the
remainder of the day. . . . What means
were taken to keep the children to their
work?—Sometimes they would tap them
over the head, or nip them over the nose,
or give them a pinch of snuff, or throw
water in their faces, or pull them off where
they were, and job them about to keep
them awake.
The same inquiry also reported that, in
some factories, children were often beaten
with a rod or whip to keep them at work.
“
”
➤
CORBIS
The textile industry was the
earliest to be industrialized.
This young American textile
worker stands next to the
spinning machine that she
worked at for long hours. In
the 21st century, child labor
can still be found in the textile
industry, especially in Asia.
➤
➤
➤
This American poster
used sarcasm to convey
its reform message:
Fresh-faced girls of 10
are shown at the top,
but their life of factory
work will present them
with the “delights” of
tuberculosis, low wages,
and early death.
Boys who worked in coal mines were typically
between the ages of 8 and 15. They often worked
underground where they might lead horses dragging
wagons, or help miners fill them. Above ground, they
might pick out slate and other impurities from chutes
of coal.
In this engraving, a young boy of the
upper class comforts a factory boy. The
father in the background might be a
reformer, asking the factory manager
questions. The image was for an 1840
novel, The Life and Adventures of
Michael Armstrong, the Factory Boy.
CONNECTING TO THE PAST
1. Identifying What kind of working conditions did children face in the factories during
the early Industrial Revolution?
2. Analyzing Why did factory owners permit
such conditions and child labor?
3. Writing about History Write an essay contrasting current factory conditions with those
of 100 years ago.
263
(tl)Library of Congress, (tr)Time Life Pictures/Getty Images, (b)CORBIS
Reaction and
Revolution
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Content Vocabulary
Reading Objectives
In 1848, liberals and nationalists rebelled
against many of the conservative governments of Europe.
conservatism, principle of intervention,
liberalism, universal male suffrage,
multinational state
1. Evaluate the work of the Congress of
Vienna.
2. Explain why revolutions broke out in
Europe in 1848.
Academic Vocabulary
• After Napoleon’s defeat, the victors met
and redrew the map of Europe to create
a balance of power and to strengthen
conservatism. (p. 265)
• Liberals and nationalists opposed the
existing political system and threatened
conservative regimes. (p. 266)
• Beginning in France in 1848, the spirit of
revolution spread quickly over Europe,
but the uprisings were largely
suppressed. (p. 268)
Reading Strategy
stability, beneficial
People and Events to Identify
Congress of Vienna, Klemens von Metternich, Bill of Rights, Louis-Napoleon,
German Confederation
Cause and Effect Use a chart like the
one below to identify the causes of the
revolutions in France in 1830 and 1848.
Places to Locate
Revolution
of 1830
Vienna, Prague
Revolution
of 1848
Preview of Events
✦1810
✦1820
1814
Congress of Vienna
meets to create balance
of power
✦1830
1830
Liberals overthrow Charles X
and establish a constitutional
monarchy in France
✦1840
1848
Revolutions
sweep through
Europe
✦1850
1849
Austria reestablishes
control over Lombardy
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.
10.2:
Students compare and contrast the Glorious Revolution of England, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution and their enduring effects worldwide
on the political expectations for self-government and individual liberty.
10.2.5: Discuss how nationalism spread across Europe with Napoleon but was
repressed for a generation under the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe
until the Revolutions of 1848.
264
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
✦1860
The Congress of Vienna
After Napoleon’s defeat, the victors met and
redrew the map of Europe to create a balance of power
and to strengthen conservatism.
Reading Connection Does the United Nations intervene
in international disputes? Read about Great Power decisions
affecting European countries at the Congress of Vienna.
With Napoleon gone, representatives of the Great
Powers—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—
gathered in Vienna in September 1814. In that city’s
glittering palaces, they agreed at the Congress of
Vienna to work to restore the old order. The most
influential leader there was the haughty foreign minister of Austria, Prince Klemens von Metternich
(MEH•tuhr•NIHK).
For 30 years, Metternich worked tirelessly to
repress the “revolutionary seed,” as he called it,
spread by Napoleon Bonaparte. In his memoirs, he
wrote:
The first principle to be followed by the mon“
archs, united as they are by the coincidence of
their desires and opinions, should be that of
maintaining the stability of political institutions
against the disorganized excitement which has
taken possession of men’s minds. . . . The first
and greatest concern for the immense majority of
every nation is the stability of the laws, and their
uninterrupted action—never their change. Therefore, let the governments govern, let them maintain the groundwork of their institutions, both
ancient and modern; for it is at all times dangerous to touch them.
To achieve a balance of power, some territories
were divided up, and some boundaries were
changed. As one example, land on the west bank of
the Rhine River was taken away from France and
given to Prussia. In this way, the strong Prussian
army would be able to restrain France if it threatened
to overrun Europe again.
The policies of the Congress were a victory for
rulers who wanted to contain the new forces
unleashed during the French Revolution. Like Metternich, these rulers believed in the political philosophy known as conservatism.
Conservatism is based on tradition and social
stability. Conservatives of this period favored obedience to political authority. They also believed that
established religions were beneficial to social order.
They hated revolutions and were unwilling to accept
demands for representative governments or more
individual rights.
To maintain the new balance of power, Great
Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and later
France, agreed to meet occasionally if it was necessary to take action to maintain order. Their meetings
came to be called the Concert of Europe.
Eventually, the Great Powers adopted a principle
of intervention. It said that the Great Powers had the
right to send armies into countries where there were
revolutions in order to keep monarchs in power.
Britain argued against this principle because it did
not want to interfere in the internal affairs of other
states, but Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France used
military force to crush revolutions in Spain and Italy.
Reading Check Analyzing Explain the goals of European leaders at the Congress of Vienna.
Klemens von Metternich conferring with Napoleon
”
Metternich claimed that he was guided by the
principle of legitimacy. He meant that the lawful
monarchs who had ruled before Napoleon swept
through Europe should be restored to their thrones.
This had already been done in France, where the
Bourbon king had been put back on the throne.
The principle of legitimacy was used, however,
only if it helped balance power in Europe. None of
the victors—Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia—wanted France or any other nation, for that matter, to become too powerful.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
265
Woldemar Friedrich in Die Deutschen Befreigskriege/Mary Evans Picture Library
Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815
60°N
KINGDOM OF
NORWAY AND SWEDEN
N
Se
UNITED
KINGDOM
N
DENMARK
c
E
S
50
°
400 kilometers
0
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
a
North
Sea
ti
W
400 miles
0
l
Ba
RUSSIAN EMPIRE
NETH.
PRUSSIA
GERMAN
STATES
Atlantic
Ocean
Vienna
SWITZ.
AUSTRIAN
EMPIRE
AL
FRANCE
40°
Black Sea
UG
N
ITALIAN
STATES
PO
RT
SPAIN
0°
O
T
TO
M A
N
Constantinople
E M P I R E
10°E
German Confederation
Mediterranean Sea
30°E
The Congress of Vienna tried to create a new balance of
power in Europe.
Forces of Change
Liberals and nationalists opposed the existing
political system and threatened conservative regimes.
Reading Connection Have you heard news reports
about national conflicts in Bosnia? Read about the first stirrings
of nationalism among ethnic groups in the Austrian Empire.
Between 1815 and 1830, conservative governments throughout Europe worked to maintain the
old order. Powerful forces for change were also at
work, however: liberalism and nationalism.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a political philosophy that
grew out of the Enlightenment. Liberalism held that
people should be as free as possible from government restraint.
Liberals believed that all people had the right to
basic civil liberties—equality before the law, and freedom of assembly, speech, and the press. Liberals
wanted the rights of the individual to be protected in
266
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
1. Interpreting Maps Within what political boundaries is
Vienna located? Of what nation is Vienna the capital today?
2. Applying Geography Skills Compare this map to the
map of Napoleonic Europe shown on page 233 of your
text. What territories that belonged to the French Empire
in 1812 were not part of France after the Congress of
Vienna? What land did Russia gain?
a written document, as they were in the American Bill
of Rights. Liberals were also committed to religious
toleration and to separation of church and state.
A typical liberal favored a limited monarchy in
which a king must follow the law. It was very important to liberals to have the basic laws for government
embodied in a written constitution.
Finally, liberals were great supporters of a representative assembly, or legislature. This legislature
was to be elected, but liberals did not think everyone
should vote for representatives. Liberals were not
democrats who believed in universal suffrage. They
believed that only people with property should vote
because property owners were the ones who had a
long-term, serious interest in the community.
These attitudes were middle-class attitudes. It was
the new industrial middle class that was acquiring
wealth. They felt important and wanted representation, as well as protection from the mobs who might
threaten their property. They said that workers
should not have the vote until they became as educated and hardworking as the middle class.
