Download Unit #12 PowerPoint - Chandler Unified School District

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The right to vote; Suffrage was a goal of the middle and lowerclasses in Western Europe and the United States during the mid-19th
century and became the key goal of the worldwide Women’s Rights
Movement of the late-19th and early 20th centuries.
In 1800 women were mainly defined by their family and household roles. The vast majority of
women throughout Europe and the United States had no legal identity apart from their husbands.
Married women could not be a party in a lawsuit, could not sit on a jury, could not hold property in
their own names, and could not write a will. Women in the early 19th century remained legally
inferior and economically dependent on men. In the course of the 19th century and during the
Second Industrial Revolution, women struggled to change their status. During much of the 19th
century, working-class groups maintained the belief that women should remain at home to bear
and nurture children and should not be allowed in the industrial workforce. The Second Industrial
Revolution, however, opened the door to new jobs for women. There were not enough men to fill
the relatively low-paid, white-collar jobs being created, so employers began to hire women. Both
industrial plants and retail shops needed clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, and salesclerks. The
expansion of government services created some job opportunities for women. They could be
secretaries and telephone operators, and also took jobs in education, health, and social services.
While some middle-class women held these jobs, they were mainly filled by the working class who
aspired to a better quality of life.
Many people in the 19th century believed that men were responsible to work outside the home
while women should care for the family. During the 1800s, marriage remained the only honorable
and available career for most women. The number of children born to the average woman began
to decline – the most significant development in the modern family. This decline was tied to
improved economic conditions, as well as to increased use of birth control. In 1882 Europe’s first
birth control clinic opened in Amsterdam.
Closure Question #1: Explain why the birthrate declined during the 1800s. (At
least 1 sentence)
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A popular movement among workers and other groups who were
not permitted to vote in Great Britain in the early 19th century. Leaders
of the movement presented the demands to British Parliament first in
1838, though Parliament did not grant working-class urban men the
right to vote until 1867. By the early 1900s most adult males in Britain
had the right to vote.
The People’s Charter called for suffrage for all men and annual Parliamentary elections. It also
proposed to reform Parliament in other ways. In Britain at the time, eligible men voted openly.
Since their vote was not secret, they could feel pressure to vote in a certain way. Members of
Parliament had to own land and received no salary, so they needed to be wealthy. The Chartists
wanted to make Parliament responsive to the lower classes. To do this, they demanded a secret
ballot, an end to property requirements for serving in Parliament, and pay for members of
Parliament.
Parliament rejected the Chartists’ demands. However, their protests convinced many people that
the workers had valid complaints. Over the years, workers continued to press for political reform,
and Parliament responded. It gave the vote to working-class men in 1867 and to male rural workers
in 1884. After 1884, most males in Britain had the right to vote. By the early 1900s, all the demands
of the Chartists, except for annual elections, became law.
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Ruler of England from 1837 to 1901; Victoria’s sense of duty and moral
respectability demonstrated the attitude of the British during her rule,
which came to be known as the Victorian Age.
The figure who presided over all this historic change was Queen Victoria. Victoria came to the
throne in 1837 at the age of 18. She was queen for nearly 64 years. During the Victorian Age, the
British Empire reached the height of its wealth and power. Victoria was popular with her subjects,
and she performed her duties capably. However, she was forced to accept a less powerful role for
the monarchy. The kings who preceded Victoria in the 1700s and 1800s had exercised great
influence over Parliament. The spread of democracy in the 1800s shifted political power almost
completely to Parliament, and especially to the elected House of Commons. Now the government
was completely run by the prime minister and the cabinet.
About two years after her coronation, Queen Victoria fell in love with her cousin Albert, a German
prince. She proposed to him and they were married in 1840. Together they had nine children.
Prince Albert established a tone of politeness and correct behavior at court, and the royal couple
presented a picture of loving family life that became a British ideal. After Albert died in 1861, the
queen wore black silk for the rest of her life in mourning. She once said of Albert, “Without him
everything loses its interest.”
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Government established by the French National Assembly in 1875.
The Third Republic ruled France until World War II, but with a dozen
political parties competing for power France remained divided.
In 1890, several industrial countries had universal male suffrage (the right for all men to vote.) No
country, however, allowed women to vote. As more men gained suffrage, more women
demanded the same. During the 1800s, women in both Great Britain and the United States worked
to gain the right to vote. British women organized reform societies and protested unfair laws and
customs. AS women became more vocal, however, resistance to their demands grew. Many
people, both men and women, thought that woman suffrage was too radical a break with
tradition. Some claimed that women lacked the ability to take part in politics.
After decades of peaceful efforts to win the right to vote, some women took more drastic steps. In
Britain, Emmeline Pankhurst formed the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903. The
WSPU became the most militant organization for women’s rights. Its goal was to draw attention to
the cause of woman suffrage. Emmeline Pankhurst, her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, and other
WSPY members were arrested and imprisoned many times. When they were jailed, the Pankhursts
led hunger strikes to keep their cause in the public eye. British officials force-fed Sylvia and other
activists to keep them alive. Though the woman suffrage movement gained attention between
1880 and 1914, its successes were gradual. Women did not gain the right to vote in national
elections in Great Britain and the United States until after World War I.
Closure Question #2: Why was the road to democracy more difficult for France
than for England?
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Anti-Semitism – Prejudice against Jews; Anti-Semitism has played a
prominent role in European society since the fall of the Roman
Empire, with many European nations preventing Jews from owning
land or participating in European politics.
Dreyfus Affair – Controversy within France surrounding Captain Alfred
Dreyfus, one of the few Jewish officers in the French army. In 1894,
Dreyfus was accused of selling military secrets to Germany, found
guilty and sentenced to life in prison on what was later found to be
false evidence presented by other army officers. The Dreyfus Affair
divided France, with many members of society arguing that Dreyfus’
case ought not to be reopened even when information proving that
he had been framed was brought to light.
Public opinion was sharply divided over the scandal. Many army leaders, nationalists, leaders in the
clergy, and anti-Jewish groups refused to let the case be reopened. They feared sudden action
would cast doubt on the honor of the army. Dreyfus’ defenders insisted that justice was more
important. In 1898, the writer Emile Zola published an open letter titled J’accuse! (I accuse!) in a
popular French newspaper. In the letter, Zola denounced the army for covering up a scandal. Zola
was sentenced to a year in prison for his views, but his letter gave strength to Dreyfus’ cause.
Eventually, the French government declared his innocence.
Closure Question #3: What was the Dreyfus Affair? Summarize the event in your
own words.
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Jewish national movement begun in the late 1800s; Zionists
immigrated to Jerusalem in Palestine in hopes of regaining control of
the traditional Jewish homeland.
Anti-Semitism, or hostility toward and discrimination against Jews, was not new to Europe. Since the
Middle Ages, the Jews had been falsely portrayed by Christians as the murders of Jesus Christ and
subjected to mob violence. Their rights had been restricted. They had been physically separated
from Christians by being required to live in areas of cities known as ghettos. By the 1830s, the lives of
many Jews had improved. They had legal equality in many European countries. They became
bankers, lawyers, scientists, and scholars and were absorbed into the national culture. Old
prejudices were still very much alive, though, and anti-Semitism grew stronger in the late 1800s. The
intensity of anti-Semitism was evident from the Dreyfus affair in France. In 1894, a military court
found Dreyfus, a captain in the French general staff, guilty of selling army secrets. During the trial,
angry right-wing mobs yelled anti-Semitic sayings such as “Death to the Jews.” After the trial
evidence emerged that proved Dreyfus innocent. A wave of public outcry finally forced the
government to pardon Dreyfus in 1899.
The Dreyfus case showed the strength of anti-Semitism in France and other parts of Western
Europe. However, persecution of Jews was even more severe in Eastern Europe. Russian officials
permitted pogroms, organized campaigns of violence against Jews. From the late 1880s on,
thousands of Jews fled Eastern Europe. Many headed for the United States. For many Jews, the
long history of exile and persecution convinced the to work for a homeland in Palestine. In the
1890s, a movement known as Zionism developed to pursue this goal. Its leader was Theodor Herzl,
a writer in Vienna. It took many years, however, before the state of Israel was established.
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Answer the following questions based on
what you have learned from Chapter 26,
Section 1:
Why was the road to democracy more
difficult for France than for England?
What was the Dreyfus Affair? Summarize
the event in your own words.
What was the connection between
anti-Semitism and Zionism?
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A nation which is self-governing in domestic (local) affairs but
remains part of a larger empire. During the mid-1800s Canada
became a dominion, with its own national government though it
continued to be a part of the British Empire.
Canada was originally home to many Native American peoples. The first European country to
colonize Canada was France. The earliest French colonists, in the 1600s and 1700s, had included
many fur trappers and missionaries. They tended to live among the Native Americans. Some
French intermarried with Native Americans. Great Britain took possession of the country in 1763
after it defeated France in the French and Indian War. The French who remained lived mostly in
the lower St. Lawrence Valley. Many English-speaking colonists arrived in Canada after it came
under British rule. Some came from Great Britain, and others were Americans who had stayed loyal
to Britain after the American Revolution. They settled separately from the French along the Atlantic
seaboard and the Great Lakes.
Religious and cultural differences between the mostly Roman Catholic
French and the mainly Protestant English-speaking colonists caused conflict
in Canada. Both groups pressed Britain for a greater voice in governing their
own affairs. In 1791 the British Parliament tried to resolve both issues by
creating two new Canadian provinces. Upper Canada (now Ontario) had an
English-speaking majority. Lower Canada (now Quebec) had a Frenchspeaking majority. Each province had its own elected assembly.
Closure Question #1: Why did Britain create Upper Canada and Lower Canada,
and who lived in each colony?
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Maori – Polynesian people who settled in New Zealand around 800
A.D. and developed a culture based on farming, hunting, and fishing.
Aborigines – Native peoples of Australia. Aborigines are the longest
ongoing culture in the world and live as nomads, fishing, hunting and
gathering food.
The British sea captain James Cook claimed New Zealand in 1769 and part
of Australia in 1770 for Great Britain. Both lands were already inhabited;
however, when Cook reached Australia he considered it to be void of
human life. Britain began colonizing Australia in 1788 with convicted
criminals. The prisons in England were severely overcrowded. To solve this
problem, the British government established a penal colony in Australia. A
penal colony was a place where convicts were sent to serve their sentences.
Many European nations used penal colonies as a way to prevent
overcrowding of prisons. After their release, the newly freed prisoners could
buy land and settle.
Closure Question #2: A) What was unusual about the first European settlers in
Australia? B) Why do you think that Great Britain chose to send these settlers to
Australia?
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A goal of many Irish citizens to gain local control over internal
matters while remaining a part of the British Empire. Great Britain,
fearful that British Protestants living in Ireland might become targets of
the Irish Catholic majority, refused to allow the establishment of a
democratic self-government in Ireland prior to World War One.
English expansion into Ireland had begun in the 1100s, when the pope granted control of Ireland to
the English king. English knights invaded Ireland, and many settled there to form a new aristocracy.
The Irish, who had their own ancestry, culture, and language, bitterly resented the English
presence. Laws imposed by the English in the 1500s and 1600s limited the rights of Catholics and
favored the Protestant religion and the English language. Over the years, the British government
was determined to maintain its control over Ireland. It formally joined Ireland to Britain in 1801.
Though a setback for Irish nationalism, this move gave Ireland representation in the British
Parliament. Irish leader Daniel O’Connell persuaded Parliament to pass the Catholic Emancipation
Act in 1829. This law restored many rights to Catholics.
In the 1840s, Ireland experienced one of the worst famines of modern history. For many years, Irish
peasants had depended on potatoes as virtually their sole source of food. From 1845 to 1848, a
plant fungus ruined nearly all of Ireland’s potato crop. Out of a population of 8 million, about a
million died from starvation and disease over the next few years. During the famine years, about a
million and a half people fled from Ireland. Most went to the United States; others went to Britain,
Canada, and Australia. At home, in Ireland, the British government enforced the demands of the
English landowners that the Irish peasants pay their rent. Many Irish lost their land and fell hopelessly
in debt, while large landowners profited from higher food prices.
Closure Question #3: How was Britain’s policy toward Canada in the 1700s
similar to its policy toward Ireland in the 1900s?
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Unofficial military force seeking independence for Ireland. Beginning
in the middle of World War I, the IRA staged a series of attacks
against British officials in Ireland. The attacks sparked a war between
the nationalists and the British government. This conflict influenced
British Parliament to divide Ireland and grant home rule to Irish
Catholic southern Ireland.
One reason for Britain’s opposition to home rule was concern for Ireland’s Protestants. They feared
being a minority in a country dominated by Catholics. Most Protestants lived in the northern part of
Ireland, known as Ulster. Finally, in 1914, Parliament enacted a home rule bill for southern Ireland.
Just one month before the plan was to take effect, World War I broke out in Europe. Irish home rule
was put on hold. Frustrated over the delay in gaining independence, a small group of Irish
nationalists rebelled in Dublin during Easter week, 1916. British troops put down the Easter Rising and
executed its leaders. Their fate, however, aroused wider popular support for the nationalist
movement.
After World War I, the Irish nationalists won a victory in the elections for the British Parliament. To
protest delays in home rule, the nationalist members decided not to attend Parliament. Instead,
they formed an underground Irish government and declared themselves independent. In 1921,
Britain divided Ireland and granted home rule to southern Ireland. Ulster, or Northern Ireland,
remained a part of Great Britain. The south became a dominion called the Irish Free State.
However, many Irish nationalists, led by Eamon De Valera, continued to seek total independence
from Britain. In 1949, the Irish Free State declared itself the independent Republic of Ireland.
Closure Question #3: How was Britain’s policy toward Canada in the 1700s
similar to its policy toward Ireland in the 1900s?
Answer the following questions based on what
you have learned from Chapter 26, Section 2:
1. Why did Britain create Upper Canada and
Lower Canada, and who lived in each colony?
2. A) What was unusual about the first European
settlers in Australia? B) Why do you think that
Great Britain chose to send these settlers to
Australia?
3. How was Britain’s policy toward Canada in the
1700s similar to its policy toward Ireland in the
1900s?
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Term used to describe the belief that God
wanted the United States to own all of North
America.
Expansionists strongly supported the idea of Manifest Destiny, envisioning the
expansion of liberty for white Americans. This expansion would come at the
expense of Indians and Mexicans.
 Expansionists argued that God had created Native Americans and
Mexicans as inferiors to White Americans, and that they did not deserve to
keep lands that were badly needed for American settlement.
 In addition, many Southerners hoped to add more slaves states in the west
to strengthen their political position in Congress.
“The American claim is by the right of our manifest destiny to overspread and
possess the whole of the continent which Providence has given us for the
development of the great experiment of liberty and… self-government
entrusted to us.” –John L. Sullivan, New York Morning News, December 27,
1845
Closure Question #1: Who might have agreed with the idea of Manifest Destiny?
Who might have disagreed? Explain your answers.
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Illinois Republican (Political party established to end slavery) and
President from 1861 to 1865. The election of Lincoln directly led the
slave-owning southern states to choose to secede, leading to the
American Civil War.
Raised in rural poverty and largely self-taught, Lincoln began his
political career at age 25, when he was elected to the Illinois State
Legislature as a Whig.
By 1836, Lincoln was admitted to the Illinois bar as an attorney and
practiced law in Springfield. There he gained a reputation for
integrity and directness and was given the title “Honest Abe”.
Lincoln seemed to be opposed to slavery, but his political life was
marked by a desire to steer a middle course. Lincoln served one term
in the House of Representatives in the 1840’s but gained national
fame for his opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska Act which was
promoted by his rival politician, Stephen Douglas.
Closure Question #2: How did Abraham Lincoln’s life reflect the basis of
American democracy?
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Secede – “To withdraw”, in 1861 several southern states in the U.S.A.
seceded from the union following the election of Abraham Lincoln, a
Republican president who opposed slavery.
U.S. Civil War – (1861-1865) Following southern secession, Lincoln
ordered the army of the United States to bring the rebel states back
into the Union. More than 600,000 American men lost their lives in the
conflict. Though the South had superior military leadership, the North
had a larger population, better transportation, greater resources, and
more factories. As a result, the North emerged victorious and the
Union was restored.
By the mid-19th century, slavery had become a threat to American unity. Four million enslaved
African Americans were in the South by 1860, compared with one million in 1800. The South’s
economy was based on growing cotton on plantations, chiefly by slave labor. The cotton
economy and plantation-based slavery were closely related. The disagreement over slavery
fueled a debate about the rights of the individual states against those of the federal government.
Southern politicians argued that the states had freely joined the Union, and so they could freely
leave. Most Northerners felt that the Constitution had established the Union once and for all.
Closure Question #3: What were the relative resources of the North and South in
the U.S. Civil War?
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Formally announced on 9/22/1862, President Abraham Lincoln issued
the military order proclaiming that all enslaves people in the
Confederate states would be considered free by the United States on
1/1/1863.
The Proclamation did not apply to slaves in the loyal border states, nor did it truly give
freedom to any slave in the Confederacy. It did give the Union army the authority to
free any slave it came in contact with, but the slaves themselves had to escape from
their masters to reach the army. Lincoln hoped that the order might convince some
southern states to surrender before the January 1st deadline. The 54th Massachusetts
Regiment was the first all African American unit in United States military history; by the
war’s end more than 180,000 African American volunteers had served in the Union
military. The Confederacy considered drafting slaves and free blacks in 1863 and
1864, but most southerners opposed the enlistment of African Americans.
In the aftermath of the war, the U.S. Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment to
the Constitution, which abolished slavery in the United States. The Fourteenth and
Fifteenth Amendments extended the rights of citizenship to all Americans and
guaranteed former slaves the right to vote. The need for mass production and
distribution of goods during the Civil War speeded industrialization. After the war, the
United States experienced industrial expansion unmatched in history. By 1914, it was a
leading industrial power.
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Forced separation of individuals according to their race. In the
aftermath of the Civil War all of the states which had seceded, and
many states which had not, passed laws mandating that African
Americans use separate public facilities than other citizens.
Mandated by Reconstruction state constitutions, public schools grew slowly, drawing in only about
half of southern children by the end of the 1870s. Establishing a new school was expensive,
especially since southerners chose to establish segregated schools. Still, the establishment of a
public school system in the south was a major achievement of the Reconstruction Era. From 1865 to
1877, Union troops occupied the South and enforced the constitutional protections. This period is
called Reconstruction. After federal troops left the South, white Southerners passed laws that
limited African Americans’ rights and made it difficult for them to vote. Such laws also encouraged
segregation, or separation, of blacks and whites in the South. African Americans continued to face
discrimination in the North as well.
Answer the following questions based on
what you have learned from Chapter 26,
Section 3:
1. Who might have agreed with the idea of
Manifest Destiny? Who might have
disagreed? Explain your answers.
2. How did Abraham Lincoln’s life reflect the
basis of American democracy?
3. What were the relative resources of the North
and South in the U.S. Civil War?
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Assembly Line – An efficient manufacturing method pioneered by
American Henry Ford in 1913; Assembly Line production places a
product on a conveyor belt and has individuals at various stations
along the belt responsible to attach one specific part.
Mass Production is the business practice of producing large quantities of identical products which
can be made quickly and cheaply. By the 1880s, streetcars and subways powered by electricity
had appeared in major European cities. Electricity transformed the factory as well. Conveyor belts,
cranes, and machines could all be powered by electricity. With electric lights, factories could
remain open 24 hours a day. The development of the internal-combustion engine, fired by oil and
gasoline, provided a new source of power in transportation. This engine gave rise to ocean liners
with oil-fired engines, as well as to the airplane and the automobile. In 1903 Orville and Wilbur
Wright made the first flight in a fixed-wing plane at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. In 1919 the first
regular passenger air service was established.
Industrial production grew at a rapid pace because of greatly increased sales of manufactured
goods. Europeans could afford to buy more consumer products for several reasons. Wages for
workers increased after 1870. In addition, prices for manufactured goods were lower because of
reduced transportation costs. One of the biggest reasons for more efficient production was the
assembly line. In the cities, the first department stores began to sell a new range of consumer
goods. These goods – clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters, for example – were made
possible by the steel and electrical industries.
Closure Question #1: What effects did the assembly line have on production
costs?
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Charles Darwin – British biologist who, in 1859, published On the Origin of
Species, teaching his Theory of Evolution, i.e. that each species, or kind, of
plant and animal had evolved over a long period of time from earlier,
simpler forms of life.
Natural Selection – Part of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution; Darwin believed that all organisms struggle
for existence and that, in order to survive, they change to adapt to their environment. Those that
don’t adapt become extinct. According to Darwin, those organisms that are naturally selected for survival
(“survival of the fittest”) reproduce and thrive. The unfit do not survive. The fit that survive pass on the variations that
enabled them to survive until, according to Darwin, a new separate species emerges. In The Descent of Man,
published in 1871, Darwin argued that human beings had animal origins and were not an exception to the rule
governing other species.
Darwin’s ideas raised a storm of controversy. Some people did not take his ideas seriously. Other people objected
that Darwin’s theory made human beings ordinary products of nature rather than unique creations of God. Others
were bothered by his idea of life as a mere struggle for survival. “Is there a place in Darwinism for moral values?”
they asked. Some believers felt Darwin had not acknowledged God’s role in creation. Some detractors scorned
Darwin and depicted him unfavorably in cartoons. Gradually, however, many scientists and other intellectuals
came to accept Darwin’s theory. His theory changed thinking in countless fields from biology to anthropology.
Closure Question #2: Besides competing for food, what are some of the other
conditions to which species must adapt? Provide at least 3.
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Energy released by the elements radium and polonium. Marie and
Pierre Curie, a French husband and wife team, discovered the two
elements, earning the Nobel Prize for physics in 1903.
Throughout much of the 1800s, Westerners believed in a mechanical conception of the universe
that was based on the ideas of Isaac Newton. In this perspective, the universe was viewed as a
giant machine. Time, space, and matter were objective realities existing independently of those
observing them. Matter was thought to be made of solid material bodies called atoms. These
views were seriously questioned at the end of the 19th century. The French scientist Marie Curie
discovered that an element called radium gave off energy, or radiation, that apparently came
from within the atom itself. Atoms were not simply hard material bodies but small, active worlds.
In 1803, the British chemist John Dalton theorized that all matter is made of tiny particles called
atoms. Dalton showed that elements contain only one kind of atom, which as a specific weight.
Compounds, on the other hand, contain more than one kind of atom. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev, a
Russian chemist, organized a chart on which all the known elements were arranged in order of
weight, from lightest to heaviest. He left gaps where he predicted that new elements would be
discovered. Later, his predictions proved correct. Mendeleev’s chart, the Periodic Table, is still used
today. Physicists around 1900 continued to unravel the secrets of the atom. Earlier scientists
believed that he atom was the smallest particle that existed. A British physicist named Ernest
Rutherford suggested that atoms were made up of yet smaller particles. Each atom, he said, had
a nucleus surrounded by one or more particles called electrons. Soon other physicists such as Max
Planck, Neils Bohr, and Albert Einstein were studying the structure and energy of atoms.
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The study of the human mind and behavior. Psychology developed as a
unique social science in the late 19th century thanks to the work of
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who theorized that human actions were
often unconscious reactions to experiences and could be changed by
training, and Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud, who believed that
unconscious forces, such as suppressed memories, desires, and
impulses shape human behavior. Freud founded psychoanalysis as a
therapy to deal with psychological conflicts.
Sigmund Freud, a doctor from Vienna, proposed theories regarding the nature of the human mind. Freud’s
ideas, like the new physics, added to the uncertainties of the age. His major theories were published in
1900 in The Interpretation of Dreams. According to Freud, human behavior was strongly determined by
past experiences and internal forces of which people were largely unaware. Repression of such
experiences began in childhood, so he devised a method – known as psychoanalysis – by which a
therapist and patient could probe deeply into the patient’s memory. In this way, they could retrace the
chain of repressed thoughts all the way back to their childhood origins. If the patient’s conscious mind
could be made aware of the unconscious and its repressed contents, the patient could be healed.
Rapid advances in science, psychology, and the arts caused people to question previous knowledge and
created a culture of modernity. While scientists such as Marie Curie and Albert Einstein were reshaping
people’s understanding of the external world, Sigmund Freud was shaping their perceptions of the internal
world – the inner workings of the mind. Freud believed that the mind had both conscious and unconscious
parts, and that the unconscious controls many human behaviors. Painful memories from childhood
became rooted, or repressed, in the unconscious, leading to mental illness. To help the person heal, these
memories must be brought to conscious awareness. Freud believed that memories buried in the
unconscious emerge in disguised form in dreams. One way to gain access to repressed memories, then, is
to interpret dreams.
