Download Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was an ancient

Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of eastern North Africa, concentrated along the
lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian
civilization coalesced around BC according to conventional Egyptian chronology with the
political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh. The history of ancient
Egypt occurred in a series of stable Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability
known as Intermediate Periods. The Old Kingdom of the Early Bronze Age, the Middle
Kingdom of the Middle Bronze Age and the New Kingdom of the Late Bronze Age. Egypt
reached the pinnacle of its power during the New Kingdom, in the Ramesside period, after
which it entered a period of slow decline. Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign
powers in this late period. The rule of the pharaohs officially ended in BC when Egypt fell to
the Roman Empire and became a Roman province.
The pyramids of Giza are among the most recognizable symbols of the civilization of ancient
Egypt.
The success of ancient Egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the
conditions of the Nile River Valley. The predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the
fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fueled social development and culture. With
resources to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and
surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the
organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding
regions, and a military intended to defeat foreign enemies and assert Egyptian dominance.
Map of ancient Egypt, showing major cities and Motivating and organizing these activities
was a sites of the Dynastic period c. BC to bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, BC
and administrators under the control of a pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of
the Egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.
Ancient Egypt The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include the quarrying,
surveying and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids,
temples, and obelisks a system of mathematics, a practical and effective system of medicine,
irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, the first known ships, Egyptian
faience and glass technology, new forms of literature, and the earliest known peace treaty.
Egypt left a lasting legacy. Its art and architecture were widely copied, and its antiquities
carried off to far corners of the world. Its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of
travellers and writers for centuries. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the
early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater
appreciation of its cultural legacy, for Egypt and the world.
History
By the late Paleolithic period the arid climate of Northern Africa became increasingly hot and
dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the Nile valley, and since
nomadic modern human huntergatherers began living in the region through the end of the
Middle Pleistocene some thousand years ago, the Nile has been the lifeline of Egypt. The
fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural
economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the
history of human civilization.
Predynastic period
In Predynastic and Early Dynastic times, the Egyptian climate was much less arid than it is
today. Large regions of Egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of
grazing ungulates. Foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the Nile region
supported large populations of waterfowl. Hunting would have been common for Egyptians
and this is also the period during which many animals would have been first domesticated.
By about BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of cultures
demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry, and identifiable by their
pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The largest of these early
cultures in upper Egypt, the Badari, was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and
its use of copper. In Northern Egypt, the Badari was followed by Amratian and Gerzean
cultures which showed a number of technological improvements. In Gerzian times, early
evidence exists of contact with Canaan and the Byblos coast. In southern Egypt, the Naqada
culture, similar to the Badari, began to expand along the Nile by about BC. As early as the
Naqada I Period, predynastic Egyptians imported obsidian from Ethiopia, used to shape
blades and other objects from flakes. Over a period of about , years, the Naqada culture
developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders
were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power
center at Hierakonpolis, and later at Abydos, Naqada III leaders expanded their control of
Egypt northwards along the Nile. They also traded with Nubia to the south, the oases of the
western desert to the west, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean to the east.
A typical Naqada II jar decorated with gazelles. Predynastic Period
The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods, reflective of the
increasing power and wealth of the elite, which included painted pottery, high quality
decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They
also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience which was used well into the Roman
Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last predynastic phase, the
Naqada culture began using written symbols which would eventually evolve into a full system
of hieroglyphs for writing the
Ancient Egypt ancient Egyptian language.
Early Dynastic Period
The rd century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs from Menes to
his own time into dynasties, a system still in use today. He chose to begin his official history
with the king named quotMeniquot or Menes in Greek who was then believed to have united
the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt around BC. The transition to a unified state
actually happened more gradually than the ancient Egyptian writers would have us believe,
and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Some scholars now believe, however, that
the mythical Menes may have actually been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing
royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette in a symbolic act of unification.
The Narmer Palette depicts the unification of the Two Lands.
In the Early Dynastic Period about BC, the first of the Dynastic pharaohs solidified their
control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which they could control
the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region as well as the lucrative and critical
trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early
dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures
at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong
institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the
land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian
civilization.
provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of
the Old Kingdom. used their newfound independence to establish a thriving culture in the
provinces. Around BC the Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated
the Herakleopolitan rulers. and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism
and originality of the period. regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the
supremacy of the pharaoh. and established a justice system to maintain peace and order.
and technology were made during the Old Kingdom. coordinated irrigation projects to
improve crop yield. local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and
political power. fueled by the increased agricultural productivity made possible by a well
developed central administration. By BC. drafted peasants to work on construction projects.
Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples to ensure that
these institutions would have the necessary resources to worship the pharaoh after his
death. the administration could no longer support or stabilize the countrys economy. and the
power of the pharaohs that controlled it. a clash between the two rival dynasties became
inevitable. and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and
smallscale civil wars. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward.
while a rival clan based in Thebes. Under the direction of the vizier. Free from their loyalties
to the pharaoh. Khufu. and their descendants are the most memorable symbols of ancient
Egyptian civilization. the Intef family. owing no tribute to the pharaoh. took control of Upper
Egypt. rulers in Herakleopolis controlled Lower Egypt. who could no longer afford to support
a large centralized administration. art. . Regional governors could not rely on the king for help
in times of crisis. As the power of the pharaoh diminished. With the surplus resources made
available by a productive and stable economy. In bursts of creativity. the state was able to
sponsor construction of colossal monuments and to commission exceptional works of art
from the royal workshops.Ancient Egypt Old Kingdom Stunning advances in architecture.
state officials collected taxes. the provinces became economically richera fact demonstrated
by larger and better burials among all social classes. By the end of the Old Kingdom. coupled
with severe droughts between and BC. ultimately caused the country to enter a year period
of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period. The pyramids built by Djoser.
reuniting the Two Lands and inaugurating a period of economic and cultural renaissance
known as the Middle Kingdom. five centuries of these feudal practices had slowly eroded the
economic power of the pharaoh. Alabaster statue of Menkaura at the Boston Museum of
Fine Arts First Intermediate Period After Egypts central government collapsed at the end of
the Old Kingdom. Once in control of their own resources. local leaders. This. Yet despite
difficult problems. Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new
class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment
for their services.
individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection. until BC The pharaohs
Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians. in which all
people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death.
but the vizier Amenemhat I. and religion flourished. The last great ruler of the Middle
Kingdom. and monumental building projects. however. called the quotWallsoftheRulerquot.
to the south. eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos. Asiatic immigrants living in
the Eastern Delta town of Avaris seized control of the region and forced the central
government to retreat to Thebes. The Hyksos quotforeign rulersquot imitated Egyptian
models of government and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. and the relief and portrait
sculpture of the period captured subtle. upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the th
Dynasty around BC. Amenemhat III. but it was Kamoses successor.Ancient Egypt Middle
Kingdom The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the countrys prosperity and stability.
the last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom Having secured military and political security and
vast agricultural and mineral wealth. thereby stimulating a resurgence of art. During this
decline. the military reconquered territory in Nubia rich in quarries and gold mines. the
military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypts borders and
secure her complete dominance of the Near East. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes
towards the gods. From Itjtawy. After their retreat. while laborers built a defensive structure in
the Eastern Delta. thus integrating Egyptian elements into their Middle Bronze Age culture. .
allowed Asiatic settlers into the delta region to provide a sufficient labor force for his
especially active mining and building campaigns. arts. These ambitious building and mining
activities. where the pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. Middle
Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident.
shifted the nations capital to the city of Itjtawy located in Faiyum. to defend against foreign
attack. the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and
what could be called a democratization of the afterlife. eloquent style. Amenemhat III.
Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than
years. Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos Around BC. combined with inadequate
Nile floods later in his reign. who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently
eradicated the Hyksos presence in Egypt. Moreover. the pharaohs of the th Dynasty
undertook a farsighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output
in the region. the Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Hyksos to the north
and the Hyksos Nubian allies. In the New Kingdom that followed. Ahmose I. strained the
economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the
later th and th dynasties. the foreign Asiatic settlers began to seize control of the delta
region. literature. the Kushites. as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened. the
nations population. Mentuhotep II and his th Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes. After
years of inaction tenuous.