Nationalism
In the nineteenth century, nationalism
was an even more powerful force than liberalism.
Nationalism arose when people began to identify
themselves as part of a community defined by a distinctive language, religion, and customs. In earlier
centuries, people’s loyalty went to a king, or their
town or region. In this period, people began to feel
that their chief loyalty was to the nation.
It was the French Revolution that made nationalism
a potent force. Everywhere, people with a common
language and traditions began to feel that they were
the nation, not a royal ruler. Germans living in tiny
states ruled by princes yearned for unity. Writers and
poets writing about German folk legends and heroes
urged national unity. Ethnic and religious groups in the
Austrian and Ottoman Empires wanted to break away
from the empire and be a nation. Nationalism was a
particular threat to empires that contained many ethnic
and language groups, but conservatives everywhere
fought the forces of nationalism.
Nationalism was so strong that it eventually overcame some of the principles of liberalism. Liberals
had argued that freedom could flourish only if each
people had its own sovereign state. Nationalists
became more and more passionate about their own
nation. Often, they forgot about the rights of other
national groups. They were willing to expand their
Klemens von Metternich
1773–1859—Austrian statesman
There was no greater symbol of conservatism in the first half of the nineteenth
century than Prince Klemens von Metternich. Born in the Rhineland of Germany,
he fled to Austria in 1794 and joined the
Austrian diplomatic service. He was made
Austrian foreign minister in 1809.
History
In 1830, Charles X of France dissolved the French legislature and suspended freedom of the press. Revolution
followed. The rebels demanded a republic. How was
Louis-Philippe involved in these events?
own nation at the expense of others. In this way,
nationalism weakened some liberal principles.
Revolutionary Outbursts
Beginning in 1830, the
forces of change—liberalism and nationalism—
began to break through conservative domination of
Europe. In France, upper middle-class liberals overthrew the Bourbon monarch Charles X in 1830
because he ignored the law. The new government
was a constitutional monarchy under Louis-Philippe,
a cousin of Charles X.
An experienced diplomat, Metternich was conceited
and self-assured. He described himself in his memoirs in 1819: “There is a wide sweep about my
mind. I am always above and beyond the preoccupation of most public men; I cover a
ground much vaster than they can see. I cannot keep myself from saying about twenty
times a day: ‘How right I am, and how wrong
they are.’” When revolution erupted in 1848,
Metternich fled to England.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
267
(t)Giraudon/Art Resource, NY, (b)Austrian Information Service
History
In 1848, revolution broke out in Paris again. In 1830,
opposition to press censorship was a major cause. This
time, working conditions played a bigger role. What
major change had occurred in working conditions?
In the same year, 1830, there were three more revolutions. Nationalism was the chief force in all of
them. Belgium, which had been annexed to the former Dutch Republic in 1815, rebelled and created an
independent state. Nationalists in Poland and Italy
also tried to create their own nations, but they were
not successful. Russian forces crushed the Poles’
revolt, and the Austrian army put down revolts in a
number of Italian states.
Reading Check Evaluating How did liberalism and
nationalism begin to break through the conservative domination of Europe?
The Revolutions of 1848
Beginning in France in 1848, the spirit of revolution spread quickly over Europe, but the uprisings were
largely suppressed.
Reading Connection Did you know that popular revolutions in 1989 and 1990 destroyed communist governments in
Eastern Europe? In 1848, popular revolutions also ignited, but
they failed to achieve most of their goals.
In the first half of the nineteenth century, conservatism still dominated Europe. In 1848, however, liberalism and nationalism triggered another outburst
against the status quo—the established groups in
society that had long held power and expected to
keep it.
268
Stock Montage
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Another French Revolution France again provided
the spark for revolution. Severe problems in the
French economy in 1846 brought untold hardship in
France to the lower middle class, workers, and peasants. At the same time, members of the middle class
clamored for the right to vote, but the government
refused to make changes.
The monarchy was finally overthrown in 1848. A
group of moderate and radical republicans set up a
provisional, or temporary, government. The republicans were people who wished France to be a republic—a government in which leaders are elected and
there is no monarch.
The provisional government called for the election
of representatives to a Constituent Assembly that
would draw up a new constitution. Election was to
be by universal male suffrage, meaning all adult
men could vote.
The provisional government also set up national
workshops to provide work for the unemployed.
From March to June, the number of unemployed
enrolled in the national workshops rose from about
66,000 to almost 120,000. This emptied the treasury
and frightened the moderates, who reacted by closing the workshops on June 21.
The workers refused to accept this decision and
poured into the streets. In four days of bitter and
bloody fighting, government forces crushed the
working-class revolt. Thousands were killed, and
Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
thousands more were sent to the French prison
colony of Algeria in northern Africa.
The new constitution, ratified on November 4,
1848, set up a republic, called the Second Republic.
The new government had a single legislature elected
by universal male suffrage. An elected president
served for four years.
In December 1848, Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, known as Louis-Napoleon, was elected president
by a huge margin. His victory was attributed to the fact
that everyone knew his famous uncle.
Trouble in the German States News from France
led to upheaval in other parts of Europe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 had recognized the existence
of 38 independent German states called the German
Confederation. Of these, Austria and Prussia were
the two great powers. The other states varied in size.
In 1848, cries for change led many German rulers
to promise constitutions, a free press, and jury trials.
Revolutionists even formed an all-German parliament, the Frankfurt Assembly, to fulfill a liberal and
nationalist dream—the preparation of a constitution
for a united German nation. Deputies to the parliament were elected by universal male suffrage.
Russian Troops in Hungary
On November 1, 1956, Imre Nagy, leader of Hungary,
declared Hungary a free nation and promised new elections. Hungary was at that time under the control of the
Soviet Union. Fearing that these elections would mean
the end of Communist rule in Hungary, Nikita Khrushchev,
leader of the Soviet Union, reacted dramatically.
On November 4, two hundred thousand Soviet
(mostly Russian) troops and four thousand Soviet tanks
invaded Budapest, Hungary’s capital city. An estimated
fifty thousand Hungarians died on that day. Nagy fled
but was later arrested and executed. The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 had failed.
To Hungarians who knew their country’s history, the
use of Russian troops to crush their independence had
an all-too-familiar ring. In 1848, Louis Kossuth had led a
revolt that forced Hungary’s Austrian rulers to grant Hungary its own legislature and a separate national army. In
April 1849, the Hungarian legislature declared Hungary
a republic. Kossuth was made the new president.
Ultimately, however, the Frankfurt Assembly failed
to achieve its goal. The members drafted a constitution
but had no real means of forcing the German rulers to
accept it. German unification was not achieved.
Revolutions in Central Europe
The Austrian
Empire also had its problems. The empire was a
multinational state—a collection of different peoples,
including Germans, Czechs, the Magyars in Hungary,
Slovaks, Romanians, Slovenes, Poles, Croats, Serbians,
and Italians. Only the German-speaking Hapsburg
dynasty held the empire together. German speakers
played a lead role in the empire, although they represented only a quarter of the population.
In March 1848, popular demonstrations led to the
dismissal of Metternich. In Vienna, revolutionaries
took control of the capital and demanded a liberal
constitution. To appease them, the government gave
Hungary its own legislature. In Bohemia, the Czechs
clamored for their own government.
Austrian officials made concessions, but they were
determined to reestablish control. In June 1848, Austrian forces crushed the Czech rebels in Prague. By
the end of October, the rebels in Vienna had been
defeated as well. With the help of a Russian army of
Meanwhile, the Austrians were
unwilling to give up their control
of Hungary. Unable to subdue the
Hungarians, the Austrian government asked the Russians for help.
Czar Nicholas I of Russia, who
feared revolution anywhere, gladly
agreed. A Russian army of
140,000 men crushed the Hungarian forces, and Kossuth fled
abroad. The Hungarian Revolution
of 1848–1849 had failed.
Soviet tanks
in Hungary
There have been more recent revolts against
repressive governments that have been violent.
Review recent newsmagazines to locate one such
event. Write a historical account of the event, using
both primary and secondary sources.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
269
140,000 men, the Hungarian revolutionaries were
finally subdued in 1849. The revolutions in the Austrian Empire had failed.
Revolutions in Europe,
1848–1849
Center of revolution
300 miles
0
300 kilometers
0
Chamberlin Trimetric projection
N
W
E
S
50°N
Berlin PRUSSIA
BELGIUM Frankfurt
Paris
Dresden
GERMANY
Prague
Krak´ow
Munich
FRANCE
45°N
RUSSIA
Warsaw
Vienna
AUSTRIAN
Venice
Lyon
Milan
Buda
EMPIRE
Florence
Livorno
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
PAPAL
STATES
Corsica
Rome
40°N
Naples
Sardinia
Mediterranean Sea
5°E
KINGDOM OF
THE TWO
SICILIES
Palermo
10°E
GREECE
Sicily
20°E
Revolts in the Italian States
The Congress of
Vienna had set up nine states in Italy. They were the
Kingdom of Piedmont in the north; the Kingdom of
the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily); the Papal States;
a handful of small states; and the northern provinces
of Lombardy and Venetia as part of the Austrian
Empire.