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The appeal of art, writing, music, and other forms of entertainment to
a larger audience. The rise of the middle-class which was sparked by
the Industrial Revolution led to an increase in the amount of leisure
time available to citizens worldwide. In the late 19th century this
leisure time was spent in music halls, at vaudeville performances, in
movie theaters, and at sporting events.
There were several causes for the rise of mass culture. Their effects changed life in Europe and
North America. The demand for leisure activities resulted in a variety of new pursuits for people to
enjoy. A popular leisure activity was a trip to the local music hall. On a typical evening, a music hall
might offer a dozen or more different acts. It might feature singers, dancers, comedians, jugglers,
magicians, and acrobats. In the United States, musical variety shows were called vaudeville.
Vaudeville acts traveled from town to town, appearing at theaters.
During the 1880s, several inventors worked at trying to project moving images. One successful
design came from France. Another came from Thomas Edison’s laboratory. The earliest motion
pictures were black and white and lasted less than a minute. By the early 1900s, filmmakers were
producing the first feature films. Movies quickly became big business. By 1910, five million
Americans attended some 10,000 theaters each day. The European movie industry experienced
similar growth. With time at their disposal, more people began to enjoy sports and outdoor
activities. Spectator sports now became entertainment. In the United States, football and baseball
soared in popularity. In Europe, the first professional soccer clubs formed and drew big crowds.
Favorite English sports such as cricket spread to the British colonies in Australia, India, and South
Africa.
Closure Question #3: How is the mass culture that rose at the end of the 19th
century similar to mass culture today? How is it different? Explain your response.
Answer the following questions based on what
you have learned from Chapter 26, Section 4:
1. What effects did the assembly line have on
production costs?
2. Besides competing for food, what are some of
the other conditions to which species must
adapt? Provide at least 3.
3. How is the mass culture that rose at the end of
the 19th century similar to mass culture today?
How is it different? Explain your response.
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The extension of a nation’s power over other lands.
In the 19th century , a new phase of Western expansion began. European nations began to view
Asian and African societies as a source of industrial raw materials and a market for Western
manufactured goods. In the 1880s, European states began an intense scramble for overseas
territory. Europeans had set up colonies and trading posts in North America, South America, and
Africa by the 16th century. However, the imperialism of the 19th century, called the “new
imperialism” by some, was different. Earlier, European states had been content, especially in Africa
and Asia, to set up a few trading posts where they could carry on trade and perhaps some
missionary activity. Now they sought nothing less than direct control over vast territories.
Why did Westerners begin to increase their search for colonies after 1880? There was a strong
economic motive. Capitalist states in the West were looking for both markets and raw materials
such as rubber, oil, and tin for their industries. The issue was not simply an economic one, however.
European nation-states were involved in heated rivalries. They acquired colonies abroad in order
to gain an advantage over their rivals. Colonies were also a source of national prestige. To some
people, in fact, a nation could not be great without colonies. In addition, imperialism was tied to
Social Darwinism and racism. Social Darwinists believed that in the struggle between nations, the fit
are victorious. Racism is the belief that race determines traits and capabilities. Racists erroneously
believe that particular races are superior or inferior. Some Europeans took a more religious and
humanitarian approach to imperialism. They believed Europeans had a moral responsibility to
civilize primitive people. They called this responsibility the “white man’s burden.” To some, this
meant bringing the Christian message to the “heathen masses.” To others, it meant bringing the
benefits of Western democracy and capitalism to these societies.
David Livingstone – British doctor, Christian missionary, and explorer who
trekked through uncharted regions of the interior of Africa.
 Henry Stanley – American journalist who traveled to Africa to find Livingstone
and, following Livingstone’s death in 1873, continued exploration and
encouraged European settlement of Central Africa.
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Central African territories were soon added to the list of European colonies. Explorers aroused popular interest in
the dense tropical jungles of Central Africa. Livingstone was one such explorer. He arrived in Africa in 1841 as a 27year-old medical missionary. During the 30 years he spent in Africa, Livingstone trekked through uncharted regions.
He sometimes traveled by canoe, but mostly Livingstone walked and spent much of his time exploring the interior
of the continent. During his travels through Africa, Livingstone made detailed notes of his discoveries. He sent this
information back to London whenever he could. The maps of Africa were often redrawn based on Livingstone’s
reports. A major goal of Livingstone’s explorations was to find a navigable river that would open Central Africa to
European commerce and Christianity.
When Livingstone disappeared for awhile, an American newspaper, the New York Herald, hired a young journalist,
Henry Stanley, to find the explorer. Stanley did find him on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika. Overwhelmed by
finding Livingstone alive if not well, Stanley greeted the explorer with these now famous words, “Dr. Livingstone, I
presume?” After Livingstone’s death in 1873, Stanley remained in Africa to carry on the great explorer’s work. Unlike
Livingstone, however, Henry Stanley had a strong dislike of Africa. He once said, “I detest the land most heartily.” In
the 1870s, Stanley explored the Congo River in Central Africa and sailed down it to the Atlantic Ocean. Soon, he
was encouraging the British to send settlers to the Congo River basin. When Britain refused, Stanley turned to King
Leopold II of Belgium.
Leopold was the real driving force behind colonization of Central Africa. He rushed enthusiastically into the pursuit
of an empire in Africa. “To open to civilization,” he said, “the only part of our globe where it has not yet
penetrated, to pierce the darkness which envelopes whole populations is a crusade, if I may say so, a crusade
worthy of this century of progress.” Profit, however, was equally important to Leopold. In 1876 he hired Henry
Stanley to set up Belgian settlements in the Congo. Leopold’s claim to the vast territories of the Congo aroused
widespread concern among other European states. France, in particular, rushed to plant its flag in the hear of
Africa. Leopold ended up with the territories around the Congo River. France occupied the areas farther north.
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Racism – The belief that race determines traits and capabilities and
that particular races are superior or inferior.
Social Darwinism – Theory that Darwin’s theory of natural selection
can be applied to the interaction of individuals and nations. The
strong people and nations were meant to rule the world, while the
weak were meant to be dominated or become extinct.
Several factors contributed to the Europeans’ conquest of Africa. One overwhelming advantage
was the Europeans’ technological superiority. The Maxim gun, invented in 1884, was the world’s first
automatic machine gun. European countries quickly acquired the Maxim, while the resisting
Africans were forced to rely on outdated weapons. European countries also had the means to
control their empire. The invention of the steam engine allowed Europeans to easily travel on rivers
to establish bases of control deep in the African continent. Railroads, cables, and steamships
allowed close communications within a colony and between the colony and its controlling nation.
Even with superior arms and steam engines to transport them, another factor might have kept
Europeans confined to the coast. They were highly susceptible to malaria, a disease carried by the
dense swarms of mosquitoes in Africa’s interior. The perfection of the drug quinine in 1829
eventually protected Europeans from becoming infected with the disease. Factors within Africa
also made the continent easier for Europeans to colonize. Africans’ huge variety of languages and
cultures discouraged unity among them. Wars fought between ethnic groups over land, water,
and trade rights also prevented a unified stand. Europeans soon learned to play rival groups
against each other.
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The French had colonies in North Africa. In 1870, after about 150,000
French people had settled in the region of Algeria, the French
government established control there. Two years later, France
imposed a protectorate on neighboring Tunisia. In 1912 France
established a protectorate over much of Morocco.
Most European nations governed their African possessions through a
form of direct rule. This was true in the French colonies. At the top
was a French official, usually known as a governor-general. He was
appointed from Paris and governed with the aid of bureaucracy in
the capital city of the colony.
The French ideal was to assimilate African subjects into French
culture rather than preserve native traditions. Africans were eligible
to run for office and even serve in the French National Assembly in
Paris. A few were also appointed to high-powered positions in the
colonial administration.
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Meeting of 14 European nations in 1884 and 1885 to lay down the
rules for the division of Africa. The nations agreed that any European
country could claim land in Africa by notifying other nations of its
claims and showing it could control the area. The conference that
European nations would not go to war with each other over African
territory. By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free from
European control.
When European countries began colonizing, many believed that Africans would soon be buying
European goods in great quantities. They were wrong; few Africans bought European goods.
However, European businesses still needed raw materials from Africa. The major source of great
wealth in African proved to be the continent’s rich mineral resources. The Belgian Congo
contained untold wealth in copper and tin. Even these riches seemed small compared with the
gold and diamonds in South Africa. Businesses eventually developed cash-crop plantations to
grow peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rubber. These products displaced the food crops grown by
farmers to feed their families.
The motives that drove colonization in Africa were also at work in other lands. Similar economic,
political, and social forces accelerated the drive to take over land in all parts of the globe. The
Industrial Revolution in particular provided European countries with a reason to add lands to their
control. As European nations industrialized, they searched for new markets and raw materials to
improve their economies.
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By 1885, Britain and Germany had become the chief rivals in East
Africa. Germany came late to the ranks of the imperialist powers. At
first, the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck had downplayed the
importance of colonies. As more and more Germans called for a
German empire, however, Bismarck became a convert to
colonialism. As he expressed it, “All this colonial business is a sham,
but we need it for the elections.”
In addition to its West African holdings, Germany tried to develop
colonies in East Africa. Most of East Africa had not yet been claimed
by any other power. However, the British were also interested in the
area because control of East Africa would connect the British Empire
in Africa from South Africa to Egypt. Portugal and Belgium also
claimed parts of East Africa.
To settle conflict claims, the Berlin Conference met in 1884 and 1885.
The conference officially recognized both British and German claims
for territory in East Africa. Portugal received a clear claim on
Mozambique. No African delegates, however, were present at this
conference.
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Chief of the Zulu tribe in southern Africa during the early 19th century.
Shaka used highly disciplined warriors and good military
organization to create a large centralized state by 1816 which
withstood attempts by the British to colonize their homeland.
However, Shaka’s successors were unable to keep the kingdom
together and, facing superior weaponry such as the Maxim Gun (the
first automatic machine gun), the Zulus fell under British control by
1887.
Nowhere in Africa did the European did the European presence grow more rapidly than in the
south. By 1865, the total white population of South Africa had risen to nearly 200,000 people. The
Boers, or Afrikaners – as the descendants of the original Dutch settlers were called – had occupied
Cape Town and surrounding areas in South Africa since the 17th century. During the Napoleonic
Wars, however, the British seized these lands from the Dutch. Afterward, the British encouraged
settlers to come to what they called Cape Colony.
In the 1830s, disgusted with British rule, the Boers moved from the coastal lands and headed
northward on the Great Trek. Altogether one out of every five Dutch speaking South Africans
joined the trek. Their parties eventually settled in the region between the Orange and Vaal Rivers
and in the region north of the Vaal River. In these areas, the Boers formed two independent
republics – the Orange Free State and the Transvaal (later called the South African Republic).
Boers – “Farmers”; Dutch settlers who gradually took Africans’ lands in
South Africa during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Boers clashed with the
British regarding land and the practice of slavery, a practice which the
Boers supported.
 Boer War – (1899-1910) Conflict between the Boers and the British
following the discovery of gold and diamonds in South Africa. The Boers
launched commando raids and used guerrilla tactics against the British.
The British countered by burning Boer farms and imprisoning women and
children in disease-ridden concentration camps. Britain finally won the
war and formed the Union of South Africa.
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The Boers believed that white superiority was ordained by God. They denied non-Europeans any place in
their society other than as laborers or servants. As they settled the lands, the Boers put many of the
indigenous peoples in these areas on reservations. The Boers had frequently battled the Zulu people. In the
early 19th century, the Zulu, under a talented ruler named Shaka, had carved out their own empire. Even
after Shaka’s death, the Zulu remained powerful. Finally, in the late 1800s, the British military became
involved in conflicts with the Zulu & defeated them.
In the 1880s, British policy in South Africa was influenced by Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes had founded diamond
and gold companies that had made him a fortune. He gained control of a territory north of the Transvaal,
which he named Rhodesia after himself. Rhodes was a great champion of British expansion. He said once,
“I think what God would like me to do is to paint as much of Africa British red as possible.” One of Rhode’s
goals was to create a series of British colonies “from Cape to Cairo” – all linked by a railroad.
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Cecil Rhodes ambitions eventually led to his downfall in 1896. The
British government forced him to resign as prime minister of Cape
Colony after discovering that he planned to overthrow the Boer
government of the South African Republic without his government’s
approval. The British action was too late to avoid a war between the
British and the Boers however.
This war, called the Boer War, dragged on from 1899 to 1902. Fierce
guerrilla resistance by the Boers angered the British. They responded
by burning crops and herding about 120,000 Boer women and
children into detention camps, where lack of food caused some
20,000 deaths. Eventually, the vastly larger British army won. A peace
treaty was signed in 1902.
In 1910 the British created an independent Union of South Africa,
which combined the old Cape Colony and the Boer republics. The
new state would be a self-governing nation within the British Empire.
To appease the Boers, the British agreed that only whites, with a few
propertied Africans, would vote.
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1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on the
information covered in Chapter 21, Section 2:
List the ways in which the French system of direct
rule included Africans. (At least 2 answers)
What can you conclude from the fact that African
delegates were not included in the Berlin
Conference of 1884? (At least 1 sentence)
Why do you think the Boers resisted British rule? (At
least 1 sentence)
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European policy towards African colonies which was based on the
view that Africans were unable to handle the complex business of
running a country. Europeans governed people in a parental way by
providing for their needs but not giving them rights. To accomplish
this, Europeans brought in their own bureaucrats and did not train
local people in European methods of governing.
The Imperialism of the 18th and 19th centuries was conducted differently from the explorations of
the 15th and 16th centuries. In the earlier periods, imperial powers often did not penetrate far into
the conquered areas in Asia and Africa. Nor did they always have a substantial influence on the
lives of the people. During this new period of imperialism, the Europeans demanded more
influence over the economic, political, and social lives of the people. They were determined to
shape the economies of the lands to benefit European economies. They also wanted the people
to adopt European customs.
Each European nation had certain policies and goals for establishing colonies. To establish control
of an area, Europeans used different techniques. Over time, four forms of colonial control
emerged: colony, protectorate, sphere of influence, and economic imperialism. In practice,
gaining control of an area might involve the use of several of these forms.
Closure Question #1: How was the policy of paternalism like Social Darwinism?
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European imperial policy based on the idea that in time, the local
populations in Africa would adopt the culture of their European or
American rulers and become like them. To aid in this transition, all
local schools, courts, and businesses were patterned after those of
the ruling nation. In many cases, native Africans were obligated to
abandon their native cultural practices and languages in order to
gain greater acceptance and rights from their imperial rulers.
Western powers governed their new colonial empires by either indirect or direct rule. Their chief
goals were to exploit the natural resources of the lands and to open up markets for their own
manufactured goods. Sometimes a colonial power could realize its goals by cooperating with
local political elites. For example, the Dutch East India Company used indirect rule in the Dutch
East Indies. This made access to the region’s natural resources easier. Indirect rule was cheaper
because fewer officials had to be trained and it affected local culture less.
However, indirect rule was not always possible. Some local elites resisted the foreign conquest. In
these cases, the local elites were replaced with Western officials. Great Britain administered Burma
directly through its colonial government in India. In Indochina, France used both systems. It
imposed direct rule in southern Vietnam, but ruled indirectly through the emperor in northern
Vietnam. To justify their conquests, Western powers spoke of bringing the blessings of Western
civilization of their colonial subjects, including representative government. However, many
Westerners came to fear the idea of native peoples (especially educated ones) being allowed
political rights.
Closure Question #2: Do you think Europeans could have conquered Africa if the
Industrial Revolution had never occurred? Explain your answer.
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Emperor of Ethiopia in the late 19th century; Under Menelik’s
leadership Ethiopia became the only African nation that successfully
resisted the Europeans. He successfully played Italians, French, and
British against each other, all of whom were striving to bring Ethiopia
into their spheres of influence. He built up a large arsenal of modern
weapons purchased from France and Russia. In 1896, at the Battle of
Adowa, Ethiopian forces successfully defeated the Italians and kept
their nation independent.
The unsuccessful resistance attempts included active military resistance and resistance through
religious movements. Algeria’s almost 50-year resistance to French rule was one outstanding
example of active resistance. The resistance movement led by Samori Toure in West Africa against
the French is another example. After modernizing his army, Toure fought the French for 16 years.
Africans in German East Africa put their faith in spiritual defense. African villages resisted Germans’
insistence that they plant cotton, a cash crop for export, rather than attend to their own food
crops. In 1905, the belief suddenly arose that a magic water sprinkled on their bodies would turn
the Germans’ bullets into water. The uprising became known as the Maji Maji rebellion. Over 20
different ethnic groups united to fight for their freedom. The fighters believed that their war had
been ordained by God and that their ancestors would return to life and assist their struggle.
Closure Question #3: Why would the French and Russians sell arms to Ethiopia?
Answer the following questions based on
what you have learned from Chapter 27,
Section 2:
1. How was the policy of paternalism like
Social Darwinism?
2. Do you think Europeans could have
conquered Africa if the Industrial
Revolution had never occurred? Explain
your answer.
3. Why would the French and Russians sell
arms to Ethiopia?
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An interest in or taking of land for its strategic location or products.
Geopolitics played an important role in the fate of the Ottoman
Empire. The Ottomans controlled access to the Mediterranean and
the Atlantic sea trade. Discovery of oil in Persia around 1900 and in
the Arabian Peninsula after World War I focused even more attention
on the area.
The declining Ottoman Empire had difficulties trying to fit into the modern world. However, the
Ottomans made attempts to change before they finally were unable to hold back the European
imperialist powers. When Suleyman I, the last great Ottoman sultan, died in 1566, he was followed
by a succession of weak sultans. The palace government broke up into a number of quarreling,
often corrupt factions. Weakening power brought other problems. Corruption and theft had
caused financial losses. Coinage was devalued, causing inflation. Once the Ottoman Empire had
embraced modern technologies, but now it fell further and further behind Europe.
When Selim III came into power in 1789, he attempted to modernize the army. However, the old
janissary corps resisted his efforts. Selim III was overthrown, and reform movements were temporarily
abandoned. Meanwhile, nationalist feelings began to stir among the Ottoman’s subject peoples.
IN 1830, Greece gained its independence, and Serbia gained self-rule. The Ottomans’ weakness
was becoming apparent to European powers, who were expanding their territories. They began to
look for ways to take the lands away from the Ottomans.
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Conflict between Russia and the Ottoman Empire during the mid-19th
century. Russia’s motivation to begin the war was to gain access to a
warm-weather port on the Black Sea. Britain and France wanted to
prevent the Russians from gaining control of Ottoman lands, so they
entered the war on the side of the Ottoman Empire. The combined
forces of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, and France defeated Russia.
Though victorious, the war revealed the Ottomans’ military weakness,
and the Ottomans continued to lose territory until their government
was ended following World War I.
The Crimean War was the first war in which women, led by Florence Nightingale, established their
position as army nurses. It was also the first war to be covered by newspaper correspondents.
Despite the help of Britain and France, the Ottoman Empire continued to lose lands. The Russians
came to the aid of Slavic people in the Balkans who rebelled against the Ottomans. The Ottomans
lost control of Romania, Montenegro, Cyprus, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and an area that became
Bulgaria. The Ottomans lost land in Africa too. By the beginning of World War I, the Ottoman
Empire was reduced in size and in deep decline.
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A human-made waterway that cut through the Isthmus of Suez,
connecting the Red Sea to the Mediterranean. It was built mainly
with French money from private interest groups, using Egyptian labor.
The Suez Canal opened in 1869 with a huge international
celebration. However, efforts by Egypt’s leaders to modernize their
country, such as irrigation projects and communications networks,
were enormously expensive. In debt more than $450 million, Egypt
accepted British occupation in 1882.
Muhammad Ali was an officer of the Ottoman army who, in 1805, seized power and
established Egypt as an independent nation. Before 1880, Europeans controlled little of the
African continent directly. They were content to let African rulers and merchants represent
European interests. Between 1880 and 1900, however, Great Britain, France, Germany,
Belgium, Italy, Spain and Portugal, spurred by intense rivalries among themselves, placed
virtually all of African under European rule.
Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire, but as Ottoman rule declined, the Egyptians
sought their independence. In 1805, an officer of the Ottoman army named Muhammad Ali
seized power and established a separate Egyptian state. During the next 30 years,
Muhammad Ali introduced a series of reforms to bring Egypt into the modern world. He
modernized the army, set up a public school system, and helped create small industries that
refined sugar, produced textiles and munitions, and built ships.
Closure Question #1: Why did Great Britain want to control the Suez Canal?
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
Sepoys – Indian soldiers hired by the British East India Company to protect
the company’s interests in India.
Kanpur was the site of the massacre of 200 defenseless British women and children by Indian
revolutionaries. This event, along with other atrocities, led the British government to directly control
India in 1876. Over the course of the 18th century, British power in India had increased while the
power of the Mongol rulers had declined. The British government gave a trading company, the
British East India Trading Company, power to become actively involved in India’s political and
military affairs. To rule India, the British East India Company had its own soldiers and forts. It also
hired Indian soldiers, known as sepoys, to protect the company’s interests in the region. In 1857 a
growing Indian distrust of the British led to a revolt. The British call the revolt the Sepoy Mutiny.
Indians call it the First War of Independence. Neutral observers label it the Great Rebellion.
The major immediate cause of the revolt was a rumor that the troops’ new rifle cartridges were
greased with cow and pig fat. The cow was sacred to Hindus. The pig was taboo to Muslims. To
load a rifle at that time, soldiers had to bite off the end of the cartridge. To the sepoys, touching
these greased cartridges to their lips would mean that they were polluted. A group of sepoys at an
army post in Meerut, near Delhi, refused to load their rifles with the cartridges. The British charged
them with mutiny, publicly humiliated them, and put them in prison. This treatment of their
comrades enraged the sepoy troops in Meerut. They went on a rampage, killing 50 European men,
women, and children. Soon other Indians joined the revolt, including Indian princes whose land the
British had taken.
Within a year, however, Indian troops loyal to the British and fresh British troops had crushed the
rebellion. Although Indian troops fought bravely and outnumbered the British by about 230,000 to
45,000, they were not well organized. Rivalries between Hindus and Muslims kept the Indians from
working together. Atrocities were terrible on both sides. At Kanpur, Indians massacred 200
defenseless women and children in a building known as the House of the Ladies. Recapturing
Kanpur, the British took their revenge before executing the Indians.
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
The Indian people paid a high price for the peace and stability
brought by British rule. Perhaps the greatest cost was economic.
British entrepreneurs and a small number of Indians reaped financial
benefits from British rule, but it brought hardships for millions of others
in both the cities and the countryside. British manufactured goods
destroyed local industries. British textiles put thousands of women out
of work and severely damaged the Indian textile industry. In rural
areas, the British sent zamindars to collect taxes. The British believed
that using these local officials would make it easier to collect taxes
from the peasants.
However, the zamindars in India took advantage of their new
authority. They increased taxes and forced the less fortunate
peasants to become tenants or lose their land entirely. The British also
encouraged many farmers to switch from growing food to growing
cotton. As a result, food supplies could not keep up with the growing
population. Between 1800 and 1900, 30 million Indians died of
starvation. Finally, British rule was degrading, even for the newly
educated upper classes who benefited the most from it.
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
Term used by the British to describe India, which was considered the
most valuable of all of Britain’s colonies. The Industrial Revolution had
turned Britain into the world’s workshop, and India was a major
supplier of raw materials for that workshop. Its 300 million people
were also a large potential market for British made goods.
British rule in India had several benefits for subjects. It brought order and stability to a society badly
divided into many states with different political systems. It also led to a fairly honest, efficient
government. Through the efforts of the British administrator and historian Lord Thomas Macaulay, a
new school system was set up. The new system used the English language. The goal of the new
school system was to train Indian children to serve in the government and army. The new system
served only elite, upper-class Indians, however. 90% of the population remained uneducated and
illiterate. Railraods, the telegraph, and a postal service were introduced to India shortly after they
appeared in Great Britain. In 1853 the first trial run of a passenger train traveled the short distance
from Bombay to Thane. By 1900, 25,000 miles of railroads crisscrossed India.
The British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy from operating on its own. British
policies called for India to produce raw materials for British manufacturing and to buy British goods.
In addition, Indian competition with British goods was prohibited. For example, India’s own
handloom textile industry was almost put out of business by imported British textiles. Cheap cloth
from England flooded the Indian market and undercut local producers.