Her successful reign was marked by trading expeditions to Punt. the military was able to
repel these invasions. tomb robbery and civil unrest. he touted the previously obscure sun
god Aten as the supreme deity. particularly by the Libyans and the Sea Peoples. Egypts
wealth. The impact of external threats was exacerbated by internal problems such as
corruption. The female pharaoh Ancient Egypt th century BC Hatshepsut used such
propaganda to legitimize her claim to the throne. After his death. made it a tempting target for
invasion. and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history. Ay. the stability of the
New Kingdom was threatened when Amenhotep IV ascended the throne and instituted a
series of radical and chaotic reforms. The high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes
accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth. Hatshepsuts nephewstepson Tuthmosis III
sought to erase her legacy near the end of his reign. cementing loyalties and opening access
to critical imports such as bronze and wood. fighting to a stalemate. The New Kingdom
pharaohs began a largescale building campaign to promote the god Amun. Ramesses II.
Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten modernday Amarna. possibly in retaliation for
usurping his throne. and attacked the power of the priestly establishment. Around BC. an
elegant mortuary temple. Four colossal statues of Ramesses II Ramesses II led his army
against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh and. Around BC. after flank the entrance of his
temple Abu Simbel. Military campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson
Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire Egypt had ever
seen. now known as the Amarna Period. . both real and imagined. finally agreed to the first
recorded peace treaty around BC. and Horemheb erased all mention of Akhenatens heresy.
however. Despite her achievements. a colossal pair of obelisks and a chapel at Karnak.
When Tuthmosis III died in BC. Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to foreign affairs and absorbed
himself in his new religion and artistic style. and the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun.
suppressed the worship of other deities. Changing his name to Akhenaten. also known as
Ramesses the Great. They also constructed monuments to The maximum territorial extent of
glorify their own achievements. but Egypt eventually lost control of Syria and Palestine.
whose growing cult was based in Karnak.Ancient Egypt New Kingdom The New Kingdom
pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and
strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbors. and their growing power splintered the
country during the Third Intermediate Period. the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned.
Egypt extended from Niya in north Syria to the fourth waterfall of the Nile in Nubia. and went
on to build more temples. erect more statues and obelisks. A bold military leader. Initially.
ascended the throne.
and by BC war between the two states became inevitable. . By BC. were filled with constant
conflict with the Assyrians. During this time. of both Kushite kings Taharqa and his
successor. seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta.Ancient Egypt Third
Intermediate Period Following the death of Ramesses XI in BC. but Egypt was never able to
permanently overthrow the Persians. began in BC. occupied Memphis. leaving Egypt under
the control of a satrapy. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt. ended in BC. Smendes
assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt. Shoshenq also gained control of southern
Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. the Assyrians left control
of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the TwentySixth
Dynasty. A brief restoration of Persian rule. who recognized Smendes in name only.
Following its annexation by Persia. Tanutamun. the powerful Persians. eventually capturing
the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. against whom the Nubian rulers enjoyed
several victories. but in BC. in BC. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais
witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture. ruling from the city of
Tanis. Around BC the Kushite king Piye invaded northward. Egypt was joined with Cyprus
and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. who were recruited to
form Egypts first navy. founding the socalled Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for
some years. and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Greek
influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta.
Egypts farreaching prestige declined considerably towards the end of the Third Intermediate
Period. but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa. sometimes known as the ThirtyFirst Dynasty.
led by Cambyses II. the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great
without a fight. which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II. Ultimately. began their
conquest of Egypt. Libyans had been settling in the western delta. but shortly after. and
Kushites threatened from the south. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq
I in BC. The south was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes. the
Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries. the
Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia. west fractured the political unity of Between
and BC the Assyrians began their attack on Egypt. and sacked the temples of Thebes. Its
foreign allies had fallen under the Assyrian sphere of Around BC Libyans from the influence.
also known as the TwentySeventh dynasty. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty
in the delta arose in Leontopolis. and from BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native
royal house of dynastic Egypt. A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the th
century BC. Late Period With no permanent plans for conquest. The reigns the country.
Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh.
Alexander the Great conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was
welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced
traditional Egyptian motifs. their top priority. Local administration became Roman in style and
closed to native Egyptians. though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The art of
mummy portraiture flourished. The Fayum mummy portraits epitomize the meeting of
Egyptian and Roman cultures. the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the
country. They built new temples in Egyptian style. and powerful Syrian opponents made this
situation unstable. The administration established by Alexanders successors. as exotic
luxuries were in high demand in Rome. While the native population continued to speak their
language. and the Roman army. The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships
which kept trade flowing through the city. ambitious politicians. as the Ptolemies made
commerce and revenuegenerating enterprises. Christianity took root in Alexandria as it was
seen as another cult that could be accepted. following the defeat of Marc Antony and
Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian later Emperor Augustus in the Battle of Actium.
such as papyrus manufacturing. bitter family rivalries. as Greek and Egyptian gods were
syncretized into composite deities. Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the
Greeks towards the Egyptians. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians.Ancient Egypt
Ptolemaic Dynasty In BC. it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from
paganism and threatened the popular religious traditions. The city was to showcase the
power and prestige of Greek rule. and prevented attacks by bandits. under the control of a
prefect appointed by the Emperor. and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. quelled
rebellions. which had become a notorious problem during the period. Greek culture did not
supplant native Egyptian culture. and some of the Roman emperors had themselves
depicted as pharaohs. In the Christian Emperor Theodosius introduced legislation that
banned pagan rites and closed temples. and the powerful mob of Alexandria which had
formed following the death of Ptolemy IV. Some traditions merged. centered at the famous
Library of Alexandria. the Ptolemies. . as the Ptolemies supported timehonored traditions in
an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. as Rome relied more heavily on imports of
grain from Egypt. Alexandria became the scene of great antipagan riots with public and
private religious imagery destroyed. Roman domination Egypt became a province of the
Roman Empire in BC. some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional
gods continued. the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion. supported traditional
cults. Continued Egyptian revolts. the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared
as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. In addition. such as
Serapis. However. culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in . The former lived
outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. The
Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt. leading Rome to send forces to
secure the country as a province of its empire. and became a seat of learning and culture.
Egypts pagan culture was continually in decline. strictly enforced the collection of heavy
taxes. As a consequence. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches
or abandoned to the desert. This led to persecution of converts to Christianity. Alexandria
became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient. From the midst
century. but eventually Christianity won out. was based on an Egyptian model and based in
the new capital city of Alexandria.
Not only were they houses of worship. according to the fixed price list. and even the lowliest
peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress. Grain could be traded for
other goods. ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and
opportunities for achievement. while a cow cost deben. who relied on a bureaucracy of
officials to manage his affairs. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt.
and engineers with specialized training in their field. The ancient Egyptians viewed men and
women. Social status Egyptian society was highly stratified. a weight of roughly grams oz of
copper or silver. at least in theory. while others wielded power as . Both men and women had
the right to own and sell property. Rome. the treasury. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt.
who redistributed grain and goods. In charge of the administration was his second in
command. they did use a type of moneybarter system. At first the coins were used as
standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money. but they were also under state
control. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. temple.
who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. Prices were fixed across the country
and recorded in lists to facilitate trading. At a regional level. Farmers were also subject to a
labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corve system.
the vizier. including people from all social classes except slaves. but were also responsible
for collecting and storing the nations wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries
administered by overseers. marry and divorce. make contracts. as essentially equal under
the law. the country was divided into as many as administrative regions called nomes each
governed by a nomarch. The king was the supreme military commander and head of the
government. and social status was expressly displayed. Although the ancient Egyptians did
not use coinage until the Late period. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra even
became pharaohs. and pursue legal disputes in court. Below the nobility were the priests.
working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury.
building projects. The temples formed the backbone of the economy. with standard sacks of
grain and the deben. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from
divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts. sacks kg or lb. which stipulated the financial
obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. forming a
common The pharaoh was usually depicted denominator. but in the following centuries
international traders came to rely on coinage. Farmers made up the bulk of the population.
receive inheritance. and even more modern places around the world. Artists and craftsmen
were of higher status than farmers. and the archives. but the extent and prevalence of its
practice are unclear. physicians. for example a shirt cost five copper deben.Ancient Egypt
Government and economy Administration and commerce The pharaoh was the absolute
monarch of the country and. or noble family that owned the land. wielded complete control of
the land and its resources. while a foreman might earn power. Workers were paid in grain.
but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state. a simple laborer might earn wearing
symbols of royalty and sacks kg or lb of grain per month. the socalled quotwhite kilt classquot
in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. Compared
with their counterparts in ancient Greece. the legal system. During the th century BC coined
money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. who acted as the kings representative and
coordinated land surveys. Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly
controlled.
