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STANDARD GRADE HISTORY REVISION
CONFLICT AND COOPERATION 1890s -1920s
GREAT POWER RIVALRY
Before 1914 there were six countries in Europe who, because of their size and military
strength, were known as THE GREAT POWERS. They were - Britain / France / Russia /
Germany / Austria-Hungary and Italy. Each of the Great Powers had their own empires
and wanted to increase the territory they controlled so that they could become
wealthier and more powerful.
This led to trouble when two or more of the Great Powers wanted the same land.
Austria-Hungary and Russia had large empires in Eastern Europe and Asia. Britain and
France had large overseas empires. Germany and Italy were fairly new countries.
Although both had colonies in Africa - others had already taken the best parts of the
world.
Causes of World War One = MAIN
Naval Race (Militarism)
As an island Britain’s security depended on having a strong navy, they also needed this
navy to protect their largely spread empire, and fleet.
Britain began to feel threatened by Germanys sudden need to increase their navy, as it
was believed that Germany had no need for a navy. However Germany believed that to
become a major power they needed to increase their naval power.
Britain had stayed out of European quarrels until Germany began to build a large navy.
This threatened Britain. A naval race with Germany began (DREADNOUGHTS)
Great Powers and their
Alliances
Each country wanted to have allies to help them if war broke out. France wanted allies
against Germany. Germany was worried about being encircled by her enemies.
By 1908 Europe was divided by two alliances: -The TRIPLE ALLIANCE which consisted
of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The TRIPLE ENTENTE which consisted of
Britain, France and Russia
The members of both alliances were building up large armies and stocks of weapons.
Europe was described as being divided into TWO ARMED CAMPS.
Crisis in Morocco (Imperialism)
Imperialism is the desire to have more colonies around the world. Morocco was a
country in Africa not taken over by any other country. It was ruled by a SULTAN.
France wanted Morocco and France and Britain agreed in 1904 that France could have it.
Germany did not have many colonies and they also wanted Morocco. In 1905, the Kaiser
visited Tangier, a seaport in Morocco where he said “I will do all in my power to make
sure that Morocco remains free. No other country will be allowed to take control of
Morocco if Germany can prevent it” This led to a great quarrel.
The French told the Kaiser he had no business interfering in Morocco. Britain supported
France and told the Kaiser to mind his own business. A meeting of the Great Powers was
held in Algeciras in Spain and only Austria-Hungary supported Germany. The Kaiser had
to back down.
In 1911, Rebel tribesmen in Morocco started a revolt against the Sultan in Fez, the
capital of Morocco. The Sultan asked the French to crush the rebellion and the French
sent in 20,000 troops. Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany sent the warship ‘The Panther’ to a
port in Morocco. He said it was to protect the Germans living in Morocco. Britain was
suspicious of Germany and did not want them to take over the port and develop it as a
naval base. France and Britain told Kaiser Wilhelm to remove the warship. This meant
the Germans had to accept Morocco as a French colony.
Balkan Wars (Nationalism)
Austria-Hungary had a large empire in the Balkans. It contained many Slavs who wanted
to be free. The Austrians were determined to prevent this, and did this by seizing
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia reacted by summoning her armies. Serbia was the
largest of the independent Slav countries and they wanted the Slavs of the Austrian
Empire to join them in an independent Slav state (PANSLAVISM). They then appealed to
Russia for help, as Russia was the largest Slav nation and saw herself as the protector
and leader of all Slavs. They also wanted Austria out of the Balkans and hoped to gain a
warm water port.
The Serbs and the Russians encouraged Slavs to break away from Austria and supported
Slav terrorist groups with money and weapons.
Revenge
After a war in 1870 Germany took Alsace-Lorainne from France. The French intended to
get these lands back and get revenge on Germany, as this defeat had humiliated the
French Empire. But they knew this would mean war with Germany.
SARAJEVO
As a result of wars in 1911 and 1913 Serbia gained a lot of new territory and became
much stronger. This alarmed Austria and by 1914 they were looking for any excuse to
declare war on Serbia and destroy her once and for all. In 1908 the Austrians had taken
over Bosnia and this had angered the Serbs and the Russians but war was avoided when
Russia backed down
What happened?
On the 28th of June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife visited Sarajevo, in
the Austrian province of Bosnia. The Austrian government had promised to take care of
security arrangements, but there were few soldiers or policemen around. Along the
route were a group of five Bosnian students who were members of the " Black Hand ", a
terrorist group who planned to assassinate the Archduke as his car went through the
streets.
Who did it?
There were five assassins in total; each would be waiting at their own individual points
along the Archdukes planned route. The first attempt was by Ned Cabrinouch, at the
Appel Quay. He used a bomb, but unfortunately it had no effect, and was merely
brushed off by the bodyguard. The second attempt however, came around by pure
accident, when the driver of the Archdukes carriage took a wrong turn. Gavrilo Princip
took his chance on Franz Joseph Street, and shot both the Archduke (shot in the neck)
and his wife Sophie (shot in the abdomen) killing them both instantly.