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
(1857-1858) Violent uprising against British rule by the Sepoys. The
revolt was sparked by a rumor that the cartridges for the rifles given
to the Sepoys by the British were greased with beef and pork fat. Both
Hindus, who consider the cow sacred, and Muslims, who do not eat
pork, were outraged by the news. The Sepoys refused to use the
cartridges and, as a result many were jailed by the British. Those that
remained free responded by attacking the British, taking the city of
Delhi. Finally, fresh British troops arrived and put down the uprising.
The first Indian nationalists were upper-class and English educated. Many of them were from urban
areas, such as Bombay (Mumbai), Madras (Chennai), and Calcutta (Kolkata). At first, many Indian
nationalists preferred reform to revolution. However, the slow pace of reform convinced many that
relying on British goodwill was futile. In 1885 a small group of Indians met in Bombay to form the
Indian National Congress. The INC had difficulties because of religious differences. The INC sought
independence for all Indians, regardless of class or religious background. However, many of its
leaders were Hindu and reflected Hindu concerns. Later, Muslims called for the creation of a
separate Muslim League. Such a league would represent the interests of the millions of Muslims in
Indian society.
The love-hate tension in India that arose from British domination led to a cultural awakening as
well. The cultural revival began in the early 19th century with the creation of a British college in
Calcutta. A local publishing house was opened. It issued textbooks on a variety of subjects,
including the sciences, Sanskrit, and Western literature. The publisher also printed grammars and
dictionaries in various Indian languages. This revival soon spread to other regions of India. It led to a
search for a new national identity and a modern literary expression. Indian novelists and poets
began writing historical romances and epics. Some wrote in English, but most were uncomfortable
with a borrowed colonial language. They preferred to use their own regional tongues.