. carried out by decapitation. were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims
and minor disputes. oracles played a major role in the legal system. and maintaining law and
order. some cases. beatings. and were not as likely to be as educated as men. technological.
Peret planting. allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural. Serious
crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution. Farming in Egypt was
dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. Legal system The head of the legal system was
officially the pharaoh. After the floodwaters had receded. which were irrigated with ditches A
tomb relief depicts workers plowing the fields. depositing on the rivers banks a layer of
mineralrich silt ideal for growing crops. and Shemu harvesting. Despite these freedoms.
facial mutilation. and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the
names of any coconspirators. drowning.Ancient Egypt Divine Wives of Amun. who was
responsible for enacting laws. More serious cases involving murder. Beginning in the New
Kingdom. Punishment could also be extended to the criminals family. dispensing justice in
both civil and criminal cases. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes
were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned. Although no legal codes from
ancient Egypt survive. Whether the charges were trivial or serious. or impaling the criminal
on a stake. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food. The
flooding season lasted from June to September. kept records. Punishment for minor crimes
involved either imposition of fines. court documents show that Egyptian law was based on a
commonsense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving
conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes. The procedure was to
ask the god a quotyesquot or quotnoquot question concerning the right or wrong of an issue.
served only secondary roles in the temples. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to
represent They assessed taxes. and threshing the grain under the direction of an overseer.
themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. moving forward
or backward. major land transactions. the growing season lasted from October to February.
testimony. Also see a BBC History article online for more information on gender equality in
ancient Egypt. Local councils of elders. ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in
official roles in the administration. known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom. or exile. and tomb
robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet. and verdict of the case for future reference. In
and were responsible for administration. carried by a number of priests. court scribes
documented the complaint. pharaoh presided. or pointing to one of the answers written on a
piece of papyrus or an ostracon. over which the vizier or Scribes were elite and well
educated. harvesting the crops. and artistic pursuits. the most important of which was the
rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile River. delivering justice. The
Egyptians recognized three seasons Akhet flooding. The god. Farmers plowed and planted
seeds in the fields. a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Maat. Agriculture A
combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient
Egyptian culture. rendered judgment by choosing one or the other. the state took on both the
role of prosecutor and judge. depending on the severity of the offense.
copper and lead ores. Dogs. and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms. Nodules
of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness
and durability even after copper was adopted for this . Animals The Egyptians believed that a
balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic
order. There were extensive gold mines in Nubia. geese. gold. and sustenance to the ancient
Egyptians. Natural resources Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone. and
semiprecious stones. Poultry such as ducks. Egypt received little rainfall. brewed to make
beer. Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with
them in their houses. which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the
grain. From March to May. where they were forcefed with dough to fatten them. animals and
plants were believed to be members of a single whole. and the Sennedjem plows his fields
with a pair of oxen. greywacke. companionship. which also provided the gypsum needed to
make plaster. or stored for later use. These fibers were split along their length and spun into
thread. melons. all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer.
Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period. and fashion
jewelry. Animals. farmers used sickles to harvest their crops. which was used to weave
sheets of linen and to make clothing.Ancient Egypt and canals. although known from the
New Kingdom. Cattle were the most important livestock. The ancient Egyptians cultivated
emmer and barley. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual.
There is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly utilized in the Late Period. was
not used as a beast of burden until the Late Period. and gold. the administration collected
taxes on livestock in regular censuses. squashes. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish.
were grown for the fibers of their stems. Orebearing rock formations were found in distant.
size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them.
and several other cereal grains. the ancient Egyptians kept sheep. such as the cat goddess
Bastet and the ibis god Thoth. goats. and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence
of habitation in the Nile valley. were therefore a critical source of spirituality. were reserved
for royalty. Flax plants. used as beasts of burden and a source of food. both domesticated
and wild. uprooted before they started flowering. garlic. and had to be watered by hand. Bees
were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom. but largely abandoned due to lack of
grazing land. requiring large. close to habitations and on higher ground. pulses. make tools.
and these animals were bred in large numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.
Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. The ancient
Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden. During the Predynastic and Late
periods. sculpt statues. Vegetables included leeks. the worship of the gods in their animal
form was extremely popular. and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region.
and pigs. in addition to grapes that were made into wine. Winnowing removed the chaff from
the grain. so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. Embalmers used salts from the
Wadi Natrun for mummification. thus humans. such as lions. Flint was the first mineral
collected and used to make tools. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite.
inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the Sinai. while more exotic pets imported from
the heart of Africa. In addition to cattle. and they provided both honey and wax. Vegetables
and fruits were grown in garden plots. and the camel. These natural resources allowed the
ancient Egyptians to build monuments. cats and monkeys were common family pets. and the
grain was then ground into flour. lettuce. statecontrolled expeditions to obtain natural
resources found there. and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed
into the soil. and other crops.
and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. as evidenced by Palestinianstyle oil jugs
found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. and basalt and sandstone from the wadis
of the eastern desert. The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas
to make net sinkers. which provided. . BC to the Middle Ages and remaining as a spoken
language for longer. but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around Memphis and
later Thebes. Ancient Egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as
cosmetic substances. Language Historical development r n kmt Egyptian language in
hieroglyphs The Egyptian language is a northern AfroAsiatic language closely related to the
Berber and Semitic languages. trade with Punt provided gold. having been written from c.
ebony. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was
smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Highquality building stones were
abundant in Egypt. Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial
deposits. ivory. By the Fifth Dynasty. Coptic is still used in the liturgy of the Egyptian
Orthodox Church. they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. the ancient
Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley. Egypt mainly exported grain. The
Egyptian hieroglyphic. Egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before Coptic. which
replace the older inflectional suffixes. but it became more analytic later on. supplies of olive
oil. Late Egyptian develops prefixal definite and indefinite articles. and small figurines. It has
the second longest history of any language after Sumerian. plumb bobs. Middle Egyptian
Classical Egyptian. both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. Demotic and
Coptic.Ancient Egypt purpose. and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more
phonetic Coptic alphabet. aromatic resins. in addition to other finished goods including glass
and stone objects. They also established trade with Palestine. Narmer had Egyptian pottery
produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt. An Egyptian colony stationed in southern
Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. In the Predynastic Period. Egypt relied on
trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper.
miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi elHudi. alabaster.
hieratic. In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials. In the Ptolemaic and Roman
Periods. There is a change from the older Verb Subject Object word order to Subject Verb
Object. among other goods. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry. and traces of it
are found in modern Egyptian Arabic. By the Second Dynasty at latest. The phases of
Ancient Egyptian are Old Egyptian. Egypts Mediterranean trade partners also included
Greece and Crete. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli. Iron deposits
found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period. linen. and carnelian dotted the eastern
desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. Trade The ancient Egyptians
engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare. Ancient Egyptian was a synthetic
language. Late Egyptian. ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of
quality timber not found in Egypt. greywacke. and papyrus. which had to be imported from
faraway Afghanistan. granite from Aswan. exotic goods not found in Egypt. gold. or by the
more laborintensive process of grinding and washing goldbearing quartzite.
after the discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by Thomas Young and
JeanFranois Champollion.Ancient Egypt Sounds and grammar Ancient Egyptian has
consonants similar to those of other AfroAsiatic languages. Adjectives are derived from
nouns through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with
Arabic. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction though
typically written from right to left. or a silent determinative. suffixes are not added to the verb
sm mt the woman hears. used on stone monuments and in tombs. Verbs and nouns are
negated by the particle n. Demotic signs. a sound. If the subject is a noun. towards the end
only a small handful of priests could still read them. The basic word in Egyptian. A new form
of writing. and is composed of some symbols. Coptic is a modified Greek alphabet with the
addition of some of hieroglyph decipherment. that could be as detailed as individual works of
art. the triconsonantal skeleton SM is the semantic core of the word hear. and the same
symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts. voiced and voiceless stops. A
hieroglyph can represent a word. Suffixes are added to form words. which expanded in Later
Egyptian to about nine. voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. The verb
conjugation corresponds to the person. Writing Hieroglyphic writing dates to c. scribes used
a cursive form of writing. which was quicker and easier. knowledge of hieroglyphic writing
was mostly lost. which can be open CV or closed CVC. became the prevalent writing style.