Who Was Blamed?
The Austrian government blamed Serbia, however they didn’t want to declare war, as
they knew that they would end up going to war with Russia.
Instead the Austrians sent an ULTIMATUM to the Serbian government. This was a set
of ten demands that the Austrians knew the Serbs would never accept. The Serbs were
given only 48 hours to agree to Austria’s demands or war would be declared. However
Serbia only agreed to 8 of the 10 demands. This resulted in war being declared on
Serbia.
The Trial of Gavrilo Princip
At the trial of Gavrilo Princip the judge commented that the evidence seemed to
suggest that Austria had deliberately set up the Archduke as a target for assassins.
This was supported by the Austrians claim that the assassination was planned in the
Serbian capital Belgrade, and that the weapon used by Princip was a Serbian army
revolver.
It was also later proved that the evidence Gavrilo was in fact a lie, "there is no proof of
the involvement of the Serbian government," however the Serbian Government in fact
trained these terrorists!
The Result
At first the death of the Archduke seemed just another political murder. No one
suspected that this was the first in a chain of events that would lead to war.
THE WAR SPREADS IN EUROPE
On 28th July 1914 the Austrians declared war on Serbia. They believed that because
they had German support none of the other Great Powers would interfere and after a
short war Serbia would be destroyed. Although Serbia was not strong enough to resist
Austria they did have a powerful ally - Russia.
The Germans sent a warning to Russia saying that they would attack Serbia if Russia did
not stop mobilization. The Russians of course refused to stand by and watch Serbia be
invaded. At this point the British tried to arrange an international conference. It was
too late - the situation was out of control.
Further Action
On August 3rd the Germans declared war on France. The Schlieffen plan was put into
action and the German army invaded neutral Belgium. Britain had guaranteed Belgian
independence and gave the Germans an ultimatum to get out Belgium. The Germans did
not answer and Britain declared war (Aug 4th). The Schlieffen plan however then failed,
this was due to the small fact that Schlieffen died. Moltke, his general in command,
didn’t follow his orders. The battle with France and Britain took far to long, and
Germany made little progress.
The invasion of Belgium was the reason Britain entered the war. But it is unlikely Britain
would have stood by and done nothing as Germany invaded France.
Results
All of the Great powers were now at war with the exception of Italy who decided to
declare neutrality (they did enter the war in 1916 on the side of Britain and France).
Governments had to act quickly. Each of the Great Powers had built up such large forces
that when one mobilized others were forced to follow or face being invaded. This was
mainly due to the fact that Germany had an extremely large army (over 1 million men)
and many countries had very small armies (80,000). All governments claimed they did not
want war but they lost control of the situation. Railway timetables and invasion plans
could not be stopped once set in motion.
The Alliance system meant that the war spread quickly and also made countries bolder
because they had powerful friends to help them.
Britain then set up the British Expeditionary Force in 1914, and governments were
forced to use recruitment campaigns to encourage people to join. They used posters,
which made men feel as if it was a disgrace to not own a uniform, and women would give
their loved ones white feathers as a sign of cowardice. These campaigns worked very
effectively, as over 500,000 men joined within the first few weeks of the campaign.
TRENCH WARFARE
When the Schlieffen Plan failed the Germans began to dig a line of trenches. The
British and French did the same and by November 1914 the two sides occupied lines of
trenches stretching from the Belgian coast to the Swiss border. This was the Western
Front and both sides remained in the same positions until 1918. All attempts to break
through failed.
British trenches were in Belgium and Northern France in the regions of Flanders, Artois
and Piccardy. These areas were below sea level and drainage systems had been built to
allow the land to be farmed. Constant shelling destroyed the drainage and the Germans
blew up the sea walls and dykes that prevented flooding. As a result British trenches
were regularly flooded.
Life in the Trenches
The trenches were extremely muddy and full of water; the soldiers had to spend most
of their time getting rid of it. "We took turns in one part of the trench bailing out water
with a bucket." Because the soldiers were in the water for so long, a lot of them
suffered from ‘trench foot’ which caused the feet to swell, and become very painful,
‘trench foot’ often led to soldiers feet being amputated.
Their rations consisted of tinned ‘bully beef’, with tea, and sometimes they ate eggs.
The daily routine - cleaning weapons, repairing trenches filling sandbags and repairing
wire and night patrols.
How the trenches were built
Trenches were built in a zigzag. There were
usually three lines. The firing trench, the
support trench and the reserve trench - all
linked by communication trenches. The front
line trenches were extremely dangerous; they
were unsanitary, and very uncomfortable.