The direct rule of India by the British. Following the Sepoy Mutiny the
British government determined that it needed to maintain a stronger
presence in India, and in 1858 Queen Victoria was recognized as the
Empress of India.
As a result of the Sepoy Uprising, the British Parliament transferred the powers of the East India
Company directly to the British government. In 1876 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of
India. The people of India were now her colonial subjects, and India became her “Jewel in the
Crown.” Although the rebellion failed, it helped to fuel Indian nationalism. The rebellion marked the
first significant attempt by the people of South Asia to throw off British rule. Later, a new generation
of Indian leaders would take up the cause. After the Sepoy Mutiny, the British government began
to rule India directly. They appointed a British official known as a viceroy. A British civil service staff
assisted the viceroy. This staff of about 3,500 officials ruled almost 300 million people, the largest
colonial population in the world. British rule involved both benefits and costs for Indians.
British rule in India had several benefits for subjects. It brought order and stability to a society badly
divided into many states with different political systems. It also led to a fairly honest, efficient
government. Through the efforts of the British administrator and historian Lord Thomas Macaulay, a
new school system was set up. The new system used the English language. The goal of the new
school system was to train Indian children to serve in the government and army. The new system
served only elite, upper-class Indians, however. 90% of the population remained uneducated and
illiterate. Railraods, the telegraph, and a postal service were introduced to India shortly after they
appeared in Great Britain. In 1853 the first trial run of a passenger train traveled the short distance
from Bombay to Thane. By 1900, 25,000 miles of railroads crisscrossed India.
Closure Question #3: Many British lived in India for decades. Do you think living in
India would have changed British attitudes toward Indians? Explain. (At least 1
sentence)
Answer the following questions based on what
you have learned from Chapter 27, Sections 3
and 4:
1. Why did Great Britain want to control the Suez
Canal?