Around the st century AD. usually in horizontal rows. The subject can be moved to the
beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun. As the traditional
religious establishments were disbanded. The word order is PREDICATESUBJECT in verbal
and adjectival sentences. It has three long and three short vowels. Demotic. were
hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered. and SUBJECTPREDICATE in nominal and adverbial
sentences. the Coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the enabled linguists to begin
the process Demotic script. For example. but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival
sentences. but only in . similar to Semitic and Berber. Although formal hieroglyphs were used
in a ceremonial role until the th century. its basic conjugation is he hears. These include
pharyngeal and emphatic consonants. BC. In daytoday writing. is a triliteral or biliteral root of
consonants and semiconsonants. called hieratic. Hieroglyphs were a formal script. The
Rosetta stone ca BC . Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods
in Egypt. hieratic was always written from right to left. Stress falls on the ultimate or
penultimate syllable. and it is this form of writingalong with formal hieroglyphsthat accompany
the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.
Culture Daily life Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were
restricted to immediate family members. Towards the end of the New Kingdom. Clothing was
made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white. Most bathed in the Nile and used a
pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. while the father provided the familys income.
such as the Pyramid and Coffin Texts. and cosmetics. written in Middle Egyptian. It was
primarily an occupation of the scribes. Later Egyptian was spoken from the The Edwin Smith
surgical papyrus New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative ca th
century BC describes documents. From about BC. while wooden stools. love poetry and
tales. and aromatic perfumes and ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. the Ipuwer
papyrus. the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography. Some of the
bestknown pieces of ancient Egyptian literature. Children went without clothing until maturity.
which contained a grindstone for milling flour and a small oven for baking bread. which
continued to be the language of writing until about BC. is written in hieratic. Floors were
covered with reed mats. libraries called House of Books. The former tells the story of a noble
who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt.
Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children. might be the classic of Egyptian
literature. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof. beds raised from the floor and
individual tables comprised the furniture. at about age . jewelry. narrative stories and
instructions. when Egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as
Ramesses II. laboratories and observatories. During anatomy and medical treatments and
this period. The Story of Sinuhe. and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads
shaved. The Instruction of Amenemope is considered a masterpiece of neareastern
literature. Statues depicting lowerclass Ancient Egyptian occupations. such as the popular
Instructions of Onchsheshonqy. a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels
performed by priests.Ancient Egypt Literature Writing first appeared in association with
kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. Men shaved their entire bodies for
cleanliness. as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts. such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. . as
well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of
Egyptian. The latter comprised offices. The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on
hygiene and appearance. Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus. Walls were
painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. and were constructed of
mudbrick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Many stories written in demotic
during the GraecoRoman period were set in previous historical eras. and both men and
women of the upper classes wore wigs. The genre known as Sebayt Instructions was
developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles. a poem of
lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval. is a famous example. who
worked out of the Per Ankh institution or the House of Life. were written in Classical
Egyptian. the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the
Story of Wenamun and the Instruction of Any.
and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan. The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a
variety of leisure activities. the Egyptians played on bells. The staple diet consisted of bread
and beer. In the New Kingdom. The excavation of the workers village of Deir elMadinah has
resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient
world that spans almost four hundred years. social interactions. while instruments similar to
trumpets. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged
on a more regular basis. Fish. which had a circular gaming board. supplemented with
vegetables such as onions and garlic. Juggling and ball games were popular with children.
cymbals. the cuisine of modern Egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the
ancients. tambourines. . There is no comparable site in which the organisation. The sistrum
was a rattlelike musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies. a
board game where pieces moved according to random chance. and pipes developed later
and became popular. Senet. Early instruments included flutes and harps. and fruit such as
dates and figs. and fowl could be salted or dried. Karnak temples hypostyle halls are
constructed with rows of thick columns supporting the roof beams. including games and
music. Cuisine Egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time. and could be cooked
in stews or roasted on a grill.Ancient Egypt Music and dance were popular entertainments for
those who could afford them. working and living conditions of a community can be studied in
such detail. The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating
as well. oboes. was particularly popular from the earliest times. indeed. The ancient
Egyptians maintained a rich cultural heritage complete with feasts and festivals accompanied
by music and dance. another similar game was mehen. and drums and imported lutes and
lyres from Asia. meat.
coffins. show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people. and religious scenes.
In the New Kingdom. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art. and even
statues. The earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the
mastaba.Ancient Egypt Architecture The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the
most famous structures in the world the Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes.
a style that was standard until the GraecoRoman period. and limestone white. soot or
Thutmose. architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision.
exemplar of Egyptian architecture. The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians
alike were The well preserved Temple of Horus at Edfu is an constructed from perishable
materials such as mud bricks and wood. such as those in Malkata and Amarna. The
architectural elements used in the worlds first largescale stone building. copper ores blue
and green. and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temples sanctuary. following a
strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. Paints could be
mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes. The earliest preserved ancient
Egyptian temples. During the Middle Kingdom. include post and lintel supports in the papyrus
and lotus motif. for example. water pools. these . by the sculptor such as iron ores red and
yellow ochres. These artistic standardssimple lines. wooden or clay models depicting scenes
from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. Pyramids were built during the Old
and Middle Kingdoms. but later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rockcut
tombs. deities and geometric designs. the open courtyard. artists adhered to artistic forms
and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom. which could be moistened
with water when needed. ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with
precision and clarity. Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs.
The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders. Because of the rigid rules that governed its
highly stylized and symbolic appearance. but used wood as a cheap and easily carved
substitute. The step pyramid of Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each
other. Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle. using simple but effective tools and
sighting instruments. shapes. architects added the pylon. Paints were obtained from minerals
The Bust of Nefertiti. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls.
The Narmer Palette. Building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious
and commemorative purposes. birds. A few surviving New Kingdom palaces. which they
believed would protect them in the afterlife. charcoal black. In an attempt to duplicate the
activities of the living in the afterlife. stelae. enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by
columns. Peasants lived in simple homes. consist of single. such as shabti statues and
books of the dead. a flatroofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an
underground burial chamber. while the palaces of the elite were more elaborate structures.
and have not survived. is one of the most famous masterpieces of ancient Egyptian art. such
as those at Giza. royal decrees. Art The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional
purposes. displays figures which may also be read as hieroglyphs. Important structures such
as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of
bricks. but also to reinforce the power of the pharaoh. Djosers mortuary complex. For over
years. and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no
indication of spatial depthcreated a sense of order and balance within a composition.
a ba personality or soul. The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of
physical and spiritual parts or aspects. a ka lifeforce. in which the heart was weighed against
a quotfeather of truthquot. living on as an akh. boats. Despite the homogeneity of ancient
Egyptian art. shadow. known as Amarna art. Common citizens could worship private statues
in their homes. and a name. but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and
sometimes conflicting creation myths and stories into a coherent system. In addition to the
body. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation. and only on select feast
days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public
worship. priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to
the people. the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or
political attitudes. but they required the physical remains or a substitute. the deceased had to
be judged worthy in a trial. In order for this to happen. This style. was considered the seat of
thoughts and emotions. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period.
Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. the pharaohs role as
a spiritual intermediary was deemphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of
the gods. was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenatens death and replaced by the
traditional forms.Ancient Egypt models show laborers. . As a result. pharaonic rule was
based on the divine right of kings. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and
ba and become one of the quotblessed deadquot. However. The structure of this pantheon
changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy. The heart. and even
military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife. rather
than the brain. houses. After the New Kingdom. If deemed worthy. each person had a wt The
Ka statue provided a physical place for the Ka to manifest. such as a statue as a permanent
home. the gods were not always viewed as benevolent. These various conceptions of divinity
were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.
Minoanstyle frescoes were found in Avaris. and The Book of the Dead was a guide to the
deceaseds journey in the afterlife. or quoteffective onequot. Gods were worshiped in cult
temples administered by priests acting on the kings behalf. the deceased could continue their
existence on earth in spiritual form. the gods domain was sealed off from the outside world
and was only accessible to temple officials. Religious beliefs Beliefs in the divine and in the
afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception. The Egyptian
pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help
or protection. The most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes
from the Amarna period. where figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenatens
revolutionary religious ideas. Normally. At the center of the temple was the cult statue in a
shrine. After death. and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. the spiritual
aspects were released from the body and could move at will.
Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases. he attends to a mummy. and
desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The arid. The military protected
mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First
and Second Intermediate Periods. Beginning in the New Kingdom.Ancient Egypt Burial
customs The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they
believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. performing burial ceremonies.
Wealthier Egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and. who could not afford the
elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. The military was responsible for
maintaining fortifications along important trade routes. wrapping the body in linen. such as
those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. By the New Kingdom. such as this
golden mask from the mummy of Tutankhamun. living relatives were expected to
occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased. and for
maintaining Egypts domination in the ancient Near East. such as the fortress at Sile. bodies
buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. books of the dead were
included in the grave. regardless of social status. Wealthy Egyptians were buried with larger
quantities of luxury items. desert conditions continued to be a boon throughout the history of
ancient Egypt for the burials of the poor. These customs involved preserving the body by
mummification. here. but all burials. Anubis was the ancient Egyptian god associated with
mummification and burial rituals. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted
cartonnage mummy cases. Rituals in which the deceased was magically reanimated
accompanied burials. . and interring. along with shabti statues that were believed to perform
manual labor for them in the afterlife. Pharaohs tombs were provided with vast quantities of
wealth. which was decorated. the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification.
as a result. After burial. which involved removing the internal organs. goods to be used by
the deceased in the afterlife. while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of
the mummy. and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. which was
a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. The body was then wrapped in linen with
protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. they
made use of artificial mummification. a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army
to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant. In the New Kingdom. Before the Old
Kingdom. included goods for the deceased. the best technique took days and involved
removing the internal organs. removing the brain through the nose. some parts were
preserved separately in canopic jars. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty. Actual preservation
practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras. along with the body. An Egyptian
chariot. Military The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for defending Egypt against
foreign invasion.
and an alkali such as natron. spears. figurines. lime. Glassmaking was a highly developed
art. and a colorant. BC. small amounts of lime and soda. as evidenced by the Edwin Smith
and Ebers papyri c. tiles. By a related technique. and the roots of the scientific method can
also be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. which they melted and finished. and especially
after. mercenaries from Nubia. but typically production involved application of the powdered
materials in the form of a paste over a clay core. but it is not clear whether they developed
the process independently. Technology. spears were tipped with a bronze point. and the
Khopesh was adopted from Asiatic soldiers. Traditional empiricism. and Libya were hired to
fight for Egypt. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment. which they treated as
a type of artificial semiprecious stone. also called blue frit. red. ancient Egypt achieved a
relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. the ancient Egyptians had
developed a glassy material known as faience. In the New Kingdom. The pharaoh was
usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army. Faience is a nonclay
ceramic made of silica. the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by
the Hyksos invaders. the New Kingdom. It is also unclear whether they made their own raw
glass or merely imported premade ingots. but during. and white. green. and the glass could
be made either transparent or opaque. including yellow. Kush. copper. purple.Ancient Egypt
Typical military equipment included bows and arrows. blue. did do so. Soldiers were
recruited from the general population. they did have technical expertise in making objects.
and roundtopped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. However.
Faience and glass Even before the Old Kingdom. The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a
wide variety of objects from glass with great skill. . A range of colors could be produced.
Several methods can be used to create faience. and small wares. typically copper. The
material was used to make beads. medicine and mathematics. as well as adding trace
elements to control the color of the finished glass. The Egyptians created their own alphabet
and decimal system. which is produced by fusing or sintering silica. which was then fired.
such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the
adoption of bronze shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle. is first
credited to Egypt. and there is evidence that at least a few pharaohs. the ancient Egyptians
produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue. medicine. and mathematics Technology In
technology.
Shipbuilding Early Egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull as early
as BC. like Imhotep.Ancient Egypt Medicine The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians
stemmed directly from their environment.meter vessel sealed into a pit in the Giza pyramid
complex at the foot of the Great Pyramid of Giza in the Fourth Dynasty around BC. The grit
and sand from stoneground flour abraded teeth. pads and swabs soaked with honey to
prevent infection. Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat. a . Living and working
close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites.
originally they were all thought to have belonged to him. Dangerous wildlife such as
crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. which caused liver and intestinal damage.
Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization Kom Ombo. Early
Egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon
joints.yearold ship may have even belonged to Pharaoh Aha. The lifelong labors of farming
and building put stress on the spine and joints. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on
tomb walls. Early Egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to
fasten them together. remained famous long after their period inscription on the temple at
deaths. and practical treatments. The Archaeological Institute of America reports that some
of the oldest ships yet unearthed are known as the Abydos boats. Training of physicians took
place at the Per Ankh or quotHouse of Lifequot institution. Despite the ancient Egyptians
ability to construct very large boats to . nets. injuries. while others were eyedoctors and
dentists. among Egyptian physicians. Because the ships are all buried together and near a
mortuary belonging to Pharaoh Khasekhemwy. The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars.
using pitch for caulking the seams. is a fullsize surviving example which may have fulfilled
the symbolic function of a solar barque. woven straps were found to have been used to lash
the planks together. The ship dating to BC was feet m long and is now thought to perhaps
have belonged to an earlier pharaoh. which promoted periodontal disease. but reaching
adulthood was difficult as about onethird of the population died in infancy. white linen. the .
and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body. set
broken bones. while opium was used to relieve pain. Adult life expectancy was about for men
and for women. but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only
make the patient comfortable until he died. and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks
helped to seal the seams. and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also
suggest earlier dating. The quotKhufu shipquot. sutures. Ancient Egyptian medical Ancient
Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their instruments depicted in
a Ptolemaic healing skills. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy. and some.
Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve
asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds. with some treating only the
head or the stomach. but one of the ships dates to BC. most notably those headquartered in
PerBastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Sas in the Late period. the
overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence.
These are a group of discovered ships in Abydos that were constructed of wooden planks
which were quotsewnquot together. According to professor OConnor. leaving them
susceptible to abscesses though caries were rare. and amputated diseased limbs.
Discovered by Egyptologist David OConnor of New York University.
triangles.Ancient Egypt sail along the easily navigable Nile. Each of these could be written
as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number. . Ancient Egyptian
mathematicians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem. however.
in hieroglyphs Mathematical notation was decimal. and calculate the surface areas of
rectangles. but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian
practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and
harmony. Mathematics The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to
the predynastic Naqada period. subtraction. compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids.