In 1848, Italians rebelled against the Austrian government in Lombardy and Venetia. Revolutionaries
in other Italian states also took up arms and sought to
create liberal constitutions and a unified Italy. By
1849, however, the Austrians had reestablished control over Lombardy and Venetia. The old order also
won out in the rest of Italy.
In 1848, popular revolts at first succeeded. Middleclass liberals and radicals cooperated to achieve liberal governments and constitution. When these two
groups began to fight over goals, however, the conservatives were able to regain control. Still the forces
of nationalism and liberalism had been unleashed,
and for the rest of the century, they remained a powerful political force.
Reading Check Identifying What countries experiIn 1848 and 1849, revolution spread through Europe.
1. Interpreting Maps How far south did the revolutions of
1848 to 1849 extend?
2. Applying Geography Skills Pose and answer one question about the pattern in world history shown on this map.
enced revolutions in 1848?
HISTORY
Study Central
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and
click on Study Central.
Checking for Understanding
1. Vocabulary Define: conservatism,
stability, beneficial, principle of intervention, liberalism, universal male
suffrage, multinational state.
Critical Thinking
5.
Sequence and
Change How did industrialization contribute to the spread of liberalism?
2. People and Events Identify: Congress
of Vienna, Klemens von Metternich, Bill
of Rights, Louis-Napoleon, German
Confederation.
6. Compare and Contrast Use a table
like the one below to compare and
contrast the ideologies of conservatism,
liberalism, and nationalism.
3. Locate Vienna, Prague.
Conservatism Liberalism Nationalism
CA CS2
Reviewing Big Ideas
4. Explain the effect of conservatism in
1848.
270
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Analyzing Visuals
7. Examine the painting on page 268.
Can you identify a worker and a
middle-class person among the rebels?
How is it possible to distinguish them?
8. Expository Writing Select one
ideology: conservatism, liberalism,
or nationalism. Write an essay
identifying contemporary ideas
it has influenced. CA 10WA2.3
National Unification
and the National State
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
In the mid-1800s, the German and Italian
peoples succeeded in creating their own
nations, but not all national groups were
able to reach that goal.
• By taking opposite sides in the Crimean
War, the Great Powers of Europe ended
decades of cooperation. (p. 272)
Content Vocabulary
Reading Stategy
• Germany was united under Prussian
leadership through three wars planned
by the Prussian prime minister, Otto
von Bismarck. (p. 274)
reliance, levy, successor
✦1855
1852
Second Empire
begins in France
Reading Objectives
1. Explain how Camillo di Cavour and
Otto von Bismarck worked to unify
their countries.
2. Outline the causes of the American
Civil War.
• Italians wanted their own nation and
drove their Austrian rulers out of Italy.
(p. 273)
✦1850
Piedmont, Alsace, Lorraine, Budapest
• Unified by the War of 1812, the United
States later split over slavery, but the
Union survived a bloody civil war that
lasted from 1861 to 1865. (p. 278)
militarism, kaiser, plebiscite, emancipation, abolitionism, secede
Preview of Events
Places to Locate
• After 1848, Great Britain liberalized,
while the governments of France,
Austria, and Russia grew more
authoritarian. (p. 276)
Academic Vocabulary
Summarizing Information Use a table
like the one below to list changes in these
countries during the nineteenth century.
Great
Britain
People to Identify
France
Austrian
Empire
Russia
Giuseppe Garibaldi, Otto von Bismarck,
Queen Victoria, Czar Alexander II
✦1860
1861
Kingdom of
Italy proclaimed
✦1865
1867
The British North
America Act is
passed
✦1870
1870
Franco-Prussian
War begins
✦1875
1871
William I becomes
kaiser of a united
Germany
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.
10.2.5: Discuss how nationalism spread across Europe with Napoleon but was repressed
for a generation under the Congress of Vienna and Concert of Europe until the
Revolutions of 1848.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
271
Breakdown of the Concert of
Europe
By taking opposite sides in the Crimean War,
the Great Powers of Europe ended decades of cooperation.
Giuseppe
Garibaldi
Reading Connection
Can you think of an example in
recent times when access to water caused conflict? Read to
learn what happened when nations fought for access to the
Mediterranean Sea.
The revolutions of 1848 had failed. By 1871, however, both Germany and Italy would be unified. Both
countries had waited many decades to be united, and
in each, nationalist feeling was passionate.
One sign of the times was the response people gave
to their leaders. On June 13, 1860, the Times of London
described a public tour by Garibaldi, one of the most
colorful leaders in the struggle to unify Italy:
In the afternoon, Garibaldi made a tour of
“
inspection round [Palermo]. The popular idol
[Garibaldi], in his red flannel shirt, with a loose
colored handkerchief around his neck, was walking on foot among those cheering, laughing, crying, mad thousands; and all his few followers
could do was to prevent him from being bodily
carried off the ground. The people threw themselves forward to kiss his hands, or at least, to
touch the hem of his garment. Children were
brought up, and mothers asked on their knees for
his blessing.
”
Why did these nations each finally unify after the
1850s? The answer lies partly with the Crimean War.
This war shifted the balance of power in Europe, and
allowed Germany and Italy to unify.
The Crimean War was the result of a very old struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. The
Ottoman Empire, centered in what is now Turkey, had
long controlled most of the Balkan Peninsula in southeastern Europe. By the beginning of the nineteenth
century, however, the Ottoman Empire was in decline,
and its authority over the Balkans was weakening.
Russia was a nation with little access to warmwater ports. It had always coveted territory in the
Balkans because having this would allow Russian
ships to sail through the Dardanelles, the straits
272
CHAPTER 4
Museo Civico Modigliana, Italy/Dagli Orti/Art Archive
Industrialization and Nationalism
between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. If Russians could achieve this goal, they would be a major
power in eastern Europe and would even be able to
challenge British control of the eastern Mediterranean.
European powers feared Russian ambitions, and they,
too, hoped to gain some territory if the Ottoman
Empire collapsed.
In 1853, the Russians made a move. They invaded
Moldavia and Walachia, Balkan provinces controlled
by the Ottoman Turks. The Turks declared war on
Russia. Britain and France were afraid that Russia
would grow too powerful and so, in 1854, they too
declared war on Russia.
This was the Crimean War, named for the Russian
peninsula in the Black Sea where important battles
took place. The war was poorly planned and poorly
fought, but Russia lost so many troops that it finally
asked for peace. In the Treaty of Paris, signed in March
1856, Moldavia and Walachia were placed under the
protection of the Great Powers. The Ottoman Empire
was weaker, and the Russians had been held back, but
no single nation had gained a significant advantage.
The Crimean War ended the old Concert of Europe
in which Russia and Austria had operated as the chief
powers working for the conservative status quo. Now it
was clear that Austria and Russia were rivals in eastern
Europe. Austria too wanted territory in the Balkans and
had refused to support Russia during the Crimean War.
A defeated and humiliated Russia withdrew from
European affairs for the next 20 years. Austria was
now without friends among the Great Powers. This
new situation was very important for the forces of
nationalism: It opened the door for the unification of
Italy and of Germany.
Reading Check Explaining How did the Crimean
War destroy the Concert of Europe?
Unification of Italy,
1859–1870
0
200 miles
AUSTRIA
0
200 kilometers
Chamberlin Trimetric projection
SWITZERLAND
LOMBARDY VENETIA
Po R .
Venice
PARMA
NA
TES
Florence
Ad
ri
at
ic
Se
a
Rome
ILIE
S
Fr.
Tyrrhenian
Sea
NAPLES
Naples
SIC
Corsica
PAP
AL
TUSCANY
E
W
S
STA
NICE
N
DE
Turin
To France
Genoa
1860
MO
PIED
OY
MO
NT
SAV
ET
WO
40°N
DO
NG
10°E
Kingdom of Piedmont
before 1859
Added to Kingdom of Piedmont, 1859
Added to Kingdom of Piedmont, 1860
Added to Kingdom of Italy, 1866
Added to Kingdom of Italy, 1870
M
OF
TH
Sardinia
KI
In 1850, the Austrian Empire dominated the Italian
Peninsula, as it had for decades. Often, Austrian control was exercised through the ties of the Austrian
emperor with the kings and royalty of the many
small Italian states.