2.
3.
Do you think the benefits of British rule to
India outweighed its costs? Support your
answer. (At least 1 sentence)
Many British lived in India for decades. Do you
think living in India would have changed British
attitudes toward Indians? Explain. (At least 1
sentence)




The countries that border the Pacific Ocean; Western nations desired the
Pacific Rim lands for their strategic location along the sea route to China
and for their tropical agriculture, minerals, and oil.
The new imperialism of the late 19th century was evident in Southeast Asia. In 1800, the Europeans ruled
only two societies in this area: the Spanish Philippines and the Dutch East Indies. By 1900, virtually the entire
area was under Western rule. The process began with Great Britain. In 1819 Great Britain sent Sir Thomas
Stamford Raffles to found a new colony on a small island at the tip of the Malay Peninsula. Called
Singapore (“city of the lion”), in the new age of steamships, it soon became a major stopping point for
traffic going to or from China. Raffles was proud of his new city. He wrote about Singapore to a friend in
England: “Here all is life and activity; and it would be difficult to name a place on the face of the globe
with brighter prospects.”
During the next few decades, the British advance into Southeast Asia continued. Next to fall was the
kingdom of Burma (modern Myanmar). Britain wanted control of Burma in order to protect its possessions
in India. It also sought a land route through Burma into south China. Although the difficult terrain along the
frontier between Burma and China caused this effort to fail. British activities in Burma led to the collapse of
the Burmese monarchy.
Many subject peoples in Southeast Asia resented being governed by Western powers. At first, resistance
came from the existing ruling class. In Burma, for example, the monarch himself fought Western
domination. By contrast, in Vietnam, after the emperor had agreed to French control of his country, a
number of government officials set up an organization called Can Vuong (“Save the King”). They fought
against the French without the emperor’s help. Sometimes, resistance to Western control took the form of
peasant revolts. Under colonial rule, peasants were often driven off the land to make way for plantation
agriculture. Angry peasants then vented their anger at the foreign invaders. For example, in Burma, in 1930
the Buddhist monk Saya San led a peasant uprising against the British colonial regime many years after the
regime had completed its takeover.
Ruler of Siam (Modern-Day Thailand) who promoted Western learning and
maintained friendly relations with European powers in order to maintain the
independence of their nation. Under his leadership, Siam was The only free
state in Southeast Asia that remained following the conquests of England and
France in the late 19th century.



France, which had some missionaries operating in Vietnam, nervously watched the British advance into Burma. The
local Vietnamese authorities, who viewed Christianity as a threat to Confucian doctrine, persecuted the French
missionaries. However, Vietnam failed to stop the Christian missionaries. Vietnamese internal rivalries divided the
country into two separate governments – the north and the south. France was especially alarmed by British
attempts to monopolize trade. To stop any British move into Vietnam, the French government decided in 1857 to
force the Vietnamese to accept French protection.
The French eventually succeeded in making the Vietnamese ruler give up territories in the Mekong River delta. The
French occupied the city of Saigon and, during the next 30 years, extended their control over the rest of the
country. In 1884 France seized the city of Hanoi and later made the Vietnamese empire a French protectorate. In
the 1880s, France extended its control over neighboring Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin and Laos. By 1887, France
included all of its new possessions in a new Union of French Indochina.
After the French conquest of Indochina, Thailand (then called Siam) was the only remaining free state in Southwest
Asia. During the last quarter of the 19th century, British and French rivalry threatened to place Thailand, too, under
colonial rule. Two remarkable rulers were able to prevent that from happening. One was King Mongkut and the
other was his son, King Chulalongkorn. Both promoted Western learning and maintained friendly relations with the
major European powers. In 1896 Britain and France agreed to maintain Thailand as an independent buffer state
between their possessions in Southeast Asia.


The colonial powers did not want their colonists to develop their own
industries. Thus, colonial policy stressed the export of raw materials.
This policy often led to some form of plantation agriculture. Peasants
worked as wage laborers on the foreign owned plantations.
Plantation owners kept wages at poverty levels to increase profits.
Conditions on plantations were often so unhealthy that thousands
died. Also, peasants bore the burden of high taxes.
Nevertheless, colonial rule did bring some benefits to Southeast Asia.
A modern economic system began there. Colonial governments
built railroads, highways, and other structures that benefited native
peoples as well as colonials. The development of an export market
helped create an entrepreneurial class in rural areas. In the Dutch
East Indies, for example, small growers of rubber, palm oil, coffee,
tea, and spices began to share in the profits of the colonial
enterprise. Most of the profits, however, were taken back to the
colonial mother country.



Emilio Aguinaldo – Filipino revolutionary leader who led the fight for
Independence from Spain with the support of the U.S.; however,
when the U.S. stationed troops in the Philippines after the war,
Aguinaldo organized a rebellion against U.S. rule. In the fight that
followed, 200,000 Filipinos and 5,000 Americans were killed, and
Aguinaldo was captured in 1901.
One final conquest in Southeast Asia occurred at the end of the 19th century. In 1898, during the
Spanish-American War, U.S. naval forces under George Dewey, defeated the Spanish fleet in
Manilla Bay. Believing it was his moral obligation to “civilize” other parts of the world, President
William McKinley decided to turn the Philippines, which had been under Spanish control, into an
American colony. This action would also prevent the area from falling into the hands of the
Japanese. In fact, the islands gave the U.S. a convenient jumping-off point to trade with China.
The Filipinos did not agree with the American control. Emilio Aguinaldo was the leader of a
movement for independence in the Philippines. He began his revolt against the Spanish and went
into exile in 1898. When the United States acquired the Philippines, Aguinaldo continued the revolt
and set himself up as the president of the Republic of the Philippines. Led by Aguinaldo, the
guerrilla forces fought bitterly against the United States troops to establish their independence. The
fight for Philippine independence resulted in three years of bloody warfare. However, the United
States defeated the guerrilla forces, and President McKinley had his stepping stone to the rich
markets of China.
Early resistance movements failed. They were overcome by Western powers.
At the beginning of the 20th century, a new kind of resistance began to
emerge that was based on the force of nationalism. The leaders were often
from a new class that the colonial rule had created: westernized intellectuals
in the cities.
 In many cases, this new urban middle class – composed of merchants,
clerks, students, and professionals – had been educated in Western-style
schools. They were the first generation of Asians to embrace the institutions
and values of the West. Many spoke Western languages and worked in jobs
connected with the colonial regimes.
 At first, many of the leaders of these movements did not focus clearly on the
idea of nationhood. Instead, they simply tried to defend the economic
interests or religious beliefs of the native peoples. In Burma, for example,
students at the University of Rangoon formed an organization to protect
against official persecution of the Buddhist religion and British lack of respect
for local religious traditions. They protested against British arrogance and
failure to observe local customs in Buddhist temples. Not until the 1930s did
these resistance movements begin to demand national independence.




Annexation – Incorporation of a country within a state; for example,
the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898, declaring it to be
American property.
Queen Liliuokalani – Hawaiian Queen; Fearful that an American
takeover of her islands might occur, Liliuokalani tried to strengthen
her monarchy and deport all foreigners in 1893. In response, the U.S.
sent military forces to the island and deposed the Queen. Hawaii
became a territory of the U.S. in 1898.
In the late 1800s, the U.S. began to expand abroad. The Samoan Islands in the Pacific were the first
important U.S. colony. By 1887, Americans controlled the sugar industry on the Hawaiian Islands. As
more Americans settled in Hawaii, they wanted political power. When Queen Liliuokalani tried to
strengthen the monarchy to keep the islands under her people’s control, the U.S. sent military
forces to the island. The queen was deposed and the U.S. annexed Hawaii in 1898. In 1898 the U.S.
defeated Spain in the Spanish-American War. As a result, the U.S. acquired the former Spanish
possessions of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. By the beginning of the 20th century, the
U.S., the world’s richest nation, had an empire.
Closure Question #3: Identify the effects of colonial rule on the colonies. (At least
2 effects in 1 sentence)

1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on the information
covered in Chapter 27, Section 4:
List some benefits colonial rule brought to Southeast Asia.
(At least 1 sentence) Do you think these benefits
outweighed the disadvantages. Explain. (At least 1
sentence)
Why were resistance movements often led by native
leaders who had been educated in the West? (At least 1
sentence) How did their goals change over time? (At
least 1 sentence)
Identify the effects of colonial rule on the colonies. (At
least 2 effects in 1 sentence)



(1839-1842) Conflict between the Chinese Qing Empire and Great
Britain; The sale of highly-addictive Opium by British merchants in
China led to a high trade-deficit, weakening the Chinese economy.
When the Emperor ordered a ban on the sale of Opium, the British
responded by blockading major Chinese ports, leading to an
escalation of conflict. The defeat of the Qing by the British opened
the path for European imperial conquest of the Chinese mainland,
making the Qing subservient to European interests.
Opium was grown in northern India under the sponsorship of the British East India Company and
then shipped directly to Chinese markets. Demand for opium – a highly addictive drug – in South
China jumped dramatically. Soon, silver was flowing out of China and into the pockets of the
officials of the British East India Company. The Chinese reacted strongly. The British were not the
first to import opium into China. The Chinese government had already seen opium’s dangerous
qualities and had made its trade illegal. They appealed to the British government on moral
grounds to stop the traffic in opium. The British refused to halt their activity, however. As a result,
the Chinese blockaded the foreign area in Guangzhou to force traders to surrender their opium.
The British responded with force, starting the Opium War (1839-1842). The Chinese were not match
for the British. British warships destroyed Chinese coastal and river forts.
When a British fleet sailed almost unopposed up the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) to Nanjing, the
Qing dynasty made peace. In the treaty of Nanjing in 1842, the Chinese agreed to open five
coastal ports to British trade, limit taxes on imported British goods, and pay for the costs of the war.
China also agreed to give the British the island of Hong Kong. Nothing was said in the treaty about
the opium trade. Moreover, in the five ports, Europeans lived in their own sections and were



Policy that Europeans living in Chinese ports were subject to their
own laws, not to Chinese laws; Under this system, if a British subject
engaged in criminal activity while in China, he or she could only be
arrested by British authorities and would have to be tried in British
courts. Extraterritorial Rights was a condition of the Treaty of Nanjing
which ended the Opium War.
One important reason for the abrupt decline and fall of the Qing dynasty was the intense external
pressure that the modern West applied to Chinese society. However, internal problems that the
government was slow to address also played a role. After an extended period of growth, the Qing
dynasty began to suffer from corruption, peasant unrest, and incompetence. These weaknesses
were made worse by rapid growth in the country’s population. By 1900, there were 400 million
people in China. Population growth created a serious food shortage, and many people died of
starvation. The ships, guns, and ideas of foreigners highlighted the growing weakness of the Qing
dynasty and probably hastened its end.
By 1800, Europeans had been in contact with China for more than 200 years. Wanting to limit
contact with outsiders, the Qing dynasty had restricted European merchants to a small trading
outlet at Guangzhou, or Canton. The merchants could deal with only a few Chinese firms. The
British did not like this arrangement. Britain had a trade deficit, or an unfavorable trade balance,
with China. That is, it imported more goods from China than it exported to China. Britain had to
pay China with silver for the difference between its imports – tea, silk, and porcelain – from China
and its exports – Indian cotton – to China. At first, the British tried to negotiate with the Chinese to

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

(1850-1864) Convinced that the Christian God gave him the mission to
destroy the Qing Dynasty, Hong Xiuquan led armies of peasants to
capture major northern Chinese cities and establish a Christian
government. However, by 1864, with European aid, the forces of the
Qing destroyed the rebel forces.
Joined by great crowds of peasants, Hong captured the town of Yongan and proclaimed a new dyansty,
the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace (Tai Ping Tianguo in Chiense – hence the name Tai Ping Rebellion).
The Tai Ping Rebellion appealed to many people because it called for social reforms. These reforms
included giving land to all peasants and treating women as equals of men. Women even served in their
own units in the Tai Ping army.
Hong’s rebellion also called for people to give up their private possessions. Peasants were to hold lands
and farms in common. Money, food, and clothing were to be shared equally by all. Hong outlawed
alcohol and tobacco, and eliminated the practice of binding women’s feet. The Chinese Communist
Revolution of the 20th century would have similar social goals. In March 1853, the rebels seized Nanjing, the
second largest city of the empire, and massacred 25,000 men, women, and children. The revolt continued
for 10 more years, but gradually began to fall apart. Europeans came to the aid of the Qing dynasty when
they realized the destructive nature of the Tai Ping forces. As one British observer noted, there was no
hope “of any good ever coming of the rebel movement. They do nothing but burn, murder, and destroy.”
In 1864, Chinese forces, with European aid, recaptured Nanjing and destroyed the remaining rebel force.
The Tai Ping Rebellion was one of the most devastating civil wars in history. As many as 20 million people
died during the 14-year struggle. China’s ongoing struggle with the West prevented the Qing dynasty from
dealing effectively with internal conflict. Beginning in 1856, the British and the French applied force to gain
greater trade privileges. As a result of the Treaty of Tianjin in 1858, the Chinese agreed to legalize the
opium trade and to open new ports to foreign trade. They also surrendered the Kowloon Peninsula to
Great Britain. When the Chinese resisted parts of the treaty, the British seized Beijing in 1860.




