Download African elephant tusk sizes and the Dutch ivory trade and craft

Written in Bones
Studies on technological
and social contexts
of past faunal skeletal remains
edited by
Justyna Baron
Bernadeta Kufel-Diakowska
Uniwersytet Wrocławski
Instytut Archeologii
Wrocław 2011
Institute of Archaeology, University of Wrocław, 2011
Editors
Justyna Baron and Bernadeta Kufel-Diakowska
Reviewers
Arkadiusz Marciniak, Jarosław Wilczyński
Layout
Janusz M. Szafran, Jarosław Michalak
Cover
Justyna Baron
© Institute of Archaeology, University of Wrocław and individual authors 2011
ISBN 978-83-61416-64-7
Wrocławska Drukarnia Naukowa PAN im. Stanisława Kulczyńskiego Sp. z o.o.
53-505 Wrocław, ul. Lelewela 4
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Methods and methodology
Steven P. Ashby
The Language of the Combmaker: interpreting complexity in Viking-Age Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Elisabeth A. Stone
The Role of Ethnographic Museum Collections in Understanding Bone Tool Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Materials and technology
Aline Averbouh, Jean-Marc Pétillon
Identification of “debitage by fracturation” on reindeer antler: case study of the Badegoulian levels
at the Cuzoul de Vers (Lot, France) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Bárbara Avezuela Aristu, Esteban Álvarez-Fernández, Jesús Jordá Pardo, Emilio Aura Tortosa
The barnacles: A new species used to make a Gravettian suspended object from Nerja Cave
(Málaga, Spain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Benjamin Marquebielle
Mesolithic bone tools in Southwestern Europe: the example of the French site of “Le Cuzoul
de Gramat” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Stefan Pratsch
Mesolithic antler artefacts in the North European Plain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Marcin Diakowski
Bone and antler artefacts from Pobiel 10, Lower Silesia, Poland. Are they really Mesolithic? . . . . . . 93
Selena Vitezović
The Neolithic Bone Industry from Drenovac, Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Erika Gál
Prehistoric antler- and bone tools from Kaposújlak-Várdomb (South-Western Hungary)
with special regard to the Early Bronze Age implements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Peggy Morgenstern
Typical hide working tools from the late Bronze Age of Moldova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Corneliu Beldiman, Diana-Maria Sztancs, Viorica Rusu-Bolindeţ, Irina Adriana Achim
Skeletal technologies, metal-working and wheat harvesting: ancient bone and antler anvils
for manufacturing saw-toothed iron sickles discovered in Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
4
Katrin Struckmeyer
The bone tools from the dwelling mound Feddersen Wierde, Germany, and their functions . . . . . . . . . 187
Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
Dutch medieval bone and antler combs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Hans Christian Küchelmann
Whale Bones as architectural elements in and around Bremen, Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
Large or small? African elephant tusk sizes and the Dutch ivory trade and craft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Bernadeta Kufel-Diakowska
The Hamburgian Zinken perforators and burins – flint tools as evidence of antler working . . . . . . . . 233
Social contexts
Heidi Luik, Mirja Ots, Liina Maldre
From the Neolithic to the Bronze Age: continuity and changes in bone artefacts in Saaremaa,
Estonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Florentina Oleniuc, Luminiţa Bejenaru
Preliminary Data Concerning the Manufacturing of Animal Raw Materials in the Chalcolithic
Cucuteni B Settlement of Poduri-Dealul Ghindaru, Romania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Manuel Altamirano García
Bone industry from the Bronze Age in Central Iberia. The Settlement of La Motilla Del Azuer . . . . . . 273
Justyna Baron
Ritual contexts of animal bone deposits from the Roman Iron Age settlement at Magnice,
SW Poland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Felix Lang
Activity not Profession. Considerations about Bone Working in Roman Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Magdalena Konczewska
Bone, horn and antler working in medieval Wrocław . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Kamilla Pawłowska
The remains of a late medieval workshop in Inowroclaw (Kuyavia, Poland): horncores, antlers
and bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Authors’ Adresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
Large or small? African elephant tusk sizes
and the Dutch ivory trade and craft
In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch imported large quantities of African elephant tusks from West-Africa to
the Dutch Republic. These tusks were used either in the production of objects by craftsmen in the Netherlands or reexported whole to other countries. Using both historical and archaeological sources to estimate the size of the tusks
utilised in the Dutch ivory trade, this paper explores the possibility that size was a major factor in the selection of tusks
for the different purposes to which they were put.