After the failure of the 1848 revolts, Italian nationalists focused their hopes for independence on
Piedmont. The royal house of Savoy was not connected to the Austrian emperor. In 1849, King Victor
Emmanuel II took the throne of Piedmont, which
included Nice, Savoy, and the island of Sardinia. In
1852, the king appointed Camillo di Cavour his
prime minister.
Cavour was a skilled statesman. He wanted a
strong state and a strong army so that Piedmont
could lead the independence movement. Cavour
knew, however, that no matter how much he could
increase state revenues and build a stronger army,
his king would need additional help to defeat the
Austrians.
Cavour therefore made an alliance with the French
emperor, Louis-Napoleon. If the emperor would help
them against the Austrians, the Kingdom of Piedmont would give the areas of Nice and Savoy to the
French. Once the agreement was signed, Cavour provoked the Austrians so that they invaded Piedmont
in 1859. War soon broke out.
When the short war ended, the peace treaty gave
Nice and Savoy to France. The Austrians kept control
of Venetia, another small northern province, while
Piedmont received the province of Lombardy.
Cavour’s success caused Italian nationalists living in
other northern states—Parma, Modena, and Tuscany—to revolt and join their states with Piedmont.
While northern Italians were clamoring for greater
unity, a new nationalist leader arose in southern Italy.
Giuseppe Garibaldi, a dedicated Italian patriot,
raised an army of a thousand volunteers to fight for
independence. They were called Red Shirts because
of the color of their uniforms.
One of the strongest states in the southern part
of Italy was the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Sicily
and Naples. This kingdom was ruled by a branch
CE
Reading Connection If you had the power to start a
war, could you justify doing so? Read to learn how and why
the Italian state of Piedmont started a war with Austria.
AN
Italians wanted their own nation and drove
their Austrian rulers out of Italy.
of the Bourbon dynasty. When a revolt broke out
in Sicily against the king, Garibaldi’s Red Shirts
landed on the island of Sicily and by late July 1860,
they were in control. In August, the revolutionary forces crossed over to the mainland and began a
victorious march up the Italian peninsula. In early
September, Naples and the entire Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies fell.
Garibaldi was a man of the people. He had led
revolts in South America and could inspire the common people. He might have fought for a popular
republic to be created in a new Italian nation. Instead
he chose to turn over his conquests to Piedmont. On
March 17, 1861, a new kingdom of Italy was proclaimed under King Victor Emmanuel II. Unification
was not yet complete. Venetia lay outside the new
Italy. So too did the Papal States where the pope
ruled from Rome. The Papal States had the strong
backing of Catholic France.
FR
Italian Unification
Mediterranean
Sea
Sicily
20°E
From 1859 to 1870, Italy fought for national unity.
1. Interpreting Maps Looking at the map, explain the
sequence of events in Italian unification.
2. Applying Geography Skills What geographic factors
explain Piedmont’s leadership in unification?
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
273
Once again, the Italians were successful in their
cause because they took advantage of a rivalry
between other powers. When Austria became
involved in a war with Prussia, the Italians helped
the Prussians. When the Prussians won, they
rewarded the Italians with Venetia.
During this same war, French troops had to withdraw from Rome. This allowed the Italian army to
move on Rome. It was annexed on September 20,
1870, and became the capital of the new Italian state.
Reading Check Explaining How did Giuseppe
Garibaldi contribute to Italian unification?
German Unification
Germany was united under Prussian leadership through three wars planned by the Prussian prime
minister, Otto von Bismarck.
Reading Connection
Have you heard arguments about
the role of ethics in politics? Read to understand the policy of
realpolitik Bismarck followed to unite Germany.
Germans had been longing for a unified national
state for many decades. Like the Italians, Germans
too had been disappointed by the events of 1848.
Now they looked to Prussia for leadership in the
cause of unification. In the course of the nineteenth
century, Prussia had become a strong and prosperous
state. Its government was authoritarian. The Prussian
king had firm control over both the government and
the army. Prussia was also known for its militarism,
or reliance on armed force.
In the 1860s, King William I tried to enlarge the
Prussian army. When the Prussian legislature refused
to levy new taxes for the proposed military changes,
William I appointed a new prime minister, Count
Otto von Bismarck.
Bismarck has often been seen as the foremost
nineteenth-century practitioner of realpolitik—the “politics of reality,” or politics based on practical matters
rather than on theory or ethics. Bismarck was open
about his strong dislike of anyone who opposed him.
Bismarck ignored the legislative opposition to the
military expansion. He declared that “Germany does
not look to Prussia’s liberalism but to her power.”
Bismarck proceeded to collect taxes and
strengthen the army. From 1862 to 1866, he governed
Prussia without approval of the parliament. In the
meantime, he followed an activist foreign policy,
which soon led to war.
After defeating Denmark with Austrian help in
1864 and gaining control of the duchies of Schleswig
and Holstein, Bismarck created tension with the Austrians and forced them into a war on June 14, 1866.
The Austrians, no match for the well-disciplined
Prussian army, were decisively defeated on July 3.
Prussia now organized the German states north of
the Main River into a North German Confederation.
Bismarck stands at the center as William I is proclaimed emperor of the Second German Empire.
“The great
questions of the
day are decided . . .
by blood and iron.”
—Otto von Bismarck
274
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
“Proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles”, 1871, Anton von Werner, Photo Bildarchiv Preussicher Kulturbesitz, Berlin
Unification of Germany, 1866–1871
North
Sea
50°N
0
DENMARK
20°E
SWEDEN
S
Ba
150 miles
SCHLESWIG
0
150 kilometers
Chamberlin Trimetric projection
HOLSTEIN
Em s R .
Amsterdam
NETHERLANDS
lbe
c
K¨onigsberg
NIA
RA
WEST
PRUSSIA
P
OLDENBURG E MECKLENBURG
HANOVER
lti
E
OM
Hamburg
Memel
ea
15°E
10°E
5°E
EAST
PRUSSIA
R.
Berlin
Warsaw
R hin e R.
BRANDENBURG O
de
Brussels
BELGIUM
WESTPHALIA
HESSECologne KASSEL
Trier
LUX. Mainz
Frankfurt
.
in R
ALSACE
Da
WÜRTTEMBERG
Added in 1871
Annexed in 1871 after the
Franco-Prussian War
nu
ES
R.
IA
R.
HOHENZOLLERN
N
W
u
ist
Bismarck
la
K¨oniggr¨atz
be
Munich
Prussia before
1866
SWITZERLAND
Added 1866–1867 as the
North German Confederation
Breslau
SIL
RUSSIAN
EMPIRE
V
AUSTRIA
Nuremberg
LORRAINE Strasbourg
FRANCE
Prague
HESSEDARMSTADT
Ma
BADE
N
Sedan
Verdun
.
Dresden
SAXONY
40°N
r
R
Leipzig
E
S
Battle
The southern German states, which were largely
Catholic, feared Protestant Prussia, but they also
feared France, their western neighbor. As a result,
they signed military alliances with Prussia for protection against France.
Prussia now dominated all of northern Germany,
but problems with France soon arose. Bismarck realized that France would never be content with a
strong Germany because it could threaten France. In
1870, Prussia and France became embroiled in a dispute over the candidacy of a relative of the Prussian king for the throne of Spain. Bismarck took
advantage of the misunderstandings between the
French and Prussians to goad the French into declaring war on Prussia on July 19, 1870. This conflict was
called the Franco-Prussian War.
The French proved to be no match for the betterled and better-organized Prussian forces. The southern German states honored their military alliances
with Prussia and joined the war effort against the
French. Prussian armies advanced into France. At
Sedan, on September 2, 1870, an entire French army
and the French ruler, Napoleon III, were captured.
On January 18, 1871, the united German states formed the
Second German Empire.
1. Interpreting Maps Looking at the map, explain the
sequence of German unification.
2. Applying Geography Skills Compare this map with
the map of Italian unification shown on page 273. What
geographic factors influenced the process of unification
for both Germany and Italy?
Paris finally surrendered on January 28, 1871, and
an official peace treaty was signed in May. France
had to pay 5 billion francs (about $1 billion) and give
up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. This loss
left the French burning for revenge.
Even before the war had ended, the southern German states had agreed to enter the North German
Confederation. On January 18, 1871, Bismarck and
six hundred German princes, nobles, and generals
filled the Hall of Mirrors in the palace of Versailles, 12
miles outside Paris. William I of Prussia was proclaimed kaiser, or emperor, of the Second German
Reich, or Empire. (The First German Reich was the
medieval Holy Roman Empire.)
German unity had been achieved by the Prussian
monarchy and the Prussian army. The authoritarian
and militaristic values of Prussia were triumphant in
the new German state. With its industrial resources
and military might, the new state had become the
strongest power on the European continent.