A region of China where a European imperial power had exclusive
trading rights. As the Qing Dynasty began to decline, many
European nations, as well as Japan, staked claims to the rich natural
resources and immense sources of labor provided by China, carving
up the country into different spheres of influence.
By the late 1870s, the Qing dynasty was in decline. Unable to restore order themselves,
government troops had relied on forces recruited by regional warlords to help fight the Tai Ping
Rebellion. To finance their armies, the warlords had collected taxes from local people. After the
revolt, many of these warlords kept their armies. With the support of the local gentry, the regional
warlords continued to collect local taxes for their own use.
In its weakened state, the Qing court finally began to listen to the appeals of reform-minded
officials. The reformers called for a new policy they called “self-strengthening.” That is, China should
adopt Western technology but keep its Confucian values and institutions. Some reformers wanted
to change China’s traditional political institutions by introducing democracy. However, such ideas
were too radical for most reformers. During the last quarter of the 19th century, the Chinese
government tried to modernize China’s military forces and build up industry without touching the
basic elements of China’s civilization. Railroads, weapons factories, and shipyards were built.
However, the Chinese value system remained unchanged.
In the end, however, the changes did not help the Qing stay in power. The European advance into
China continued during the last two decades of the nineteenth century. Internal conditions also
continued to deteriorate. In the north and northeast, Russia took advantage of the Qing dynasty’s
weakness to force China to give up territories north of the Amur River in Siberia. Russia wanted both
Manchuria and Mongolia and even had designs on Korea. Russia’s designs on Korea threatened

U.S. policy towards China introduced by Secretary of State John Hay
(1898-1905); Hay sent a series of notes to European imperialist nations
advising them that the United States expected to have an equal
opportunity for trade in China, even though it did not have its own sphere
of influence. Through the Open Door Policy the U.S. advised imperialist
nations in China that a) the U.S. had no interest in establishing a colony
in China, but b) the U.S. did want free trade to take place in China.

As foreign pressure on the Qing dynasty grew stronger, both Great Britain and the United States feared
that other nations would overrun the country should the Chinese government collapse. The annexation of
Hawaii and the Philippines had encouraged the expansion of American interests in the Pacific. The United
States now was fully engaged in expanding its stake in the global marketplace. In 1899, U.S. Secretary of
state John Hay wrote a note to Britain, Russia, Germany, France, Italy and Japan. Hay asked each country
to respect equal trading opportunities in China. He also asked the powers with a sphere of influence not to
set tariffs that would give an unfair advantage to the citizens of their own country. This note was not shown
to the Chinese government. When none of the other imperialist governments expressed opposition to the
idea, Hay proclaimed that all major states with economic interests in China had agreed that the country
should have an Open Door policy.

“The policy of the government of the United States is to seek a solution which may bring
about permanent safety and peace to China, preserve Chinese territorial and administrative
entity, protect all rights guaranteed to friendly powers by treaty and international law, and
safeguard for the world the principle of equal and impartial trade with all parts of the
Chinese Empire.” –John Hay, 1900


In part, the Open Door policy reflected American
concern for the survival of China. However, it also
reflected the interests of some U.S. trading
companies. These companies wanted to operate in
open markets and disliked the existing division of
China into separate spheres of influence
dominated by individual states.
The Open Door policy did not end the system of
spheres of influence. However, it did reduce
restrictions on foreign imports imposed by the
dominating power within each sphere. The Open
Door policy also helped reduce imperialist hysteria
over access to the China market. The policy
lessened fears in Britain, France, Germany, and
Russia that other powers would take advantage of





In May 1900, the Boxers (nickname for Chinese nationalists) killed
foreign missionaries and besieged foreign diplomats in Beijing. A
multinational force of 20,000 soldiers, including 2,000 Americans,
united to defeat the Boxers. Chinese nationalists remained hostile to
outsiders and, in 1911, overthrew the emperor to establish a new
Chinese government.
In 1894 the Chinese went to war with Japan over Japanese inroads into Korea, a land that the
Chinese had controlled for a long time. The Chinese were soundly defeated in the First SinoJapanese War. Japan demanded and received the island of Taiwan (known to the Europeans as
Formosa) and the Liaodong Peninsula. Fearing Japan’s growing powers, however, the European
powers forced Japan to give the Liaodong Peninsula back to China.
New pressures for Chinese territory soon arose. In 1897, Chinese rioters murdered two German
missionaries. Germany used this as a pretext to demand territories in the Shandong Peninsula.
When the Chinese government approved the demand, other European nations made new claims
on Chinese territory.
The Boxer Rebellion was the next in a long line of violent uprisings, taking place in 1900. Response to
the killings of missionaries and Chinese Christians was immediate and overwhelming. When William
II, emperor of Germany, learned of the envoy’s fate, he sent German troops to China and
declared: “Show no mercy! Take no prisoners!... The Huns of King Attila made a name for
themselves… impose the name of Germany in China… in such a way that no Chinese will ever
dare look askance at a German again.”
In August 1900, the allied army restored order and demanded more concessions from the Chinese



The Open Door policy came too late to stop the Boxer
Rebellion. Boxer was the popular name given to members of a
secret organization called the Society of Harmonious Fists.
Members practiced a system of exercise – a form of
shadowboxing, or boxing with an imaginary opponent – that
they thought would protect them from bullets.
The Boxers were upset by the foreign takeover of Chinese
lands. Their slogan was “destroy the foreigner.” They especially
disliked Christian missionaries and Chinese converts to
Christianity who seemed to threaten Chinese traditions. At the
beginning of 1900, Boxer bands roamed the countryside and
slaughtered foreign missionaries and Chinese Christians. Their
victims also included foreign businessmen and even the
German envoy in Beijing.
Response to the killing of missionaries and Chinese Christians
was immediate and overwhelming. An allied army consisting of
20,000 British, French, German, Russian, American, and

1.
2.
3.
Answer the following questions based on the
information covered in Chapter 28, Section 1:
Why did European nations agree to follow the
Open Door policy proposed by the U.S.? (At least 1
sentence)
List the countries that supplied troops for the allied
army, which was formed to fight the Boxers in 1900.
Why did foreign powers help the Chinese
government put down the Boxer Rebellion? (At
least 1 sentence)



(1854) Agreement between Japan and the United States under which
American ships were allowed to take on supplies at two ports in
Japan. The Japanese had previously refused to allow any foreign
ships to docks at its ports, but a massive fleet of American steampowered ships shocked the Tokugawa Shogun into giving in to the
Americans’ demands for free trade. By 1860, Japan, like China, had
granted foreigners permission to trade at several treaty ports.
By the end of the 19th century, Japan was emerging as a modern imperialist power. The Japanese
followed the example of Western nations, while trying to preserve Japanese values. By 1800, the
Tokugawa shogunate had ruled Japan for 200 years. The Tokugawa had maintained an isolationist
policy, keeping formal relations only with Korea and allowing only Dutch and Chinese merchants
at Nagasaki. Western nations wanted to end Japan’s isolation, believing that the expansion of
trade on a global basis would benefit all nations.
The first foreign power to succeed with Japan was the United States. In the summer of 1853,
Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Edo Bay with an American fleet of four warships. Perry
sought “to bring a singular and isolated people into the family of civilized nations.” Perry brought a
letter from President Millard Fillmore, asking the Japanese for better treatment of sailors
shipwrecked on the Japanese islands. (Foreign sailors shipwrecked in Japan were treated as
criminals and exhibited in public cages.) He also asked to open foreign relations between the
United States and Japan. Perry returned about 6 months later for an answer, this time with a larger
fleet. Having discussed the issue, some shogunate officials recommended concessions, or political
compromises. The guns of Perry’s ships ultimately made Japan’s decision.



Period from the mid to late 1800s in which Japan, under the leadership of a
new, young emperor, Mutsuhito, oversaw technological progress, the
formation of an authoritarian democracy, redistribution of land from the
daimyo to peasants, the relocation of the national capital from Kyoto to Edo
(modern Tokyo), and the rise of Japan as an imperialist power.
Once in power the new leaders moved first to abolish the old order and to strengthen power in
their hands. To undercut the power of the daimyo – the local nobles – the new leaders stripped
these great lords of the titles to their lands in 1871. As compensation, the lords were given
government bonds and were named governors of the territories formerly under their control. The
territories were now called prefectures. The Meiji reformers set out to create a modern political
system based on the Western model. In 1868, the new leaders signed a Charter Oath, in which
they promised to create a new legislative assembly within the framework of continued imperial
rule. Although the daimyo were given senior positions in the new government, the modernizing
leaders from the Sat-Cho group held the key posts. The country was divided into 75 prefectures
(The number was reduced to 45 in 1889 and remains at that number today.)
During the next 20 years, the Meiji government undertook a careful study of Western political
systems. A commission under Ito Hirobumi traveled to Great Britain, France, Germany, and the
United States to study their governments. As the process evolved, two main factions appeared, the
Liberals and the Progressives. The Liberals wanted political reform based on the Western liberal
democratic model, which vested supreme authority in the parliament as the representative of the
people. The Progressives wanted power to be shared between the legislative and executive
branches, with the executive branch having more control .
Closure Question #1: Illustrate the results of Western influence on Japanese culture
by using a diagram like this one:
Western Influence on
Japanese Culture
Closure Question #2: How did the Japanese land reform program
create internal problems? (At least 1 sentence)

The Meiji leaders also set up a land reform program,
which made the traditional lands of the daimyo into the
private property of the peasants. The Meiji leaders then
levied a new land tax, which was set at an annual rate of
three percent of the estimated value of the land. The
new tax was an excellent source of revenue for the
government. However, it was quite burdensome for the
farmers. Under the old system, farmers had paid a fixed
percentage of their harvest to the landowners. In bad
harvest years, they had owed little or nothing. Under the
new system, the farmers had to pay the land tax every
year, regardless of the quality of the harvest. As a result,
in bad years, many peasants were unable to pay their
taxes. This forced them to sell their lands to wealthy
neighbors and become tenant farmers who paid rent to



(1904-1905) Japan destroyed Russia’s pacific fleet in northern China
without officially declaring war, then sent ground troops to drive
Russia out of Manchuria (northern China), causing more than 100,000
casualties. In 1905 President Theodore Roosevelt facilitated
negotiations between Russia and Japan to end the conflict.
Roosevelt was given the Nobel Peace Prize for his efforts.
The Japanese began their program of territorial expansion close to home. In 1874, Japan claimed
control of the Ryukyu Islands, which belonged to the Chinese Empire. Two years later, Japan’s
navy forced the Koreans to open their pots to Japanese trade. The Chinese grew concerned by
Japan’s growing influence there. In the 1880s, Chinese-Japanese rivalry over Korea intensified. In
1894, the two nations went to war, and Japan won. In the treaty ending the war, China
recognized Korea’s independence. China also transferred Taiwan and the Liaodong Peninsula,
with its strategic naval base at Port Arthur, to Japan. In time, the Japanese gave the Liaodong
Peninsula back to China. Rivalry with Russia over influence in Korea had led to increasingly strained
relations. The Russians thought little of the Japanese and even welcomed the possibility of war.
One adviser to Nicholas II said, “We will only have to throw our caps at them and they will run
away.”
The Russo-Japanese War began in 1904. Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian naval
base at Port Arthur, which Russia had taken from China in 1898. The Russian commander in chief
said, “It is impossible not to admire the bravery and activity of the Japanese. The attack of the
Japanese is a continuous succession of waves, and they never relax their efforts by day or by
night.” In the meantime, Russia had sent its Baltic fleet halfway around the world to East Asia, only
to be defeated by the new Japanese navy off the coast of Japan. After their defeat, the Russians
agreed to a humiliating peace in 1905. They gave the Liaodong Peninsula back to Japan, as well