Battle
New technology made trench warfare deadlier. Weapons such as heavy artillery, machine
guns, gas, grenades, tanks and aircraft were used for the first time. Men feared an
attack, or as it was often known "Going over the top." Battles usually involved - artillery
bombardment, gas, and infantry attack. This was intended to destroy the German wire
and drive the enemy out of their trenches. However this did not work, and Germans
often sheltered until it was safe to return.
Because of the high number of casualties, inexperienced men were often quickly
promoted to high ranks. Despite the slaughter High Command continued to order
attacks. This was a war of attrition and high losses were accepted as part of the plan to
grind down the enemy.
This had major effects on the soldiers; they suffered from wounds, blindness, disease
and infections, shell shock and madness. Many men killed themselves, and some men were
shot for their lack of courage.
NEW TECHNOLOGY OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
New technology played a vital part in the war. Not only did it contribute to the millions
of injured soldiers, but it also marked the beginning of ATTRITION, when both sides
would attempt to wear each other down, with little success.
Tanks
The tank was first used at the battle of the Somme in 1916, and Colonel Swinton
introduced the idea to Winston Churchill. The idea was later developed by the Navy, and
was nicknamed the Land-Ship.
Tanks were the ideal weapon for trench warfare, they could flatten barbed wire, and
the bullets from the machine guns would bounce off them. They seemed invincible. They
had as many as 5 machine guns, huge caterpillar tracks that allowed them to go almost
anywhere, and they were covered with thick armour. However, the one thing that could
destroy them was a direct hit form a large shell.
The basic tank crew consisted of eight men, including one officer. The tank itself
however was very small, and with so many men inside it was often difficult to move.
Another major problem with the tank was that it was extremely difficult to breathe,
this was due to the heavy exhaust fumes, and the very high temperatures which were
caused by the engines.
The time you could spend in the tank was also limited (3 hours). This was due to the
heat, noise, and the smell from the fumes could become almost unbearable.
The highest number of tanks used during the war was at the battle of Cambrai, in
November 1917. 476 tanks were used, however, 100 broke down from lack of petrol and
engine failure, 65 broke down from enemy gunfire, and 16 were blown up by large field
guns.
However, on August 8th 1918, the tanks played a vital role in the defeat of Germany. 456
tanks advanced through a thick fog against Ludendorffs retreating forces. This day
became known as "the black day of the German army."
Gas
The three main gases used in World War one were Mustard gas, which was feared by
most troops as it burned the skin, eyes, and lungs, however, it also had no colour or
smell. Chlorine gas, which was yellow-grey. It had a sickening smell, which tickled the
throat and made the eyes smart. The final type of gas used was Phosgene gas.
Most gas attacks were done using gas canisters, which would allow the gas to blow in the
breeze towards allied trenches. Most troops would flee in panic, and would often drop
their weapons in order to run away faster.
However, despite this, gas attacks often backfired, and would often result in the injury
of your own troops. Also, despite its effectiveness (90,000 troops were killed by gas), it
couldn’t provide the essential breakthrough for the war because you were unable to
defend yourself, and gas masks were to crude to have any effect.
Machine Guns
The machine gun was one of the most deadly weapons used in the war. It had an
extremely high rate of fire (up to 600 rounds per minute) and could mow down hundreds
of soldiers within seconds. They were positioned at the front of the trenches, so they
could easily aim at enemy soldiers.
The machine gun did have one main problem. Due to the rapid rate of fire it would overheat very quickly, however, the British over came this by using a water-cooling jacket.
Another major problem was the fear of the newer recruits; this was easily over come by
constantly firing the weapon, so as to divert their attention.
Heavy Artillery
By 1914 the invention of the trenches meant that stalemate had been reached, this
stretched from the Belgium coast to Switzerland. As a result it was possible to use
heavy artillery to put a lot of fire into one spot. Before a battle, there was often a
heavy bombardment of enemy lines to soften up enemy soldiers. This was done for nearly
every battle during the war.
In 1916 the Germans launched a massive attack on Verdun which was a strong point in
the French defences. 1220 guns attacked a front of about 80 miles. This caused
thousands of trees to become uprooted and smashed. Heavy Artillery led to a war of
attrition.
This was a slow process and involved the wearing down of the enemy soldiers. However,
many of your own men were often killed in the process. The main defence used against
heavy artillery was to build the trenches deeper, so they became as much as 12 feet
deep. However, men also became encouraged to wear steel helmets to prevent head
wounds.
THE HOME FRONT
In August 1914 the mood in Britain was one of celebration. The Germans would be
taught a lesson and it would all be over by Christmas. The First World War was
different from any previous war because of the effect it had on civilians. Until 1914
most wars had involved a few thousand soldiers and civilians were hardly affected unless
they lived close to the fighting
The First World War was TOTAL WAR. The whole country was involved in the war
effort and everyone was expected to help. The fighting in Europe needed a huge amount
of men and materials and was very costly. The government had to make new laws and
take control of people’s lives in ways that would not be tolerated in peacetime.