Reading Check Summarizing What events led to
German unification?
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
275
Gianni Dagli Orti/CORBIS
Nationalism and Reform in Europe
After 1848, Great Britain liberalized, while the
governments of France, Austria, and Russia grew more
authoritarian.
Reading Connection Have you ever been to Paris or
seen it depicted in the movies? Read about why the wide
boulevards and public squares were originally built.
While Italy and Germany were unifying, other
states in Europe were also experiencing changes.
Great Britain
Great Britain managed to avoid the
revolutionary upheavals of the first half of the nineteenth century. At the time of the Congress of Vienna,
the nation was governed by aristocratic landowning
classes, which dominated both houses of Parliament.
In 1832, Parliament passed a bill that increased the
number of male voters, chiefly from the industrial
middle class. By giving them a vote, Britain avoided
revolution. In the 1850s and 1860s, Parliament continued to make reforms that helped the country to
remain stable.
Another reason for Britain’s stability was continuing economic growth. In 1851, the nation held the
Crystal Palace Exhibition in London to show off its
industrial production and prosperity. The middle class
was already prosperous, but after 1850, working class
income increased. From 1850 to 1870, the real wages of
laborers increased more than 25 percent.
British national pride was reflected in Queen
Victoria, whose reign from 1837 to 1901 was the
longest in English history. Her sense of duty and
moral respectability reflected her era, which ever
since has been known as the Victorian Age.
France
In France, events after the Revolution of 1848
moved toward the restoration of the monarchy. Four
years after his election as president in 1848, LouisNapoleon asked the people to approve a return to the
empire. He held a plebiscite, an election in which people can vote only yes or no to a proposition, and 97
percent responded with a yes vote. On December 2,
1852, Louis-Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon
III, Emperor of France. (Although the first Napoleon’s
son had never ruled in France, the child’s title had
been Napoleon II.) The Second Empire had begun.
This image commemorating Victoria’s golden jubilee in 1887 shows off Windsor and Balmoral
castles and is decorated with the national flowers of the British Isles.
276
CHAPTER 4
Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS
Industrialization and Nationalism
Napoleon III
History through Art
La Place Clichy by Eugene Galien-Laloue
Napoleon III had Baron Haussmann beautify
Paris with broad boulevards and public parks.
How does this reflect the economy of the era?
As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed
forces, police, and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative
Corps gave an appearance of representative government, because members were elected by universal
male suffrage for six-year terms, but they could not
initiate legislation or affect the budget.
Napoleon III completely controlled the government and limited civil liberties, but the first five years
of his reign were a spectacular success. He focused
on expanding the economy and subsidized the construction of railroads, harbors, roads, and canals.
Napoleon III also carried out a vast rebuilding of
Paris. Narrow streets and walls were replaced by
broad boulevards, spacious buildings, public squares,
an underground sewage system, a new public watersupply system, and gaslights. The new Paris served a
military purpose as well. Broad streets made it difficult for rebels to throw up barricades and easier for
troops to move through the city.
In the 1860s, opposition to some of Napoleon’s
policies arose. In response, he began to liberalize his
regime. For example, he gave the legislature more
power. In a plebiscite on his reign in 1870, the French
voted their approval of Napoleon. This triumph was
short-lived. Soon the French would be defeated in a
war with the Prussians, and the Second Empire fell.
The Austrian Empire
As we have seen, nationalism
was a major force in nineteenth-century Europe.
However, one of Europe’s most powerful states—the
Austrian Empire—was a multinational empire that
had been able to frustrate the desire of its ethnic
groups for independence.
After the Hapsburg rulers crushed the revolutions
of 1848 and 1849, they restored centralized, autocratic
government to the empire. Austria’s defeat at the
hands of the Prussians in 1866, however, forced the
Austrians to make concessions to the fiercely nationalistic Hungarians.
The result was the Compromise of 1867. This compromise created the dual monarchy of AustriaHungary. Each of these two components of the
empire now had its own constitution, its own legislature, its own government bureaucracy, and its own
capital (Vienna for Austria and Budapest for Hungary). Holding the two states together were a single
monarch (Francis Joseph was both emperor of Austria and king of Hungary)
and a common army, forHISTORY
eign policy, and system of
finances.
In domestic affairs, then, Web Activity Visit the
the Hungarians had become Glencoe World History—
an independent nation. Modern Times Web site
However, the compromise at wh.mt.glencoe.com
and click on Chapter 4–
did not satisfy the other
Student Web Activity
minorities that made up
to learn more about
the multinational Austro- Queen Victoria.
Hungarian Empire.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
277
David David Gallery, Philadelphia/SuperStock, (inset)Musee du Chateau de Versailles/Dagli Orti/Art Archive
ers wanted more and faster
change. Conservatives thought
that the czar was trying to
destroy the basic institutions
of Russian society. When a
group of radicals assassinated
Alexander II in 1881, his son
and successor, Alexander III,
turned against reform and
returned to the old methods of
repression.
Reading Check
Examining How was Great Britain
able to avoid a revolution in 1848?
Nationalism in the
United States
Russian peasants had to pay for the poor-quality land they
received from the government.
Russia At the beginning of the nineteenth century,
Russia was overwhelmingly rural, agricultural, and
autocratic. The Russian czar was still regarded as a
divine-right monarch with unlimited power. The Russian government—based on soldiers, secret police,
repression, and censorship—withstood the revolutionary fervor of the first half of the nineteenth century.
Then, in 1856, the Russians suffered a humiliating
defeat in the Crimean War described earlier. Even
staunch conservatives now realized that Russia was
falling hopelessly behind the western European powers. Czar Alexander II decided to make serious
reforms.
Serfdom was the largest problem in czarist Russia.
On March 3, 1861, Alexander issued an emancipation
edict, which freed the serfs. Peasants could now own
property and marry as they chose. The government
provided land for the peasants by buying it from the
landlords. ; (See page 772 to read excerpts from Czar
Alexander II’s Emancipation Manifesto in the Primary
Sources Library.)
The new land system, however, did not help the
peasants much. Landowners often kept the best
lands. The peasants soon found that they did not have
enough good land to support themselves. Emancipation of the serfs, then, led not to a free, landowning
peasantry, but to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry
that largely followed old ways of farming.
Alexander II attempted other reforms as well, but
he soon found that he could please no one. Reform278
Ullstein Bilderdeinst, Berlin
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Unified by the War of 1812, the United States
later split over slavery, but the Union survived a bloody
civil war that lasted from 1861 to 1865.
Reading Connection Do you remember reading about
the upheaval of the American and French Revolutions? Read to
learn how the United States responded to national upheaval in
the 1800s.
The government under the U.S. Constitution had
committed the United States to two of the major
forces of the first half of the nineteenth century: liberalism and nationalism. National unity had not
come easily, however.
Two factions had fought bitterly about the division of power in the new government. The Federalists had favored a strong central government. The
Republicans, fearing central power, had wanted the
federal government to be subordinate to the state
governments. These early divisions had come to an
end when the War of 1812 against the British began.
A surge of national feeling had served to cover over
the nation’s divisions.
The election of Andrew Jackson as president in
1828 had opened a new era in American politics.
Property qualifications for voting had been reduced.
The right to vote was eventually extended to almost
all adult white males.
By the mid-nineteenth century, however, slavery
had become a threat to American national unity.
There were four million African American slaves in
the South by 1860, compared with one million in
1800.
The South’s economy was based on growing cotton on plantations, chiefly by slave labor. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 had
made it easier to clean cotton of its seeds, thus
increasing cotton production. The South was determined to maintain both its cotton economy and
plantation-based slavery. At the same time, abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, arose in the
North and challenged the Southern way of life.
As opinions over slavery grew more divided, compromise became less possible. Abraham Lincoln said
in a speech in Illinois in 1858 that “this government
cannot endure permanently half slave and half free.”
When Lincoln was elected president in November
1860, war became certain.
On December 20, 1860, a South Carolina convention voted to secede, or withdraw, from the United
States. In February 1861, six more Southern states did
the same, and a rival nation—the Confederate States
of America—was formed. In April, fighting erupted
between North and South—the Union and the
Confederacy.
The American Civil War was an extraordinarily
bloody struggle which lasted from 1861 to 1865. More
than 600,000 men died in battle or from deadly diseases spawned by filthy camp conditions. The
Union’s superior resources and population gradually
wore down the Confederacy.
On January 1, 1863, Lincoln’s Emancipation
Proclamation declared most of the nation’s slaves
“forever free.” The surrender of Confederate forces
Checking for Understanding
1. Vocabulary Define: militarism, reliance,
levy, kaiser, plebiscite, emancipation,
successor, abolitionism, secede.