Before the Meiji reforms, women were especially limited by the
“three obediences”: child to father, wife to husband, and
widow to son. Husbands could easily obtain a divorce; wives
could not. Marriages were arranged, and the average marital
age of females was 16 years. Females did not share inheritance
rights with males. Few received any education outside the
family.
The Meiji Restoration had a marked effect on the traditional
social system in Japan. Special privileges for the aristocracy
were abolished. For the first time, women were allowed to seek
an education. As the economy shifted from an agricultural to
an industrial base, thousands of Japanese began to get new
jobs and establish new social relationships. Western fashions
and culture became the rage. The ministers of the first Meiji
government were known as the “dancing cabinet” because
they loved Western-style ballroom dancing. A new generation
of modern boys and girls began to imitate the clothing, styles,
eating habits, hairstyles, and social practices of European and



After defeating Russia and laying claim to Manchuria, Japan
attacked Korea. Unable to rally international support for his rule,
the Korean king gave up control of the country in 1907. In 1910,
Japan officially annexed, or claimed power to rule, the nation of
Korea.
From the start, a unique feature of the Meiji model of industrial development was the close
relationship between government and private business. The government encouraged the
development of new industries by providing businesspeople with money and privileges. Once
an individual enterprise or industry was on its feet, it was turned over entirely to private
ownership. Even then, however, the government continued to play some role in the industry’s
activities.
The Meiji reformers also transformed other institutions. A key focus of their attention was the
military. The reformers were well aware that Japan would need a modern military force to
compete with the West. A new imperial army based on compulsory military service was
formed in 1871. All Japanese men now served for three years. The new army was well
equipped with modern weapons. Education also changed. The Meiji leaders realized the
need for universal education, including instruction in modern technology. A new ministry of
education, established in 1871, adopted the American model of elementary schools,
secondary schools, and universities. It brought foreign specialists to Japan to teach, and it
sent many students to study abroad. Much of the content of the new educational system
was Western in its inspiration. However, a great deal of emphasis was still placed on the
virtues of loyalty to the family and community. Loyalty to the emperor was especially valued.
Answer the following questions based on the information
covered in Chapter 28, Section 2:
1. Illustrate the results of Western influence on
Japanese culture by using a diagram like this one:

Western Influence on
Japanese Culture
2. How did the Japanese land reform program
create internal problems? (At least 1 sentence)
3. Compare the rights of Japanese women before and after
the Meiji Restoration. (At least 2 sentences)



Strong military leaders who gained power in Latin America
following the revolutions against European rule in the 19th century.
Most of the new nations of Latin America began with republican governments,
but they had no experience in self-rule. Soon after independence, strong leaders
known as caudillos gained power. Caudillos ruled chiefly by military force & were
usually supported by the landed elites. Many kept the new national states
together. Some were also modernizers who built roads and canals, ports, and
schools. Others were destructive. Santa Anna misused state funds, halted reforms,
& created chaos. As one historian judged, “Any progress in Mexico achieved
during the era of Santa Anna had nothing to do with him.”
In 1835 American settlers in the Mexican state of Texas revolted against Santa
Anna’s rule. Texas gained its independence in 1836 and United States statehood
followed in 1845. War between Mexico and the United States soon followed
(1846-1848). Mexico was defeated & lost almost one-half of its territory to the
United States in the Mexican War. Fortunately, for Mexico, Santa Anna’s disastrous
rule was followed by a period of reform from 1855 to 1876. This era was
dominated by Benito Juarez, a Mexican national hero. The son of Native
American peasants, President Juarez brought liberal reforms to Mexico. Some of
Juarez’s Laws of Reform included separation of church and state, toleration of all
faiths, curbing the power of the military, an educational system for all of Mexico,

American foreign-policy issued in 1823 regarding Latin America which
guaranteed the protection of independent Latin nations, vowing that if any
European nation attempted to use military force in the Americas the United
States would respond through the use of its own military force.

In the early 1820s, only one major threat remained to the newly won independence of
the Latin American states. Members of the Concert of Europe favored the use of
troops to restore Spanish control in Latin America. The British, who wished to trade with
Latin America, disagreed. They proposed joint action with the United States against
any European moves against Latin America.
Distrustful of British motives, James Monroe, the president of the US, acted alone in
1823. In the Monroe Doctrine he guaranteed the independence of the new Latin
American nations. The Monroe Doctrine also strongly warned against any European
intervention in the Americas. More important to Latin-American independence than
American words, however, was the British navy. Other European powers feared the
power of the British navy which stood between Latin America and any planned
European invasion force.
The new Latin American nations faced a number of serious problems between 1830
and 1870. The wars for independence had resulted in a staggering loss of people,
property, and livestock. Unsure of their precise boundaries, the new nations went to
war with one another to settle border disputes. Poor roads, a lack of railroads, thick
jungles, and mountains made communication, transportation, and national unity
difficult. During the course of the 19th century, the new Latin American nations would



Cuban patriot who launched a war for independence of Cuba from Spain in
1895; Many Americans favored the Cubans because of the similarities
between the Cuban and American Revolutions, the brutality of the Spanish
towards native Cubans, and the loss of American property in Cuba as a result
of the conflict.
By 1897, American entrepreneurs had invested $50 million in sugar cane plantations and other ventures in Cuba,
which lay just 90 miles off the Florida coast. These businessmen saw Cuba as a growing market for American
products. However, the island was very unstable. Yearning for freedom, the Cubans repeatedly rebelled against
Spanish rule. In 1895, Cuban patriot Jose’ Marti launched a war for independence from Spain. With cries of “Cuba
Libre!” (“Free Cuba!”), rebel fighters used guerrilla tactics of hit-and-run raids against Spanish forces. In response,
Spanish General Victoriano Weyler devised a plan to deprive rebels of food and recruits. He herded the rural
population into reconcentration camps, where tens of thousands died from disease and starvation.

In 1867, Secretary of State William Seward bought Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million. Journalists scoffed at the
purchase and referred to Alaska as “Seward’s Folly” and “Seward’s Icebox.” They wondered why the United States
would want a vast tundra of snow and ice 1,000 miles north of its border. But Seward’s purchase almost doubled
the country’s size, and the “ice-box” turned out to be rich in timber, oil, and other natural resources. Alaska also
greatly expanded America’s reach across the Pacific. Scholars today see Seward’s purchase as a milestone on
America’s road to power.

U.S. businessmen saw Latin-America as a natural place to expand their trade and investments. Secretary of State
James Blaine helped them by sponsoring the First International Pan-American Conference in 1889. Blaine preached
the benefits of economic cooperation to delegates of 17 Latin American countries. The conference also paved the
way for construction of the Pan-American Highway system, which linked the United States to Central and South
America. Question
In 1895, tensions#1:
roseDo
between
Great
Britain because
of would
a border dispute
Closure
youAmerica
thinkand
the
United
States
havebetween
gone British
to war
Guiana and Venezuela. Claiming that Britain was violating the Monroe Doctrine, President Cleveland threatened
with
Spain without
explosion
of the
Why
or Why
not?of(At
least
U.S. intervention.
After somethe
international
saber-rattling,
theMaine?
British accepted
a growing
U.S. sphere
influence
in 1
Latin America.
sentence)





(1898) Following several years of brutal warfare between Spain and
Cuban revolutionaries, the United States joined the conflict on the side of
the revolutionaries. However, American forces also used the war as an
excuse to attack and claim Spanish colonies in the Philippines, Guam,
and Puerto Rico also.
American troops landed in Cuba in June, 1898. U.S. Marines captured Guantanamo Bay, and a force of
17,000 soldiers under U.S. Army General William Shafter stormed ashore east of Santiago. In spite of their
excitement for the war, the troops faced deplorable conditions. They were poorly trained and supplied. As
the assembled for duty around Tampa, Florida, the soldiers were issued obsolete weapons and heavy wool
uniforms that were unsuitable for Cuba’s tropical climate. Corrupt and inefficient officials provided the men
with rotting and contaminated food.
General Shafter’s army consisted of state National Guard units and regular army units, including the African
American 9th and 10th Cavalry regiments from the western frontier. Another cavalry unit was organized and
commanded by the future President Theodore Roosevelt. His Rough Riders consisted of rugged westerners
and upper-class easterners who relished what Roosevelt called the “strenuous life”.
The Rough Riders and Roosevelt gained fame for the role they played in the battles for Kettle and San Juan
hills outside Santiago, Cuba. Joined by African American soldiers from the 9 th and 10th regiments, the Riders
stormed up those hills to secure high ground surrounding Santiago. Two days after the battle of San Juan Hill,
the Spanish navy made a desperate attempt to escape from Santiago’s harbor. U.S. forces, which had
blockaded the harbor, destroyed the Spanish fleet as it tried to break out. Surrounded, outnumbered, and
dispirited, Spanish forces in Santiago surrendered. Although a few battles followed when U.S. troops forces
occupied the island of Puerto Rico, another Spanish possession, the fighting had come to an end. Although
almost 3,000 Americans died during the war, only around 380 died in combat. Disease, especially malaria
and yellow fever, caused most of the deaths.




Waterway dug in Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific
Oceans; the U.S. supervised construction of the canal, which was completed
in 1914, after instigating a rebellion in Panama, which had been a province
of Colombia. The new Panamanian nation then sold the rights to the canal to
the U.S., allowing America to gain profit from the shipping companies who
paid to use the canal.
Although the plan to dig a canal across Central America did not originate with Roosevelt, he nevertheless played
a crucial role in its history. In the late 1800s, a French company had tried to link the Atlantic and Pacific across the
Isthmus of Panama but failed. Afterward, some suggested building a canal through Nicaragua. However, those
plans came to nothing. Eventually, an agent from the French company that had abandoned its canal attempt
convinced the United States to buy the company’s claim. In 1903, the U.S. government bought the Panama route
for $40 million.
Before it could build a canal through Panama, however, the United States needed the consent of the Colombian
government. At that time, Panama was part of independent Colombia. American efforts to negotiate a purchase
of land across the isthmus stalled when Colombia demanded more than the United States was willing to provide.
So Roosevelt stepped in. The President dispatched U.S. warships to the waters off Panama to support a
Panamanian rebellion against Colombia. The appearance of the U.S. Navy convinced the Colombians not to
suppress the uprising. Panama soon declared its independence from Colombia. The new nation immediately
granted America control over the “Canal Zone”. To secure this land for its vital trade link, America agreed to pay
Panama $10 million and an annual rent of $250,000.
More than 35,000 workers helped dig the Panama Canal, often in very difficult conditions. Completion of the canal
depended on scientific breakthroughs by doctors as they learned how to combat tropical diseases. Still, more than
Closure
#2:disease
What
impactwhile
did
the building
of the
the
Panama
Canal
5,000 canalQuestion
workers died from
or accidents
building
the canal. When
finished
waterway
opened
in
1914,
it
cut
some
8,000
nautical
miles
off
the
trip
from
the
west
coast
to
the
east
coast
of
the
United
States.
have on American trade? (At least 1 sentence)




Updating the Monroe Doctrine, Roosevelt argued that in the case of
“chronic wrongdoing” by a Latin American nation the U.S. would
assume the role of police power to restore order & keep other nations
from intervening.
“Big Stick” stemmed from Roosevelt’s admiration for an old African saying, “Speak softly and carry a
big stick; you will go far.” Roosevelt’s view that American needed to carry a big stick during the Age
of Imperialism flowed from his adherence to balance-of-power principles and from his responsibility
to civilize weaker nations. In this sense, Roosevelt held similar beliefs to those of other imperial powers
in Europe and Asia. Roosevelt felt that America’s elite – its statesmen and captains of industry – had
to accept the challenge of international leadership.
In the early 1900s, the inability of Latin American nations to pay their debts to foreign investors raised
the possibility of European intervention. In 1903, for example, Germany and Britain blockaded
Venezuelan ports to ensure that debts to European bankers were repaid. Roosevelt concluded “If
we intend to say hands off to the powers of Europe, then sooner or later we must keep order
ourselves.” So in a 1904 message to Congress, he announced a new Latin American policy: The
Roosevelt Corollary. This change, Roosevelt argued, merely reasserted America’s long-standing
policy of keeping the Western Hemisphere free from European intervention.
Many Latin Americans resented America’s role as the hemisphere’s police force. They disagreed with
Roosevelt’s belief that Latin Americans could not police themselves. Francisco Garcia Calderon, a
Peruvian diplomat, contended that the Monroe Doctrine had taken on an “aggressive form with Mr.
Roosevelt.”
Like Calderon,
spokesman
Augusto
Sandino and
felt that
theRoosevelt
U.S. threatened the
Closure
Question
#3:Nicaraguan
How do the
Monroe
Doctrine
the
“sovereigntyreflect
and liberty”
of his people.
Sandino eventually
army of guerrillasof
against
U.S.
Corollary
similar
assumptions
about led
thean
governments
Latin
Marines in Nicaragua in the 1920s.
American nations? (At least 1 sentence)
Answer the following questions based on what
you have learned from Chapter 28, Section 3:
1. Do you think the United States would have gone to
war with Spain without the explosion of the Maine?
Why or Why not? (At least 1 sentence)
2. What impact did the building of the Panama Canal
have on American trade? (At least 1 sentence)
3. How do the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt
Corollary reflect similar assumptions about the
governments of Latin American nations? (At least 1
sentence)