Key words: African elephant, tusk sizes, 17th-18th centuries, Amsterdam
Introduction
The Dutch ivory trade flourished in the 17th and
18th through the importation of tusks from the coast
of West-Africa. Some of these tusks were then re-exported to other countries across Europe and to Asia but
the majority was crafted into various objects by Dutch
ivory craftsmen. The popular conception of ivory trading in the past is of great piles of enormous tusks being
shipped all over the world, an image reinforced by 19th
and early 20th century photographs. Figure 1 shows
record breaking tusks that are larger than a tall men or
even a doorpost from this later period. However, such
photographs generally represent trade in East-African
ivory, whereas the earlier Dutch ivory trade was based
in West-Africa. Is our image of man-high tusks correct
in the case of this Dutch ivory trade?
Using historical records and archaeological evidence this paper focuses on determining the size range
of the elephant tusks that were shipped from western
Africa to the Dutch Republic and examines the evidence for selection on the basis of size for tusks that
were re-export or crafted into objects. In addition,
the term ‘crevellen’, which is used in the historical
sources to indicate a particular type of small tusk, is
investigated.
Evidence for Determining Tusk Size and Weight
The archaeological evidence for ivory working
comes from the remains of worked objects and ivory
off-cuts from sites excavated in Amsterdam, currently in the collections of the Office for Monuments and
Archaeology (Bureau Monumenten en Archeologie,
hereafter BMA). This evidence shows that elephant
ivory working was carried out on a large scale in
17th and 18th century Amsterdam and included
comb makers, knife makers and ivory turners (Rijkelijkhuizen 2009). The historical sources include
cargo lists that relate to the Dutch ivory trade and an
ivory craftsmen’s inventory from Amsterdam.
The archaeological evidence
Observations of the shape of the waste fragments
and the orientation of the ivory structure on the excavated objects reveals very standardized production
processes (Fig. 2; Rijkelijkhuizen 2009). Fragments
trimmed from the hollow base of the tusks (Fig. 6,
226
Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
Fig. 2. Production process of elephant ivory combs
(Rijkelijkhuizen 2009)
Fig. 1. The ‘Kilimanjaro tusks’;
The largest tusks recorded: 101.9 kg and 96.3 kg,
the old elephant was shot in 1899
10) are found and off-cuts in the form of longitudinal
strips with a triangular cross-section (Fig. 3-4) are
particularly common. These longitudinal strips come
from the edge of the tusk when it is cut into rectangular slabs (Fig. 2:f). They have two straight-cut sides,
but the third side follows the curved edge of the tusk,
and the cementum, the outer layer of the tusk, is often still present (Rijkelijkhuizen 2009). From these
waste fragments, it is possible to estimate the outer
circumference of the tusk and from this to gain some
measure of its overall size. The circumference was
calculated for 18 longitudinal strips, two flat fragments and 5 base fragments. The trimmings from the
tusk bases and a complete tusk were recovered from
the construction of the new underground in Amsterdam; the other fragments were excavated from several widely spaced sites across the city. Some of the
waste fragments were recovered from the same site.
Three of the base trimmings are complete and provide direct measurements of the tusk circumferences
(Fig. 6, 10), as does the complete tusk (Fig. 9).
To calculate the circumference of a tusk from a triangular off-cut strip, the formula in fig. 5 is used. If r
is the radius of a circle, its circumference is 2π*r. Elephant tusks, however, are not circular in cross-section, but oval. The calculated circumference, therefore, depends on the location of the off-cut relative to
the changing curve of the oval. In addition, the diameter (2r) of the tusk is not constant but can decrease
slightly near the base and also tapers towards the tip.
This means that the circumference calculated from
an off-cut strip may give an under- or overestimate of
the maximum circumference of the tusk, depending
on where along the length of the tusk it has been cut.
In practice, however, these waste fragments were not
taken from the extreme ends of the tusks, as the tip
and the hollow base were removed as the first stage
of the production process (Fig. 2). This left a cylinder of ivory with only a small amount of taper, from
which the rectangular blocks were then cut for object
production. Another issue when calculating the tusk
circumference from these waste fragment strips is
the small size of the curved surface, often only 15-20
mm, from which the measurement of curvature can
be taken. These calculated circumferences can not,
therefore, be taken as exact measurements but only
as an indication of the size of the tusks.
The circumferences of the 3 complete trimmed bases could be measured precisely and these were used
to verify the outcomes of the calculation method and
gauge the likely percentage error for the results gained
from the triangular off-cuts. This was done by calculating the apparent circumference of each tusk at several
locations with different amounts of curvature. When
the results were compared with the directly measured
Large or small? African elephant tusk sizes and the Dutch ivory trade and craft
227
Fig. 3. Ivory waste
fragments (PR15-4).