2. People Identify: Giuseppe Garibaldi,
Otto von Bismarck, Queen Victoria,
Czar Alexander II.
3. Locate Piedmont, Alsace, Lorraine,
Budapest.
Reviewing Big Ideas
4. List the Prussian values and assets that
caused the Second German Empire to
become the strongest European state.
Slavery challenged national unity in the United States.
on April 9, 1865, meant that the United States would
be “one nation, indivisible.” National unity had prevailed in the United States.
Reading Check Explaining How did the election of
Andrew Jackson influence American politics?
HISTORY
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and
click on Study Central.
Critical Thinking
5.
Contextualizing
Explain how the forces of liberalism
and nationalism affected events in the
United States during the 1800s.
CA HI 3
6. Compare and Contrast Use a Venn
diagram like the one below to compare
and contrast Bismarck’s and Cavour’s
methods for achieving unification in
Germany and Italy.
Bismarck
Study Central
Cavour
Analyzing Visuals
7. Examine the photographs of a peasant
and a slave family shown on pages 278
and 279. Based on the visual evidence
of the two photographs, how do you
think the living conditions of Russian
peasants compared to living conditions
of slaves in the United States?
8. Expository Writing Write an essay
comparing the events and outcomes
of the reigns of Bismarck and
Napoleon III. What personal characteristics did each man have that contributed to his accomplishments?
CA 10WA2.3
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
279
Bettmann/CORBIS
Culture: Romanticism
and Realism
Guide to Reading
Section Preview
Artistic movements were influenced by
the society around them. Romanticism
was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution, while progress in science contributed to realism.
• In the arts, romanticism stressed individualism and emotion instead of the
reason and universalism of the Enlightenment period. (p. 281)
• Rapid advances in science and technology fueled industrial growth, made
medical care more effective, and challenged religious faith. (p. 283)
Preview of Events
✦1820
✦1830
1820
Walter Scott writes
Ivanhoe
• The rise of science encouraged writers
and artists to create realistic works that
portrayed even the poor and degraded
in society. (p. 284)
Content Vocabulary
Reading Objectives
1. List the main features of romanticism
and realism.
2. Trace a cause-and-effect path from the
Scientific Revolution to secularization.
Reading Strategy
romanticism, secularization, organic
evolution, natural selection, realism
Academic Vocabulary
abandon, adapt, variation, controversy
Summarizing Information Use a table
like the one below to list popular literature from the romantic and realist
movements.
People to Identify
Romanticism
Ludwig van Beethoven, Louis Pasteur,
Charles Darwin, Charles Dickens
✦1840
1849
Courbet paints The
Stonebreakers
✦1850
✦1860
1859
Charles Darwin publishes On the
Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection
✦1870
Realism
✦1880
1869
Mendeleyev presents
his classification of
material elements
California Standards in This Section
Reading this section will help you master these California History–Social Science standards.
10.3:
Students analyze the effects of the Industrial Revolution in England, France, Germany, Japan, and
the United States.
10.3.2: Examine how scientific and technological
changes and new forms of energy brought about
massive social, economic, and cultural change
(e.g., the inventions and discoveries of James
280
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Watt, Eli Whitney, Henry Bessemer, Louis Pasteur, Thomas Edison).
10.3.7: Describe the emergence of Romanticism in art
and literature (e.g., the poetry of William Blake
and William Wordsworth), social criticism (e.g.,
the novels of Charles Dickens), and the move
away from Classicism in Europe.
Larry Fisher/Masterfile
Romanticism
In the arts, romanticism stressed individualism
and emotion instead of the reason and universalism of the
Enlightenment period.
Reading Connection Do you know of any group that
strives to show by their dress that they disagree with mainstream values? Read to learn about the values that romantics
were expressing.
At the end of the eighteenth century, a new movement called romanticism emerged as a reaction
against the Enlightenment. During that period, art
and literature followed classicism. The ideals of classicism were reason, balance, and restraint in all
things. Romantics went to the other extreme. They
wanted the arts to express the feeling, emotion, and
imagination of the individual artist or writer.
Many romantic writers in England lived during
the early Industrial Revolution, and they often
expressed a horror of the conditions they saw.
In his novel The Old Curiosity Shop, Charles Dickens wrote about the English mill town of Birmingham. An element of romanticism pervaded his
description:
A long suburb of red brick houses—some with
“
patches of garden ground, where coal-dust and
factory smoke darkened the shrinking leaves, and
coarse rank flowers; and where the struggling
vegetation sickened and sank under the hot
breath of kiln and furnace . . . —a long, flat, straggling suburb passed, they came by slow degrees
upon a cheerless region, where not a blade of
grass was seen to grow; where not a bud put
forth its promise in the spring; where nothing
green could live but on the surface of the stagnant pools, which here and there lay idly sweltering by the black roadside.
”
To the romantics, the inner feelings of each person
were unique, even mysterious. Romantic novelists
tended to create characters who were misunderstood
or rejected by the society around them. Isolated, their
individual feelings and ideas were their only barometer for right and wrong. They did not bow to
middle-class conventions. They wore their hair long
and grew beards. A woman might dress in a man’s
pants and frock coat to show she was a poet.
Romantics loved to think about past ages, especially medieval times. They felt it had a mystery and
interest in the soul that their own industrial age did
not. Romantic architects revived medieval styles and
designed castles, cathedrals, railway stations, and city
halls in a style called neo-Gothic. The Houses of Parliament in London reflect this style.
Romantic literature was also inspired by the Middle Ages. Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe, for example, a
best-seller in the early 1800s, told of clashes between
knights in medieval England. By focusing on their
nations’ past, many romantic writers were also
reflecting the nationalism that was so strong in the
nineteenth century.
The exotic and unfamiliar also attracted many
romantics. This attraction gave rise to Gothic literature. Chilling examples are Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein and Edgar Allan Poe’s short stories of horror.
Some romantics even sought the unusual in their
own lives by exploring their dreams and nightmares
and seeking altered states of consciousness.
Built between 1869 and 1892, this Bavarian castle reflects
the romantic love of medieval style.
History through Art
Wanderer Above a Sea of Fog by Caspar David
Friedrich A sense of isolation and a tragic fate characterize
this 1819 painting by this German romantic. How would you
compare the feeling of this art to the image on page 225?
The romantics viewed poetry as the direct expression of the soul. Romantic poetry gave expression to
one of the most important characteristics of the
movement—its love of nature. Romantics believed
that nature served as a mirror into which humans
could look to learn about themselves.
This feeling is especially evident in the poetry of
William Wordsworth, the foremost English romantic
poet of nature. His experience of nature was almost
mystical:
“
One impulse from a vernal wood
May teach you more of man,
Of moral evil and of good,
Than all the sages can.
”
The worship of nature also caused Wordsworth
and other romantic poets to be critical of eighteenthcentury science, which they believed had reduced
nature to a cold object of study. To Wordsworth, the
282
CHAPTER 4
(tl)Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS
Industrialization and Nationalism
scientists’ dry, mathematical approach left no room
for the imagination or for the human soul.
The human soul was a source of expression for
William Blake, a poet and artist connected with
romanticism, though he combined imagination with
reality in a way other romantics did not. In two of his
collections of lyric poems and their accompanying
designs, Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience,
Blake uses a child’s point of view to capture basic
human emotions. He also used that point of view to
write “The Chimney Sweeper,” “London,” and “The
Tyger.” In these poems, he criticized the church and
the state because he felt these institutions did not bring
out the best in people.
Like Blake, many romantics were convinced that
industrialization would cause people to become
alienated from their inner selves and from the natural world. This idea shows up in Mary Shelley’s
novel Frankenstein: When science dares to try and
conquer nature, a monster is created.
Like the literary arts, the visual arts were deeply
affected by romanticism. Romantic artists shared at
least two features. First, to them, all art was a reflection of the artist’s inner feelings. A painting should
mirror the artist’s vision of the world and be the
instrument of the artist’s own imagination. Second,
romantic artists abandoned classical reason for
warmth and emotion.
Eugène Delacroix (DEH•luh•KWAH) was one of
the most famous romantic painters from France. His
paintings showed two chief characteristics: a fascination with the exotic and a passion for color. His
works reflect his belief that “a painting should be a
feast to the eye.”
In music, too, romantic trends dominated the first
half of the nineteenth century. One of the most
famous composers of this era was Ludwig van
Beethoven. Some have called him a bridge between
classical and romantic music. Others argue that he
was such a rare genius, he cannot be easily classified.
His early work fell within the classical framework. In
his Third Symphony, first performed in 1805, however, the romantic elements were in place: powerful
melodies and dramatic intensity.
In one way, Beethoven was definitely a romantic.
He thought of himself as an artist, not a craftsman.