Some common fractions. multiplication. Area D r . and divisionuse fractions. so to write the
number eighty or eight hundred. labor and grain. the fraction twofifths was resolved into the
sum of onethird onefifteenth. knowing. and could solve simple sets of simultaneous
equations. The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions. ancient
Egyptian fractions had to be written as the sum of several fractions. the symbol for ten or one
hundred was written eight times respectively. and show a fully developed numeral system.
for example. circles and even spheres. they were not known as good sailors and did not
engage in widespread sailing or shipping in the Mediterranean or Red Seas. They
understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry. the equivalent of the modern twothirds
is shown on the right. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested
by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition
between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting
of land. this was facilitated by standard tables of values. Because their methods of
calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one. that a triangle
had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a ratio. including the
pyramids. were written with a special glyph. Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus
and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the
four basic mathematical operationsaddition. and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power
of ten up to one million. For example. They were able to estimate the area of a circle by
subtracting oneninth from its diameter and squaring the result a reasonable approximation of
the formula r.r.
ucl. . Retrieved March . Digital Egypt for Universities. V. uk/ chronology/ index. which was
published in the Description de lgypte. became popular in the Roman Empire. quot Worlds
Oldest Planked Boats http/ / www. The cult of the goddess Isis. Although the European
colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the countrys historical legacy.
Raphael . Clayton p. purchased. html and http/ / www. Aston . OCLC. digitalegypt. Dodson p.
Cheryl. digitalegypt. Gordon . quotAncient Egyptian Stone Vessels. Egyptian pagan culture
was in decline after the rise of Tourists riding a bactrian camel in front of Pyramid of Khafre. .
com/ idAmYcgRkCamp printsecfrontcoverPPA. . . who took.Ancient Egypt Legacy The
culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. org/ /
abstracts/ abydos. James p. html. Also note Barbara G. leading to a wave of Egyptomania
across Europe. in Archaeology Volume . See online posts http/ / www. Ward. but interest in
Egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as DhulNun alMisri
and alMaqrizi. This renewed interest sent collectors to Egypt. University College London. ac.
Archaeological Institute of America. The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and
oversees all excavations. During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. uk/ foreignrelations/
obsidian. European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their
journeys.. quotChildren of Noah Jewish Seafaring in Ancient Timesquot Princeton Uni Press
Barbara G. Ian Shaw . Ikram. . Number . Manuelian pp. google. html. for example. Nicholson
and Ian Shaw editors. . James p. In the th and th centuries. ucl. LCCN Hayes p. Retrieved
July . Clayton p. Cambridge. Heidelberg. The council also supervises museums and
monument reconstruction programs designed to preserve the historical legacy of Egypt.
Salima .M. University of Cambridge. ac. quotNew light on the most ancient Near Eastquot
Praeger Publications Patai. Shaw pp. Early historians such as Herodotus. the Egyptian
Government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and
integrity in excavations. ucl. pp.quot in Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology.
Christianity and later Islam. for example. Shaw p. ac. Strabo and Diodorus Siculus studied
and wrote about the land which became viewed as a place of mystery. Aston.
archaeology.quot Studien zur Archologie und Geschichte Altgyptens . . Paul T. quotStone.
James A. or were given many important antiquities. uk/ stone/ obsidian. arranged the first
studies in Egyptology when he brought some scientists and artists to study and document
Egypts natural history. Notes quotChronologyquot http/ / www. Giza Pyramids are one of
Egypts most popular tourist draws. The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt
to erect structures in Egyptian style. Childe. pp. In the th century. digitalegypt. May/June .
ISBN. p. htmlquot. Harrell. Choice Cuts Meat Production in Ancient Egypt http/ / books. as
obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. which are aimed at finding
information rather than treasure. Napoleon. some foreigners had more positive results.
Shaw p. digitalegypt. ac. Tyldesley pp. ancientsudan. Retrieved March . Oxford University
Press US. Shaw p. Digital Egypt for Universities. html. ac. Cline p. From his two principal
wives and large harem. Retrieved March . Manuelian p. ac. http/ / www. htm Shaw p. Clayton
pp. ucl. uk/ faience/ periods. p. html.Ancient Egypt quotChronology of the Naqada Periodquot
http/ / www. James p. Clayton p. Ryholt p. Cerny p. digitalegypt. Allen p. digitalegypt.
Retrieved March . ISBN quotChristianizing the Roman Empire A. Yale University Press.
quotThe Kushite Conquest of Egyptquot. Shaw pp. Shaw p. uk/ naqadan/ chronology. Shaw
p. Ramsay MacMullen. digitalegypt. Shaw p. . Shaw p. quotFaience in different Periodsquot
http/ / www. ucl. co. Shaw pp. Digital Egypt for Universities. James p. .D quot. Shaw p.
AncientSudan Nubia. quotThe Church in Ancient Societyquot. Shaw p. quotHatshepsutquot
http/ / www. uk/ history/ ancient/ egyptians/ apocalypseegypt. . James p. . University College
London. Shaw p. Retrieved December . bbc. Clayton p. Shaw p. Shaw p. Shaw p. .
University College London. p. Clayton p. Shaw pp. Shaw p. Robins p. ac. quotEarly Dynastic
Egyptquot http/ / www. html. ucl. University College London. . org/ historyassyro. uk/
archaicegypt/ info. . Henry Chadwick. uk/ chronology/ hatshepsut. Digital Egypt for
Universities. University College London. Clayton p. Ramesses II sired more than children.
quotThe Fall of the Old Kingdomquot http/ / www. Aldred p. Shaw p. ISBN Shaw p. Shaw p. .
Clayton p. Robins p. Fekri Hassan. Shaw p. James p. Retrieved March . htmlnaqadaI. .
Shaw p. Shaw p. Shaw p. James p. Clayton p. British Broadcasting Corporation. Manuelian
p. shtml. Digital Egypt for Universities. . ucl.
Shaw p. http/ / www. ac. quotSocial classes in ancient Egyptquot http/ / www. Manuelian p.
ucl. Loprieno p. . eoearth.Jorgensen and C. lib.quot in Bulletin of the Egyptological.
Nicholson pp. Loprieno a p.quot in The Nile Delta in Transition th to rd Millennium BC .
quotAn Egyptian Colony in Southern Palestine During the Late Predynastic to Early Dynastic.
Manuelian p. . uchicago. bbc. . Loprieno b p. Sulfur. Manuelian p. Harris p. pp. . . Oakes p.
uk/ history/ ancient/ egyptians/ women. ElDaly p. Manuelian p. Naomi Porat. quotWomens
Legal Rights in Ancient Egyptquot http/ / fathom. Shaw p. . digitalegypt. Allen p. digitalegypt.
quotLocal Industry of Egyptian Pottery in Southern Palestine During the Early Bronze I
Period. Washington DC http/ / www. See also University College London web post.
University College London. Retrieved December . A maintained BBC History article by Dr.
Nicholson p. Nicholson p. Vittman pp. Manuelian p. Nicholson p. . Naomi Porat and Edwin
van den Brink editor. McDowell p. pp. Nicholson p. Lucas p. Loprieno p. Loprieno p. uk/
foreignrelations/ stdynegyppotsinpalestine. Strouhal p. co. Billard p.J. ac. Nicholson p.
Johnson. Greaves p. Lichtheim p. . html. Digital Egypt for Universities. Nicholson p. Allen p.
ucl. Seminar /. org/ article/ Sulfurtopic Scheel p. National Council for Science and the
environment. shtml Oakes p. C. James p. Loprieno b p.Michael Hogan. . Joann Fletcher last
updated Nov. A. uk/ social/ index. html. Nicholson p. University of Chicago. and Strouhal
p.Ancient Egypt Meskell p. Allen p. Walbank p. Encyclopedia of Earth. Loprieno p. Lichtheim
p. Loprieno p. Janet H.Cleveland. Loprieno a p. Retrieved August . eds. Loprieno p. http/ /
www. Allen pp. edu/ / / .
org/ online/ news/ abydos. html. Stroual p. Clarke pp. Ptolemaic. Manuelian pp. uk/
burialcustoms/ shabtis. quotMummies and Mummification Late Period. pp.C. c. html. Digital
Egypt for Universities. Nicholson p. . uk/ furniture/ music. Filer p. p. University College
London. December . Nicholson p. . quotMusic in Ancient Egyptquot http/ / www. Robins p.
html. html. Digital Egypt for Universities. Retrieved March . ucl. ac. Robins p. Wasserman.
digitalegypt. Filer p.JGaddN. Retrieved March . . Badawy p. ac. Digital Egypt for Universities.
Retrieved March . Allen pp. Digital Egypt for Universities. James p. ucl. Manuelian p.
digitalegypt. html. . quotTypes of temples in ancient Egyptquot http/ / www. ucl. B. .