Collection: BMA,
photo: Marloes
Rijkelijkhuizen
Fig. 4. Cross-section on one side
of the waste fragments is triangular (PR15-4).
Collection: BMA, photo: Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
circumferences, the error varied from 7-27%, with
a probable average of 10-20%. The accuracy of the
calculations depended on the shape of the tusk and
the location of the measurements; the most inaccurate
calculated circumferences were from the least circular tusks when measured at their widest or narrowest
curvature. The other base trimmings and the flat fragments, although incomplete, represent greater lengths
of the tusk circumference than the triangular off-cuts
and so the calculation errors are not so significant.
Fig. 5. Calculation method to determine
the circumference of a circle based on a small fragment
of the outer circumference. r is the radius of a circle
The historical evidence
Comparison between the archaeological evidence
and the historical sources is complicated as the latter
usually only mention the bulk weight of the tusks in
transactions, as ivory was sold grouped into categories, instead of by individual tusks. The price of the
ivory depended on the quality and size of the tusks.
For instance, the West India Company (WIC) imported ivory and sold it on at one guilder per Dutch
pound (approximately 0,5 kg) for ‘teeth’ and half
a guilder per Dutch pound for ‘crevellen’ (den Heijer 1997:135). From the archaeological material an
estimate of individual tusk weight can not be calcu-
Fig. 6. Ivory waste fragment from the base
of the tusk (NZR2-789-2). Collection: BMA,
photo: Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
228
Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
lated, as the original lengths of examples can not be
estimated from the surviving evidence.
The National Archive holds the records of the
West India Company, the major importer of ivory
to the Dutch Republic in the 17th and 18th centuries.
Feinberg and Johnson (1982) and Den Heijer (1997)
have made a thorough study of these records in rela-
tion to the ivory trade at the end of the 17th to the beginning of the 18th century. Inventories and wills of
craftsmen working in ivory and other materials can
be found in the notarial archives at the Amsterdam
city archives. These records provide information that
both complements the archaeological data and helps
in its interpretation (Rijkelijkhuizen 2009).
Results
The calculated tusk circumferences from the longitudinal strips and base trimmings fall between 122
and 573 mm ± 10-20%. The three complete waste
fragments from the base of the tusk have a circum-
Fig. 7. Calculated
circumferences
from the archaeological
waste fragments
Fig. 8. Number
and weight of tusks
recorded in the inventory
of knife maker
Menso Sadelaer in 1708
(Stadarchief Amsterdam,
Notarial Amsterdam 4711)
Large or small? African elephant tusk sizes and the Dutch ivory trade and craft
ferences of 123, 171 and 185 mm (Fig. 7). The complete tusk has a circumference of 150 mm at its base
and 160 mm mid-way along the tusk, a length of 800
mm along its outer curve and 710 mm along its inner
curve.
Feinberg and Johnson (1982) have used West India Company cargo lists between the year 1699 and
1725 AD to calculate the average weight of the tusks,
both ‘crevellen’ and ‘teeth‘, that were imported to the
Dutch Republic (table 1). The weights are averages,
because individual tusks were not weighed, but the
figures were calculated from the total mass of tusks
in each category. A small proportion of these tusks
229
are very large and tusks up to 100 kg are recorded in the lists. Kok (1794:70) also mentions tusks
of these weights but both might possibly be exaggerations.
Inventories are another important source that
throws light on the Dutch elephant ivory trade and
craft. The inventory of the knife maker Menso Sadelaer (Stadarchief Amsterdam, Notarial Amsterdam
4711) records the total amount of tusks present in
his shop at a particular point of time in 1708. This
inventory groups the tusks by weight, giving the
number of tusks and total weight of ivory in each
weight category (Fig. 8).
Interpretation of the evidence
When compared to tusks exported in the 19th and
centuries from East Africa (Table 1-2), both the
archaeological evidence and the historical records
indicated that the tusks entering the Dutch Republic
from West Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries were
generally much smaller.
Many factors influence the natural tusk size of an
elephant. Male elephants, for instance, have larger
tusks than female elephants (Table 2). Because the
tusks grow throughout the life of the animal, those of
adult elephants will be larger than those of juveniles
and the very largest are liable to be from individuals of
considerable age. Another important factor is the region of provenance of the elephant. The East-African
elephants are particularly known for their large tusks
(Sikes 1971:14). Selection pressure can also change
the tusk size distribution over time. Intensive hunting of elephants in the 19th and 20th centuries, with
a particular bias towards animals with large tusks, has
produced a significant drop in the average tusk size
of modern elephant populations (Jackson 1990:102).