He had an intense and difficult personality, but was
committed to writing music that reflected his deepest
feelings: “I must write, for what weighs on my heart,
I must express.”
Reading Check Examining How did the popularity of
Ivanhoe reflect the interests of the nineteenth century?
New Age of Science
Rapid advances in science and technology
fueled industrial growth, made medical care more effective, and challenged religious faith.
Reading Connection Have you heard of discoveries
about our genetic makeup and its possible applications? Read
to learn how discoveries changed society in the 1800s.
The Scientific Revolution had created a modern,
rational approach to the study of the natural world.
For a long time, only the educated elite understood
its importance. By the 1830s, however, new discoveries in science had led to many practical benefits that
affected all Europeans. In 1796, for example, the English doctor Edward Jenner had discovered a vaccine
for smallpox, a widespread disease that killed mostly
infants and young children.
In biology, the Frenchman Louis Pasteur proposed
the germ theory of disease, which was crucial to the
development of modern scientific medical practices.
In chemistry, the Russian Dmitry Mendeleyev in the
1860s classified all the material elements then known
on the basis of their atomic weights. In Great Britain,
Michael Faraday put together a primitive generator
that laid the foundation for the use of electric current.
Dramatic material benefits such as these led Europeans to have a growing faith in science. This faith, in
turn, undermined the religious faith of many people.
It is no accident that the nineteenth century was an
age of increasing secularization, indifference to or
rejection of religion in the affairs of the world. For
many people, truth was now to be found in science
and in the material existence of human beings.
More than anyone else, it was probably Charles
Darwin who created the concept of humans as
beings who were part of the natural world. In 1859,
Darwin published On the Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection. His basic theory was that each
species, or kind, of plant or animal had evolved over
millions of years from earlier, simpler forms of life.
Darwin called this principle organic evolution.
How did this natural process work? According to
Darwin, in every species, “many more individuals of
each species are born than can possibly survive.”
History through Art
The Lion Hunt by Eugene Delacroix (1861)
This French romantic artist was known for lush color
and exotic scenes. If you were alive in the 1800s,
what elements would strike you as exotic?
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
283
Burstein Collection/CORBIS
This results in a “struggle for existence.” Darwin
believed that some organisms are better able to adapt
to changes in the environment than others.
Those that are able to survive (“survival of
the fittest”) reproduce and thrive, while the unfit do
not. Darwin called this process natural selection.
Survivors pass on the variations that allowed them
to survive until a new, separate species emerges. In
The Descent of Man, published in 1871, Darwin
argued that human beings had animal origins and
were not an exception to the rule governing other
species.
Darwin’s ideas raised a storm of controversy. Some
people objected that his theory made human beings
ordinary products of nature, not unique creations of
God. Other people were bothered because they felt
he was saying that life was a mere struggle for survival. “Is there a place in the Darwinian world for
moral values?” they asked. Some believers felt Darwin had not granted God a role in creation. Gradually,
however, many scientists and other intellectuals came
to accept Darwinism.
Reading Check Describing How did the theory of
natural selection influence the way people saw the world?
Realism
The rise of science encouraged writers and
artists to create realistic works that portrayed even the
poor and degraded in society.
Reading Connection Have you been to museums and
noticed how technology is used in some modern art? Read
how artists reflected intellectual trends at this time.
History
This friendly cartoon drawing of Charles Darwin
was published in the magazine Vanity Fair in 1871.
It shows the scientist in the wheeled chair he used
to propel himself round his work room.
284
CHAPTER 4
Michael Nicholson/CORBIS
Industrialization and Nationalism
The belief that the world should be viewed realistically was closely related to the scientific outlook. In
politics, Bismarck had practiced the “politics of reality.” In the literary and visual arts, realism became a
movement as well.
The literary realists of the mid-nineteenth century
rejected romanticism. They wanted to write about
ordinary characters from actual life rather than
romantic heroes in exotic settings. They also tried to
avoid emotional language by using precise description. They preferred novels to poems.
Many literary realists combined their interest in
everyday life with an examination of social issues.
These artists expressed their social views through
their characters. Although this type of realistic writing occurred worldwide, the French led the way.
The realist novel was perfected by the French
author Gustave Flaubert, who was a leading novelist
of the 1850s and 1860s. His work Madame Bovary
presents a critical description of small-town life in
France.
In Great Britain, Charles Dickens became a huge
success with novels that showed the realities of life for
the poor in the early Industrial Age. Novels like Oliver
Twist and David Copperfield created a vivid picture of
the brutal life of London’s poor, as well as of their
humor and humanity. In fact, his characters were so
sympathetic that they helped inspire social reform.
In art, too, realism became dominant after 1850.
Realist artists sought to show the everyday life of ordinary people and the world of nature with photo-
History through Art
The Stonebreakers by Gustave Courbet, 1849 As an
artist of the realist school, Courbet broke with the mystical and
imaginative romantic period. Which style do you prefer?
graphic realism. The French became leaders in realist
painting, just as they had become the leaders in realist
writing.
Gustave Courbet was the most famous painter of
the realist school. He loved to portray scenes from
everyday life. His subjects were factory workers, peasants, and the wives of saloon keepers. “I have never
seen either angels or goddesses, so I am not interested
in painting them,” Courbet once commented.
One of Courbet’s famous works, The Stonebreakers,
shows two roadworkers engaged in the deadening
work of breaking stones to build a road. There were
those who objected to Courbet’s “cult of ugliness”
and who found such scenes of human misery scandalous. To Courbet, however, no subject was too
ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly.
Reading Check Evaluating What factors helped to
produce the movement known as realism?
HISTORY
Study Central
For help with the concepts in this section of Glencoe World
History—Modern Times, go to wh.mt.glencoe.com and
click on Study Central.
Checking for Understanding
1. Vocabulary Define: romanticism,
abandon, secularization, organic evolution, adapt, natural selection, variation,
controversy, realism.
2. People Identify: Ludwig van
Beethoven, Louis Pasteur, Charles Darwin, Charles Dickens.
Critical Thinking
5. Organizing Information Use a table
like below to list scientists and their discoveries in the mid-nineteenth century.
Scientist
Reviewing Big Ideas
3. Explain how scientific developments
affected the cultural movements of the
nineteenth century.
Analyzing Visuals
4. Compare and Contrast How did
romanticism compare to the ideas of
the Enlightenment?
Discovery
6. Examine the painting by Eugène Delacroix shown on page 283 of your text.
How does this painting reflect the characteristics of the romantic movement?
7. Expository Writing Read poetry by
two different poets of romanticism.
Write a paper describing the elements of romanticism found in the
poems. Be sure to include quotaCA 10RL3.12
tions. CA 10WA2.2
Pasteur
Mendeleyev
Faraday
Darwin
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
285
Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Dresden, Germany/Bridgeman Art Library, London/SuperStock
. . . people all full of business; not a beggar, not an
idle person to be seen, except here and there an
alms-house, where people antient1, decrepid, and
past labour, might be found; for it is observable, that
the people here, however laborious2, generally live to
a great age, a certain testimony to the goodness and
wholesomness of the country, which is, without doubt,
as healthy as any part of England; nor is the health of
the people lessen’d, but help’d and establish’d by
their being constantly employ’d, and as we call it, their
working hard; so that they find a double advantage by
their being in business . . .
Having thus fire and water at every dwelling, there
is no need to enquire why they dwell thus dispers’d
upon the highest hills, the convenience of the manufactures requiring it. Among the manufacturers houses
are likewise scattered an infinite number of cottages
or small dwellings, in which dwell the workmen which
are employed, the women and children of whom, are
always busy carding, spinning, &c. so that no hands
being unemployed, all can gain their bread, even from
the youngest to the antient . . .
This is the reason also why we saw so few people
without doors [outside]; but if we knock’d at the door
of any of the master manufacturers, we presently saw
a house full of lusty fellows, some at the dye-fat, some
dressing the cloths, some in the loom, some one
thing, some another, all hard at work, and full
employed upon the manufacture, and all seeming to
have sufficient business.
➤1
SOURCE 2: Child Labor
SOURCE 1: An Industrial Village
Daniel Defoe (1660–1731), best known for his novel
Robinson Crusoe, describes an early industrial village
in A Tour Through England and Wales.
antient: ancient
2laborious: industrious; hardworking
Gustave Doré’s engraving of rooftops in 1870s London
In the 1830s, the British Parliament formed the Sadler
Committee to investigate factory conditions. William
Cooper testified about his work in factories as a boy.
William Cooper, called in; and Examined
What is your business?—I follow the cloth-dressing at
present.
What is your age?—I was eight-and-twenty last
February.
When did you first begin to work in mills or factories?—When I was about 10 years of age.
With whom did you first work?—At Mr. Benyon’s flax
mills, in Meadowland, Leeds.