Caudillo who ruled Mexico from 1833 to 1855; Calling himself the
‘Napoleon of the West’, Santa Anna misused state funds, halted
reforms, & led losing military campaigns, weakening Mexico’s
economy & losing territory.
In 1834, the charismatic but ruthless general Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna seized power in Mexico
City. Santa Anna favored a centralized, authoritarian government dominated by the military. His
coup troubled those liberal Mexicans who preferred a decentralized federal system like that of the
United States. Santa Anna’s rule especially angered the people of Texas, both Anglo-Texans and
Tejanos, who wanted greater autonomy. One Anglo-Texan protested that Santa Anna would “give
liberty to our slaves and make slaves of ourselves.”
Santa Anna led Mexican forces in war and defeat, first to the American Texans in 1836 and then to
the Americans in 1847. Santa Anna favored a centralized, authoritarian government dominated
by the military. His military coup troubled liberal Mexicans who preferred a decentralized federal
system of government like the United States.
In 1829 Santa Anna led Mexican forces to victory over the Spanish in their attempt to return Mexico
to colonial status. After this victory Santa Anna became a Hero. He gave himself the title of “The
Napoleon of the West”. In 1838, following his defeat in Texas, Santa Anna restored his honor by
leading Mexico to defend it territory against French forces in what came to be known as the Pastry
War. In the battle Santa Anna lost his leg, which was buried with full military honors.
In 1835 Anglo-Texans seized the Mexican garrisons at Goliad and San Antonio, gradually building
their military power. Texas was not the only Mexican state to revolt against Santa Anna; 11 other
states did so in response to Santa Anna’s order to dissolve the Federal System of government.
Texas, however, was the only state to maintain its Independence. Texas was officially recognized




Mexican national hero who dominated the reform era in Mexico from
1855 to 1876, encouraging religious tolerance, establishing an
educational system, and giving land to the poor.
The son of Native American peasants, President Juarez brought liberal reforms to Mexico.
Some of Juarez’s Laws of Reform included the separation of church and state, toleration of
all faiths, curbing the power of the military, an educational system for all of Mexico, and the
redistribution of land to the poor. Caudillos such as Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina,
were supported by the masses. These caudillos became extremely popular and brought
about radical change. Unfortunately, the caudillo’s authority depended on his personal
power. When he died or lost power, civil wars for control of the country often erupted.
Political independence brought economic independence, but old patterns were quickly
reestablished. Instead of Spain and Portugal, Great Britain and the United States now
dominated the Latin American economy. Great Britain dominated trade in Latin America
for most of the 19th century. British merchants moved into Latin America in large numbers,
and British investors poured in funds. By the late 1920s, the United States replaced Europe as
the source of loans and investments. Direct U.S. investments in Latin America reached $3.5
billion, out of a world total of $7.5 billion.
American, British, and other foreign investors built transportation and communication
systems and power plants. These investors also introduced new technologies such as
refrigeration, steam engines, and mining equipment. These innovations led to increased
production of export commodities such as wheat, tobacco, wool, sugar, coffee, and hides.
At the same time, Latin American countries imported finished consumer goods, especially
textiles, and had limited industry.
Closure Question #1: Why might Benito Juarez’s rise to power be considered surprising?




Mexican liberal reform movement organized by Benito Juarez in the
1840s and 1850s. Its major goals were redistribution of land, separation of
church and state, and increased educational opportunities for the poor.
Santa Anna opposed the movement and sent its leaders, including
Juarez, into exile. When Santa Anna was overthrown in 1855, Juarez
returned and served as President of Mexico from 1861 to 1872.
After 1870, Latin America began an age of prosperity based to a large extent on the export of a few basic
items. These included wheat and beef from Argentina, coffee from Brazil, coffee and bananas from
Central America, and sugar and silver from Peru. These foodstuffs and raw materials were largely
exchanged for finished goods – textiles, machines, and luxury items – from Europe and the United States.
After 1900, Latin Americans also increased their own industrialization. They built factories to produce
textiles, foods, and construction materials.
One result from the prosperity of increased exports was growth in the middle sectors (divisions) of Latin
American society. Lawyers, merchants, shopkeepers, businesspeople, schoolteachers, professors,
bureaucrats, and military officers increased in numbers. After 1900, these middle sectors of society
continued to expand. Middle-class Latin Americans shared some common characteristics. They lived in
cities and sought education and decent incomes. They also saw the United States as a model, especially
in regard to industrialization. The middle-class sought liberal reform, not revolution. Once they had the right
to vote, they generally sided with the landholding elites.
Juarez was reelected president of Mexico in 1867. He returned to the reforms he had proposed more than
ten years earlier. He began rebuilding the country, which had been shattered during years of war. He
promoted trade with foreign countries, the opening of new roads, the building of railroads, and the
establishment of a telegraph service. HE set up a national education system separate from that run by the
Catholic Church. In 1872, Juarez died of a heart attack. But after a half century of civil strife and chaos, he
left his country a legacy of relative peace, progress, and reform.


A fundamental problem for all of the new Latin American
nations was the domination of society by the landed
elites. Large estates remained a way of life in Latin
America. By 1848, for example, the Sanchez Navarro
family in Mexico possessed 17 estates made up of 16
million acres. Latin American estates were often so large
that they could not be farmed efficiently.
Land remained the basis of wealth, social prestige, and
political power throughout the 19th century. Landed elites
ran governments, controlled courts, and kept a system of
inexpensive labor. Those land-owners made enormous
profits by growing single cash crops, such as coffee for
export. Most of the population had no land to grow basic
food crops. As a result, the masses experienced dire



Mexican caudillo and pure-blooded Native American who rose
through the ranks of the Mexican army during the years of civil war in
the 1850s and the fight to oust the French, who had invaded in 1862.
After being refused a government position during Juarez’s
presidency, Diaz came to oppose Mexico’s liberal government. In
1876, Diaz took control of Mexico through a military coup d’etat and
ruled Mexico as a dictator until 1911.
During the Diaz years, elections became meaningless. Diaz offered land, power, or political favors
to anyone who supported him. He terrorized many who refused to support him, ordering them to
be beaten or put in jail. Using such strong-arm methods, Diaz managed to remain in power until
1911. Over the years, Diaz used a political slogan adapted from a rallying cry of the Juarez era.
Juarez had called for “Liberty, Order, and Progress.” Diaz, however, wanted merely “Order and
Progress”.
For decades, Mexican dictator Porfirio Diaz had benefited his country’s small upper class of
wealthy landowners, clerics, and military men. With Diaz’s encouragement, foreign investments in
Mexico grew. As a result, Americans business people owned large portions of Mexico's industries.
While foreign investors and Mexico’s aristocracy grew rich, Mexico’s large population of farmers
struggled in poverty. In 1911, Francisco Madero led the Mexican Revolution that toppled Diaz.
Madero was committed to reforms but was a weak administrator. In 1913, General Victoriano
Huerta seized power and executed Madero. Under “dollar diplomacy”, Taft probably would have
recognized Huerta as the leader of Mexico because Huerta promised to protect American
investments. But under “moral diplomacy”, Wilson refused to do so, declaring that he would not



Born into one of the richest families in Mexico and educated in the
United States and France, Madero announced his candidacy for
president of Mexico in 1910. Soon after, Diaz had Madero arrested
and exiled to the United States. From exile, Madero called for an
armed revolution against Diaz, sparking the Mexican Revolution.
Madero was elected president in November 1911. However, his policies were seen as too liberal by
some and not revolutionary enough by others. Some of those who had supported Madero,
including Villa and Zapata, took up arms against him. In 1913, realizing that he could not hold onto
power, Madero resigned. This military leader General Victoriano Huerta then took over the
presidency. Shortly after, Madero was assassinated, probably on Huerta’s orders. Huerta was
unpopular with many people, including Villa and Zapata. These revolutionary leaders allied
themselves with Venustiano Carranza, another politician who wanted to overthrow Huerta. Their
three armies advanced, seizing the Mexican countryside from Huerta’s forces and approaching
the capital, Mexico City. They overthrew Huerta only 15 months after he took power.
Carranza took control of the government and then turned his army on his former revolutionary
allies. Both Villa and Zapata continued to fight. In 1919, however, Carranza led Zapata into a trap
and murdered him. With Zapata’s death, the civil war also came to an end. More than a million
Mexicans had lost their lives. Carranza began a revision of Mexico’s condition. It was adopted in
1917. A revolutionary document, that constitution is still in effect today. As shown in the chart
above, it promoted education, land reforms, and workers’ rights. Carranza did not support the final
version of the constitution, however, and in 1920, he was overthrown by one of his generals, Alvaro
Obregon.




Emiliano Zapata – Revolutionary leader from southern Mexico. Zapata came from
a poor family. He was determined to see that land was returned to peasants and
small farmers and wanted laws to protect their rights. “Tierra y Libertad” (Land
and Liberty) was his battle cry. Victories by Zapata’s and Villa’s armies against
Diaz’s army led Diaz to step down in 1911.
“Pancho” Villa - Angered by American involvement in Mexican government,
Villa led an attack on Columbus, New Mexico in 1916, killing 18 Americans.
10,000 U.S. soldiers were sent into Mexico to capture Villa, but were unable to
capture Villa before the hunt was called off due to U.S. involvement in World War
1.
Between 1910 and 1920, the Mexican Revolution caused great damage to the Mexican economy. Finally, a new
constitution was enacted in 1017/. This constitution set up a government led by a president. It also created land
reform policies, established limits on foreign investors, and set an agenda to help the workers. The revolution also
led to an outpouring of patriotism throughout Mexico. National pride was evident, for example, as intellectuals and
artists sought to capture what was unique about Mexico, with special emphasis on the past.
In 1914, the president used the Mexican arrest of American sailors as an opportunity to help Carranza attain power.
Wilson sent marines to occupy the Mexican port of Veracruz. The action caused Huerta’s government to collapse,
and Carranza assumed the presidency. Huerta’s fall from power cheered many Mexicans and appeared to
validate Wilson’s “moral diplomacy”. However, Wilson soon discovered that he faced more trouble in Mexico. The
new Carranza government was slow in bringing about reforms, and rebels again rose up, this time under the
leadership of Pancho Villa. For a while, Wilson courted Villa. After American support disappeared in 1916, Villa’s
forced crossed into New Mexico and raided the town of Columbus, leaving 18 Americans dead. President Wilson
responded by sending General John J. Pershing and more than 10,000 troops on a “punitive expedition” to Mexico.
Pershing’s forced chased Villa for several months but failed to capture the rebel leader. Wilson eventually withdrew
American troops from Mexico in 1917, mostly because of his concerns about World War 1 raging in Europe. Not
long afterward, the United States declared war on Germany, and Pershing was given command of the American
Expeditionary Force in France.
Carranza began a revision of Mexico’s constitution. It was adopted in
1917. A revolutionary document, that constitution is still in effect today. It
promoted education, land reforms, and workers’ rights. Carranza did not
support the final version of the constitution, however, and in 1920, he
was overthrown by one of his generals, Alvaro Obregon.
 Reforms of Mexican Constitution of 1917
1.
Land: Breakup of large estates, restrictions on foreign ownership of land,
government control of resources (oil).
2.
Religion: State takeover of land owned by the Church.
3.
Labor: Minimum wage for workers, right to strike, institution of labor
unions.
4.
Social Issues: Equal pay for equal work, limited legal rights for women
(spending money and bringing lawsuits).
 Although Alvaro Obregon seized power violently, he did not remain a
dictator. Instead, he supported the reforms the constitution called for,
particularly land reform. He also promoted public education. Mexican
public schools taught a common language – Spanish –and stressed
nationalism. In this way, his policies helped unite the various regions and
peoples of the country. Nevertheless, Obregon was assassinated in 1928.

Answer the following questions based on
what you have learned from Chapter 28,
Section 4:
1. Why might Benito Juarez’s rise to power be
considered surprising?
2. How did persistent inequality contribute to
the failure of democracy in the young Latin
American nations? (At least 1 sentence)
3. The revision of Mexico’s constitution is
considered revolutionary. Do you agree with
this characterization? Why or Why not?