20th
The average tusk weight recorded in the twentieth
century by Sikes (1971:324) was only 11 to 13 kg.
Pilgram and Western (1986) have shown that it
is possible to infer both the sex and age of African
elephants using measurements of the length, circumference and weight of their tusks.
In order to estimate age, the weight and circumference of the tusk and sex of the elephant must be
known. To infer the elephant’s sex from the tusk, the
length and circumference of the tusk must be known;
female tusks being usually more slender than male
tusks.
One major problem with using Pilgram and Western’s technique to interpret the archaeological evidence from Amsterdam is the necessity for whole
tusks, another is the provenance of the elephants.
Provenance, according to Pilgram and Western, does
not have much effect on their results but they were
only working with data from East African elephants.
Recorded maxima of tusks from Kenya (102 kg, 311
cm outer curve length and 62 cm circumference) are
Fig. 9. Complete tusk, excavated in Amsterdam (NZR2-PR4-2). Collection: BMA, photo: Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
230
Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
very much larger than those from the Ivory Coast (58
kg in weight, 280 cm outer curve length and 49 cm
circumference; Sikes 1971, 112) so it seems unlikely
that, without further testing and calibrations, Pilgram
and Western’s technique can be used to sex or age
western or central African elephant tusks with any
confidence. Another complication with the archaeological material is that although the place of shipment
is known to be West-Africa, the provenance of the
tusks is not certain. Some may have been traded over
vast distances, even from East Africa. However, if this
technique is applied to the one complete tusk from
Amsterdam (Fig. 9), it appears to be from a 9.5 year
old female elephant. None of the other ivory working material from the excavations provides enough
information to attempt sex or age determination using Pilgram and Western’s technique. The small circumferences of the archaeological material and the
weights recorded in the historical sources (Fig. 7-8)
all fall within the range of variation of both male or
female African elephant, as shown in Table 2, which
is based on data published by Pilgram and Western
(1986), Sikes (1971) and Parker (1979).
Selection of tusks
The large variation in tusk size recorded in the WIC
cargo lists suggests that no selection based on tusk
size took place in the case of acquisition and importation. This does not mean, however, that there was no
preference for large or small tusks but that this did not
influence the available supply of tusks. The Dutch did
not hunt elephants themselves, but were dependant on
the African inhabitants to bring the tusks to the coastal
areas where they were traded. Very large tusks were
probably not often imported, or imported separately
from the bulk of the tusks. In contrast, selection does
seem to have been exercised at the stage of re-export.
Elephant tusks were shipped from the Dutch Republic
by the East-India Company (Verenigde Oostindische
Compagnie, hereafter VOC) to Asia, including Persia,
India and China, where large African elephant tusks
were highly valued. Importers in Japan, especially
requested long and perfect tusks (National Archives,
Archive of the VOC 13472).
Selection also seems to have been exercised by
Dutch craftsman who had different demands of the
material. For instance, comb makers needed bigger
tusks than knife makers. Ivory combs excavated in
Amsterdam have a length of 30 to 125 mm. Observation of the structure of the ivory shows that the larger
combs were formed from a longitudinal plaque cut
across the diameter of a tusk (Fig. 2:g-h). The comb
teeth lie in the longitudinal direction of the tusk.
A tusk would have had a diameter longer than the
Fig. 10. Waste fragment from the base
of the tusk (NZR2-115-4). Collection: BMA,
photo: Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
comb and, therefore, in the case of the largest comb
with a length of 125 mm, a circumference of at least
314 mm. The smaller combs were formed from
shorter plaques also cut parallel to the diameter but
from towards edge of a tusk (Fig. 2:g). In contrast,
knife makers could make knife handles from even
the smallest of tusks, as these are invariably worked
from longitudinal rods of ivory. In the inventory of
Menso Sadelaer’s shop, 996 out of 1077 tusks in
stock were 4 kg or less in weight (Fig. 8); equivalent
to the ‘crevellen’ recorded on the WIC cargo lists
(Table 1). The remainder were all quite small tusks
and the heaviest, at 16.4 kg, are about the weight of
the standard ‘teeth’ (16.8 kg) identified on the same
cargo lists, whilst big tusks ware entirely absent.