Manuelian pp. University College London. uk/ temple/ typestime. Cambridge University
Press. . Nicholson p.Ancient Egypt quotWisdom in Ancient Israelquot. Strouhal p. ac.
Nicholson p. Cambridge at the University Press. Retrieved March . Robins p.E. Filer
p.Sollberger. Filer pp. Schuster. Gordon/ Hugh Godfrey/Maturin Williamson. Nicholson p.
ac.L HammondE. Clayton p. p.H. The Middle East and the Aegean Region. quotShabtisquot
http/ / www. ISBN X James p. . archaeology. . . John Day. Shaw p. quotMummies and
Mummification Old Kingdomquot http/ / www. edited by Donald B. Manuelian p. digitalegypt.
Berkley./John Adney Emerton. quotThe Oxford Guide Essential Guide to Egyptian
Mythologyquot.G. .S EdwardsC. University College London. Edited I./Robert P. Digital Egypt
for Universities. quot This Old Boat http/ / www. Stroual pp. ucl. University College London.
ucl. Archaeological Institute of America. ISBN Manuelian pp. Retrieved March . htmlquot.
University College London. ISBN Lichtheim p. . Filer p. Angela M. Robins p. et al. . Dodson
p. ac. digitalegypt. Shaw p. Manuelian p. uk/ mummy/ ok. Shaw p. p. Figures are given for
adult life expectancy and do not reflect life expectancy at birth. digitalegypt. James p. Robins
p. James p. Redford. Filer p. Manuelian p. The Cambridge Ancient History II Part I . Roman
and Christian Periodquot http/ / www. uk/ mummy/ late. Robins p. Shaw p.
T. New York Dover Publications. Imhausen et al. Gardiner p. C. . Strouhal p. London. and
Islam A Sourcebook. ElDaly. Jules B. England Griffith Institute. ISBN. Kim Plofker.. ISBN.. .
Imhausen. James. UK Cambridge University Press. Vol III. Imhausen et al.Ancient Egypt
Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is incomplete due to paucity of available material
and lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered. ISBN. J . London.C. p.
Akhenaten. Dauben. ISBN. Joyce . Siliotti p. Clarke. Ancient Egypt Discovering its
Splendors. J. p. Ann Arbor. Berkeley. p. England Thames amp Hudson. Dodson. London.
Filer. Ann Arbor. ISBN. Oxford. China. Lennart Berggren. Katz . ISBN. ISBN. Allen. The
Neolithic and Chalcolithic Communities of Northern Egyptquot. The British Museum Concise
Introduction to Ancient Egypt. James P. Victor J. Amenhotep III Perspectives on His Reign.
Badawy.G. . Hayes.H. Egypt from the Death of Ramesses III to the End of the TwentyFirst
Dynasty in The Middle East and the Aegean Region c. Cambridge. Michigan University of
Michigan Press. ISBN. . David Kevin . ISBN. p. Alexander . India. The Mathematics of Egypt.
quotMost Ancient Egypt Chapter III. ISBN. Chronicle of the Pharaohs. OConnor.
Mesopotamia. Texas University of Texas Press. Somers. London. Eric H. Dyan . Ancient
Egyptian Construction and Architecture. Aidan. ElDaly p. Gardiner. Annette. Washington D.
National Geographic Society. Unabridged Dover reprint of Ancient Egyptian Masonry The
Building Craft originally published by Oxford University Press/Humphrey Milford. References
Aldred. Clarke p. Okasha . King of Egypt. Cerny. Hilton. Sir Alan . Joseph W. October .
Disease. W. England UCL Press. Buckinghamshire. Siliotti p. Clarke p. Egyptian Grammar
Being an Introduction to the Study of Hieroglyphs. Clayton. Clarke p. Eleanor Robson.
Egyptology The Missing Millennium. ISBN. Siliotti p. Egyptian Rock Cut Tombs. The
Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Billard. ISBN. Siliotti p. England Thames and
Hudson. Middle Egyptian An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs.
Imhausen et al. California University of California Press. JNES . Cambridge. Austin. ISBN.
London.BC. Engelbach . R. Kemp p. New York. Dodson. . A History of Egyptian Architecture.
Cyril . Princeton Princeton University Press. UK Cambridge University Press. Aidan . . UK
Shire Publications Ltd. ISBN. Cline. Peter A. England Thames and Hudson. Michigan
University of Michigan Press.
ISBN. ISBN. Eugen . Lynn . Religions. Nicholson. ISBN./. . ISBN.. Egypt The World of the
Pharaohs. G. London. Barry . Harmondsworth. Lichtheim. UK Cambridge University Press.
ISBN. . Edison. Spatial. Berkeley. Norman. Robins. England Egypt Exploration Society . th
Ed. Life in Ancient Egypt. Vienna University . Oxford. vol . quotZum koptischen Sprachgut im
gyptischArabischquot. ISBN. A. London. Alfred . J. Peter Der . Loprieno. quotAncient
Egyptian and other Afroasiatic Languagesquot. Cambridge. Ancient Egyptian Materials and
Industries. A Book of Readings. Miriam . Ancient Egyptian Literature. ISBN. Lucas. Kim
January . Ancient Egyptian Literature. Loprieno. Alberto .Ancient Egypt Kemp.
Massachusetts Harvard University Press. New York Barnes amp Noble. McDowell. England
Oxford University Press. Village life in ancient Egypt laundry lists and love songs. Oklahoma
University of Oklahoma Press. Bonner Strae. England University of California Press. Shaw.
Manuelian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oakes. Antonio a. Austria Institut fr
Orientalistik. ISBN. England Berg Publishers. Loprieno. Oxford. Cambridge. Ramesses
Egypts greatest pharaoh. et al. Ancient Egypt Anatomy of a Civilization. MalloryGreenough.
Leanne M. UK Cambridge University Press. England Edward Arnold Publishers. Cambridge.
Paul T. London. . M. Ryholt. Miriam . ISBN. Scheel.. . . quotAncient Egyptian and Copticquot.
New York. Wiener Zeitschrift fr die Kunde des Morgenlandes Vienna. Inc. pp. New Jersey
Book Sales. In Woodward. England Oxford University Press.. Roger D. ISBN. MidantReynes.
Siliotti. ISBN. Oxford. ISBN. G. California University of California Press. England Penguin.
Pyramids and Temples of the Land of the Pharaohs. Cologne Germany Knemann
Verlagsgesellschaft mbH. Copenhagen. Vittman. Ancient Egyptian Materials and
Technology. ISBN. The Art of Ancient Egypt. Great Britain Shire Publications Ltd. ISBN.
ISBN. Meskell. Cambridge. and Temporal Distribution of Predynastic and First Dynasty
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Egyptian Archaeology London. doi. The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second
Intermediate Period. In Sasson. Batrix . Egyptian Metalworking and Tools. Haverfordwest.
Tyldesley. Bernd . The Prehistory of Egypt From the First Egyptians to the First Pharaohs.
pp. Strouhal. Gay . quotThe Geographical. Denmark Museum Tusculanum. UK Cambridge
University Press. ISBN. Object Worlds in Ancient Egypt Material Biographies Past and
Present Materializing Culture. Vol III The Late Period. England Routledge. Antonio b.
England Blackwell Publishers. Ancient Egyptian A linguistic introduction. ISBN. ISBNX.. The
Discovery of Ancient Egypt. . . The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the Worlds Ancient
Languages. pp. New York Charles Scribner.. Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Ian .
London Thames amp Hudson. Redford. London Thames and
Hudson.com/science/metallurgy.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/provides a reliable general
overview and further links Ancient History Encyclopedia http//www. Oxford University Press.
Ancient Egypt http//www. http//www. The Complete Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt.
Donald B. ISBN.. KA . Eva .uk/ Outstanding scholarly treatment with broad coverage and
cross references internal and external.digitalegypt. London. The Egyptian Book of the dead.
Ancient Egypt http//www. ISBN.about. Frank William .htm.com/
od/fromexhibitions/ig/NapoleonontheNile/Joseph. ISBN.ancientegyptpriests. Wasserman.