What were your usual hours of working?—We began
at five, and gave over at nine; at five o’clock in the
morning.
And you gave over at nine o’clock?—At nine at
night. . . .
At what time had you to get up in the morning to
attend to your labour?—I had to be up soon after four
o’clock.
Every morning?—Every morning.
Stapleton Collection/CORBIS
The Industrial Revolution did not appear overnight in England. A well-known author, a government
report, and an economist trace the use of machinery and new styles of labor.
What intermissions had you for meals?—When we
began at five in the morning, we went on until noon,
and then we had 40 minutes for dinner. . . .
To keep you at your work for such a length of time,
and especially towards the termination of such a day’s
labour as that, what means were taken to keep you
awake and attentive?—They strapped [beat] us at
times, when we were not quite ready to be doffing3
the frame when it was full. . . .
When your hours were so long, you had not any time
to attend to a day-school?—We had no time to go to
day-school, only to a Sunday-school, and then with
working such long hours we wanted to have a bit of
rest, so that I slept till the afternoon, sometimes till
dinner, and sometimes after . . .
After working at the mill to this excess, how did you
find your health at last?—I found it very bad indeed; I
found illness coming on me a long-time before I fell
down.
Did you at length become so ill as to be unable to
pursue your work?—I was obliged to give it up
entirely. . . .
When you were somewhat recovered, did you apply
for labour?—I applied for my work again, but the overlooker said I was not fit to work; he was sure of that,
and he would not let me have it. I was then obliged to
throw myself on the parish. [The parish church administered poor relief, or welfare, at that time].
Secondly, the advantage which is gained by saving
the time commonly lost in passing from one sort of
work to another is much greater than we should at
first view be apt to imagine it. . . .
Thirdly and lastly, everybody must be sensible how
much labor is facilitated and abridged4 by the application of proper machinery. It is unnecessary to give any
example. I shall only observe, therefore, that the
invention of all those machines by which labor is so
much facilitated and abridged seems to have been
originally owing to the division of labor. Men are much
more likely to discover easier and readier methods of
attaining any object, when the whole attention of their
minds is directed toward that single object, than when
it is dissipated among a great variety of things. . . . A
great part of machines made use of in those manufacturers in which labor is most subdivided were originally inventions of common workmen, who being
each of them employed in some very simple operation, naturally turned their thoughts toward finding out
easier and readier methods of performing it.
➤4
abridged: shortened
SOURCE 3: The Division of Labor
Adam Smith (1723–1790), is often called the father of
economics. In this excerpt from The Wealth of Nations,
Smith discusses the advantages of the division of labor.
First, . . . the division of labor, by reducing every
man’s business to some one simple operation, and by
making this operation the sole employment of his life,
necessarily increases very much the dexterity of the
workman. A common smith, who though accustomed
to handling the hammer, has never been used to
make nails, if upon some particular occasion he is
obliged to attempt it, will scarcely, I am assured, be
able to make above two or three hundred nails in a
day, and those too, very bad ones. . . .
➤3
CA HR 1, HR 2
Source 1: What is the general tone of Defoe’s piece
describing labor in the textile-manufacturing village?
Source 2: According to William Cooper, what hardships did child laborers face working in factories and
mills?
Source 3: What three advantages does Adam Smith
see in dividing labor among individuals?
Comparing and Contrasting Sources
1. How does Defoe’s description of workers’ health differ from the testimony of William Cooper to the
Sadler Committee?
2. How might Adam Smith criticize the system of labor
described by Daniel Defoe?
doffing: taking off; removing
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
287
Standards 10.2, 10.2.5, 10.3, 10.3.1, 10.3.2, 10.3.3, 10.3.4, 10.3.5, 10.3.6, 10.3.7
Reviewing Content Vocabulary
On a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.
1. capital
2. entrepreneur
3. cottage
industry
4. puddling
5. industrial
capitalism
6. socialism
7. conservatism
8. principle of
intervention
9. liberalism
10. universal male
suffrage
11. militarism
12. kaiser
13. plebiscite
14. emancipation
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
abolitionism
secede
romanticism
secularization
organic
evolution
20. natural
selection
21. realism
Reviewing Academic Vocabulary
On a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence that
reflects the term’s meaning in the chapter.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
dynamic
migrate
stability
beneficial
reliance
levy
successor
abandon
Section 2
35. What four nations were prepared to use military forces to
crush revolts in other nations?
36. Name the social classes that tended to support liberalism.
Section 3
37. What countries were involved in the Crimean War? What
were the causes of the war?
38. Describe how Otto von Bismarck contributed to German
unification.
Section 4
39. What features can be found in paintings of the romantic
style?
40. How did new discoveries in science in the 1800s provide
practical benefits to Europeans?
Critical Thinking
30. adapt
31. variation
32. controversy
41. Making Comparisons Compare the motives for Czar
Alexander II’s emancipation of the serfs with Abraham Lincoln’s motives for the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863.
42. Cause and Effect Describe how the Crimean War indirectly
contributed to Italian and German unification.
Reviewing the Main Ideas
43.
Section 1
33. List the members of the new industrial middle class.
34. What were the goals of early socialists?
Visualizing Imagine you are an Italian during Italy’s struggle for a unified nation. What would
life be like? Use the paintings, literature, and quotations in
your chapter to write a brief essay on Italian nationalism.
In this chapter, you have studied developments from industry to art, faith to science, and liberalism to conservatism. The chart below
summarizes some of these developments.
Advances
Conflict
Change
• Steam and coal are
new sources of
power.
• Higher-quality iron
leads to better
railroads.
• Nationalism and
liberalism become
forces for change.
• Conservatives
attempt to suppress
nationalism.
• People move to
cities for factory
work.
• Italy unifies.
• Germany emerges
as a strong European
power.
288
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
Reaction
• Russian czars
oppose the forces
of liberalism and
nationalism.
• Science has a
greater impact on
people, undermining religious faith.
Diversity
• Austria-Hungary
contains many
different ethnic
groups seeking
self-rule.
• Romanticism and
realism are opposite artistic styles.
HISTORY
Self-Check Quiz
Visit the Glencoe World History—Modern Times Web
site at wh.mt.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 4–
Self-Check Quiz to prepare for the Chapter Test.
Writing About History
Analyzing Maps and Charts
44.
Interpreting Migration Write an
essay exploring the pros and cons of leaving a farm to work
in a factory. Be sure to consider social and economic factors
and come to a conclusion on whether it is a positive or negative move. CA CS 3
45.
How did the political, economic, and social
injustices that existed during the nineteenth century contribute to romanticism and realism?
Study the map, Industrialization of Europe by 1870, that appears
on page 258. Then answer the following questions.
51. In which part of the United Kingdom is industrialization
concentrated?
52. What relationship exists between railways and industrial
centers?
Analyzing Sources Read the following excerpt from the poetry
of William Wordsworth:
“
One impulse from a vernal wood
May teach you more of man,
Of moral evil and of good,
Than all the sages can.
”
46. What characteristic of romantic poetry is evident in
Wordsworth’s poem? CA 10RL3.12
47. What message is Wordsworth trying to convey? Do you
agree?
Analyzing Sources Read the following lines from William Blake’s
“The Chimney-Sweeper“:
“
When my mother died I was very young,
And my father sold me while yet my tongue
Could scarcely cry ‘Weep! weep! weep! Weep!
So your chimneys I sweep, and in soot I sleep.
There’s little Tom Dacre, who cried when his head,
That curled like a lamb’s back, was shaved’ so I said,
‘Hush, Tom! never mind it, for, when your head’s bare,
You know that the soot cannot spoil your white hair.
”
48. To whom is the chimney sweep speaking and why do you
think Blake has him address that person?
49. According to Blake’s poem, what is the effect of the Industrial Revolution on families?
50. Why do you think Tom’s head is shaved?
Standards Practice
Directions: Choose the best answer to the
following question.
Use the information in the box and your knowledge of
world history to answer the following question.
British Economic Conditions During the Early 1800s
• Canal miles tripled between 1760 and 1830.
• Britain had built more than 6,000 miles (9,654 km)
of railroad tracks by 1850.
• Britain produced nearly 3 million tons (2.7 million t)
of iron ore by 1852.
• London’s population grew by 236 percent between
1800 and 1850.
53. Which of the following statements is based on the
information in the box?
A The Industrial Revolution led to massive urbanization.
B London neighborhoods in the 1800s were sharply
divided between rich and poor.
C A boom in railroad and canal construction made transportation more difficult.
D Parliament disagreed with the king over taxes and
spending.
CA Standard 10.3.3 Describe the growth of population,
rural to urban migration and growth of cities associated
with the Industrial Revolution.
CHAPTER 4
Industrialization and Nationalism
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