The calculated tusk circumferences, gained from
the waste material excavated in Amsterdam, also indicate a predominance of very small tusks. Comparing these with the typical circumferences of African
Elephants in Table 2, they are around a 1/3rd of the
size that male elephants can develop and even on the
small side for female elephants. The one complete
excavated tusk fits with this evidence, being only
a little over ½ the maximum size of that observed in
female African elephants. Although the smaller tusks
seem to predominate, waste fragments and finished
combs indicate that larger tusks with a circumference of 314 to 573 mm ± 10-20% were also used.
Crevellen
It is clear from the historical sources that ‘crevellen’ were very small teeth, but this term seems to con-
231
Large or small? African elephant tusk sizes and the Dutch ivory trade and craft
vey something more than just size. As discussed, tusk
size is determined by a number of factors including
age, sex and provenance. The affect of provenance is
a complex issue and particularly in Africa were different populations of elephant may have very different
diets and experience different climatic conditions.
The forest elephant lives in dense forests in West
and Central Africa and is smaller than the savannah
elephant of East Africa. The forest elephant also has
smaller and rounder ears, smaller, more slender and
straighter tusks that point downwards, and the ivory
from these tusks is said to be darker, harder and denser than savannah elephant ivory (Sykes 1971:14-15;
Parker 1979:151). DNA studies have now shown
that savannah (or bush) and forest elephants are
actually different species; Loxodonta africana and
Loxodonta cyclotis respectively (Roca et al. 2001).
One of the waste pieces excavated in Amsterdam is
especially straight and slender and is quite possibly
from a forest elephant tusk (Fig. 10). The different
properties of the ivories these species produce could
have been of great importance to craftsmen in 17th
and 18th century Amsterdam. It is unknown from
historical sources if the Dutch only grouped ‘crevellen’ by size or classification was also based on other
aspects such as hardness and colour.
Conclusions
Despite the inaccuracies inherent in the circumference calculations, these results allow some conclusions to be drawn from the archaeological data
that both complements and supplements the historical records of the Dutch ivory trade and craft industry in the 17th and 18th centuries.
The variation and range of the tusk sizes in the ships’
cargoes suggest that little selection was exercised in
the export trade from West Africa and that tusks of
old and young, male and female individuals were included. The bulk of these tusks could have derived
from forest elephant populations relatively close to the
ports, but the few very large tusks perhaps indicate that
some had been traded over longer distances, perhaps
from the savannahs of East Africa. Once imported
into the Netherlands, it is possible that the very largest
tusks were selectively re-exported to Asia whilst the
less valuable tusks were sold on to service the domestic craft industries. Specialist craft workshops would
have had different needs. Comb makers would have
needed relatively large tusks for their longest combs,
and probably paid a premium for them, whilst knife
handle makers were clearly working with very small
tusks. Selection on the basis of ease of carving, colour,
strength or hardness could also have been important
factors for other applications. It is possible that such
physical characteristics are what distinquished a ‘crevellen’ from other small tusks. Perhaps a ‘crevellen’ was
specifically the small, straight, slender tusk of a young
West African forest elephant that would provide harder
ivory than its East African equivalent.
Questions still remain as to the provenance of the
17th and 18th century ivory found in the archaeological sites of Amsterdam and in the definition of the
term ‘crevellen’. It is possible that, through a combination of new historical research, aDNA studies and
stable isotope analysis, these questions could eventually be answered.
Table 1. Average weight of three categories of tusks imported by the West India Company,
between 1699 and 1725, in Dutch pounds and kilograms, after Feinberg, Johnson (1982)
minimum
in pounds
maximum
in pounds
average
in pounds
minimum
in kilograms
maximum
in kilograms
average
in kilograms
Crevellen
4.6
7.9
5.8
2.3
4.0
2.9
Teeth
29.6
41.4
33.55
14.8
20.7
16.8
Large teeth
60
200
30
100
Table 2. The range of size and weight of male and female African elephant tusks
from data published by Pilgram and Western (1986), Sikes (1971), and Parker (1979)
circumference (mm)
length (mm)
weight (kg)
male
100-500
up to 3000
5-65
female
100-250
up to 1500
2-15
232
Marloes Rijkelijkhuizen
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Sonia O’Connor (University of
Bradford), Jerzy Gawronski (BMA and University of
Amsterdam), Peter Kranendonk (BMA), Wiard Krook
(BMA), Gerard Graas (BMA) and Leo Noordegraaf
(University of Amsterdam), Louise van WijngaardenBakker (University of Amsterdam), Rik Maliepaard
(University of Amsterdam), Henk den Heijer (University of Leiden) and Josina Rijkelijkhuizen.
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