ISBN. Mark . Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. and the Rediscovery of
Egypt. California Chronicle Books.co.htm A site that shows the history of Egyptian
metalworking Napoleon on the Nile Soldiers. the Book of going forth by day being the
Papyrus of Ani. Faulkner. this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older
children and young adolescents Digital Egypt for Universities. Wilkinson. The Cambridge
ancient history.google. R.. ed . Further reading Baines.aldokkan. ISBN.ucl. .Ancient Egypt
Walbank. Cambridge. Blackwell Books. http//books. Bard. ISBN. Raymond Oliver. H. . Von
Dassow.bbc.uk/maintained by the British Museum. religious services and temples. The
Complete Pyramids. ISBN.ac. Wilkinson. John and Jaromir Malek . In English and German.
NY Routledge.co. Grimal. Nicolas . The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt. Priests of
Ancient Egypt http//www.com/ Indepthinformation about Ancient Egypts priests. San
Francisco. External links BBC History Egyptians http//www.ancientegypt. The Cultural Atlas
of Ancient Egypt revised ed. Lehner.com/
booksvidISBNampidToLAAAAIAAJampdqPtahHotepampasbrr Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy
http//www.com/egypt/ on Egypt Ancient Egyptian Science A Source Book Door Marshall
Clagett. ISBN. Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics. Ogden. Art History
http//arthistory. A History of Ancient Egypt.eu. R. Much picture material and
bibliography.history. Goelet. Facts on File. NY. England Thames and Hudson.
ISBNX.ancient.H. UK Cambridge University Press. The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient
Egypt.com/topics/ancientegypt . James. Artists.
Chris . Hobartimus. Gerardw. Letterare. Everard Proudfoot. Dlohcierekim. Physchim.
Scarian. Nickptar. Mimihitam. Revolucin. Tangotango. Wengero. Neil Bowes. Splat. Bejnar.
Ghaly. Ron Ritzman. TayyabSaeed. Teth. Andrei nacu. Quadell. Avicennasis. Toira. Mnlira.
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Hibernian. Rockoprem. CanadianCaesar. Weeliljimmy. Mark Dingemanse. Drmies.
GoldenTorc. Rohitht. Samuel Salzman. Butros.jpg License Public Domain Contributors
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Falloutboyrocks. NeoJay. Licenses and Contributors FileAll Gizah Pyramids. Ashleyzilla.
Prari. Proofreader. Wichienmaat. Boccobrock. Noon. Pigman. Sumerophile. Taam.
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Archanamiya. Jindalakshay. White. Civil Engineer III. The Rogue Penguin. Jolly Janner.
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Long.phptitleFileAncientEgyptmapen. IronGargoyle. Wipfeln. Exor. Deucalionite. Espoo.
Kubigula. Locojefe. TonySt. Hdt. Dinosaur puppy. William M.wikipedia. MichaelBillington.
Sluzzelin. Ravenxx. BD. Monkyboy. PeterSymonds. Dead. IanCheesman. Nsl. Utcursch. D.
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ayoub. Quantumobserver. Konstable. Akendall. Ligulem. Eleassar. Jojit fb. MuZemike.
Zerida. SiobhanHansa. Ncmvocalist. Heron. Deeceevoice. Pspman. Topbanana. Amalthea.
Bongwarrior. Captmondo. Lahiru k. Onceonthisisland. Thegreenj. Andvd.phpoldid
Contributors KING. Bluetooth. Eddie Tor. Morwen. DRock. Jevansen. Kross. Sceptre.
Sdornan. Dcandeto. KnowledgeOfSelf. Superball. Storm Rider. A. Rror. Tcrichards.
Chaleyer. Dr. Darkspots. Anomalocaris. Tachyon. JayKeaton. Kdbuffalo. Phenz. Extransit.
Contributors Ricardo Liberato FileAncient Egypt mapen. Darkwind. Gurch. Readyman.
Kwamikagami. Michael Hardy. Bwb. Nihil novi. Singularity. Hajor. Donnyj. CKarnstein.
MPerel. ParkerHiggins. OwenX. Maksim L. Harryboyles. Pax. Trusilver. Peter. Doc Strange.
West Brom ever. Alastair Haines. Croft. Jossi. Pat Payne. Chrishmt. Flyguy. Who.
Itsmine.org/w/index. Spaceinput. Savidan. Kingturtle. Rursus. Gunmetal Angel. Steven
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Timberframe. Spencer. Fabian Hassler. Sumergocognito. LightAnkh. AlexiusHoratius.
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Freakofnurture. Jacoplane. Acalamari. Dougweller. NMChico. BKalesti. Chris G.
SchfiftyThree. Picaroon. Djfeldman. Tedickey. WikiTownsvillian. Editor at Large. David
Eppstein. Enriquecardova. Wtmitchell. Hapydays. Webb. Nick. Jebba. Nsaa. TutthothAnkhre.
It. Zatoino. Mikeygunit. Apparition. Deryck Chan. Favonian. Gil Grissom. Beginning. Frost.
Dcoetzee. Yintan. Chuunen Baka. Kirill Lokshin. BanyanTree. Nakon. Cornflake pirate.
William Allen Simpson. Dman. LOL. RexNL. Bill who is cool. Lee. Pretty Green. Nneonneo.
HarlandQPitt. Borislav. Life is like a box of chocolates. Sophia. Renata. Bibi SaintPol.
Denihilonihil. Nvp. Dschwen. Bookcat. Vergiljtm. Suruena. Lupo. Galyet. K. Flamarande.
Quaeler. Heronimo sehmi. Georgiou. Mahewa. That Guy.Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors Ancient Egypt Source http//en. Mspraveen. MrShapeUK.
Pekinensis. King of Hearts. Alynna Kasmira. RHaworth. Pissipo. EugeneZelenko. Rdsmith.
THEN WHO WAS PHONE. Movedgood.delanoy.K. MisfitToys. R. Shanel. Keeg bob. Gilliam.
Tslocum. Vandal B. Animum. Vianello. JMCC. CambridgeBayWeather. Nubia. JoanneB.
Telempe. Sinharib. Nageeb. KarlHenner. Possum. Gscshoyru. WeeKeePeeDeeAh.
Albrozdude. MONGO. NigelR. RoyBoy. Barrydawsonisthecougar. GoldHorn. Hjonelynas.
Dmoon. King Bee. Tang. Phil Boswell. Freedomlinux. Kjlewis. Zephyrk. Kanon. Andochine.
Wimt. Vsb. FF. Zzuuzz. Kea.wikipedia. Ret. Ottermaton. Wang. Why Not A Duck. Nivix.
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Hut . Yom. Kungming. JForget. Omicronpersei. IvanLanin. Mainstreamegypt. RetiredUser.jpg
Source http//en. A. Nascar. Delta Mars. HenryLi. Pruy. Wikidenizen. The Thing That Should
Not Be. montel. Tombomp. Ctjf. HumanDictionary. Pgk. Lectonar. EDUCAE. ChosenSeeker.
Stephen G. JohnCD. Violetriga. Scwlong. HappyTesting. Sp. Maury Markowitz. Firien.
QwerpQwertus. Sadads. Ms. Chameleon. Forthnoggin. Antandrus. Jedravent. Paul Barlow.
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Thief Garrett. Sm. Busterdom. Ariyonna. Finalfantasymaniac. Reconsider the static. Sun.
DiogenesTCP. Jasgrider. ReeewQ. Vranak. SearchLancer. Aldux. Phynicen. John D. Sciurin.
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Sinaiticus. SimonP. Thanatosimii. Gaius Cornelius. Ugur Basak. Mishuletz. Discospinster.
WODUP. Ray amp hay. Kislay. Hmains. Ludwigs. Caltas. Karch. BionicWilliam. Conversion
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Murray Langton. Natalie Erin. DarkAudit. Joelr. Miranda. La Pianista. Wdwaltman. Hydrogen
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great.wikipedia. Yosri. Shane. Fredbauder. Crappyhead. Iridescent. twentyo. Adyrichter.
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Drakonicon.jpg License Creative Commons AttributionSharealike . Bibi SaintPol. Gary King.
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