The Defense of the Realm Act
The main aspects of this were Censorship, alien registration; conscription and pubs
were forced to close early.
Censorship
This was introduced to prevent people’s morale from falling. It involved the heavy
censoring of many newspapers, and was introduced to prevent German spies from getting
vital information on British war efforts. It was also introduced to stop people from
becoming depressed by poor news on the front page.
Alien Registration
This was introduced to hunt out German spies. All foreign citizens, including people who
had lived and worked in Britain for years were forced to register as aliens.
Conscription
This was introduced due to the lack of people volunteering to join up, however it was
also introduced due to high number of casualties. It was a law which was passed making
it compulsory for fit men to join up.
Pubs
This was introduced to prevent drunkenness. Pubs were forced to close early and beer
was often watered down.
Direction of Labor
This was when the government ordered men to stop doing particular jobs; this was so
they could make a useful contribution to the war effort.
This eventually led to women becoming more involved. Women took over men’s jobs and
proved that they were the equals of men. Women kept the country going during the war,
doing work it was thought only men could do.
The Government
The government put out a lot of PROPAGANDA during the war. Usually posters
encouraging people to hate the Germans, join the army or save food. They also took
control of many important industries such as coal-mines, railways, weapons factories and
agriculture.
Another important action that the government took was the introduction of rationing;
they encouraged the people to grow their own food such as vegetables, and to use as
much waste food as possible. Rationing was introduced because German submarines had
started to sink ships that were importing food to Britain; this in turn caused serious
food shortages.
Attitudes to the war changed. At first it was popular. After 1916 the slaughter of so
many young men made many people question whether their deaths were worth it.
WOMEN AND THE WAR
Before the war women had been treated as second-class citizens in Britain. There were
many jobs that only men could apply for and women were paid less than men even when
they did the same work. Most important of all women did not have the right to vote.
Since 1903 the Women’s Social and Political Union had been campaigning to get votes for
women.
The government was opposed to this and some suffragettes began to take violent
action, they burned down pillar-boxes and smash windows, all this was done to attract
publicity. Emily Davison performed the act that stood out the most. She threw herself
down in front of the kings horse ‘Anmer’, which eventually killed her. She felt that if she
did this she would show that women were willing to die for their cause. When war broke
out Mrs Pankhurst the suffragette leader ended the campaign and urged all
suffragettes to help in the war effort. Thousands of women took over jobs of all kinds,
as more and more men were needed on the western front.
What Did the Women Do?
The government began a huge propaganda campaign to encourage Women to contribute
to the war effort. This eventually led to the start of the WRVS (Women’s Royal
Voluntary Service), who helped to organize collections of food and tobacco to send to
troops at the front
Women began to do jobs such as bus driving, ticket collectors, teachers, dustbin men,
and engineers, also over 70,000 women volunteered to work in the munitions factories.
Women soon began to play an extremely large part with the war effort, organizations
such as Voluntary Aid Detachments (VADS). They provided support to the army as
nurses, drivers, cooks, clerks, and mechanics and often worked overseas. Another major
organization was the Women’s Land Army; this was set up due to the food shortages
that were caused by the sinking of British food ships by German U-boats. Women in the
Land Army would work on the farms helping to produce vital food supplies.
What was the Outcome?
For many women, the war was the start of an improved lifestyle for women. They could
now earn good wages, learn new skills, wear trousers, cut their hair short, and they could
even smoke in public places.
In 1918 the contribution that women had made to the war effort was recognized and
women over thirty were given the right to vote.
THE DEFEAT OF GERMANY AND THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES
By 1918 Russia was out of the war and the Germans were able to transfer all their
troops to the
Western Front. The Americans had entered the war against Germany at the end of 1917
but it would be some time before US troops arrived in France in large numbers. In April
1917 the Germans began a massive attack on the western front in a final effort to break
through.
At first they succeeded and advanced to within 60km of Paris. By July they were halted
and the allies pushed them back. Over a million US troops were now in Europe, the
British naval blockade was causing serious shortages of food and war materials in
Germany and Germany’s allies were on the verge of collapse. By November it was clear
Germany could not win the war.
On November 8th 1918 the Kaiser abdicated and fled to Holland.
What Were the Views of how Germany should be treated at the Treaty of
Versailles?
The Germans were promised that they would be treated fairly and that the final peace
treaty would be based on PRESIDENT WILSON’S 14 POINTS.
It was very obvious however that not everybody agreed that Germany should be treated
fairly.
Wilson wanted a fair settlement for all - national self-determination, international
disarmament, a League of Nations to prevent future wars and no more secret treaties.
Clemenceau of France wanted revenge. He wanted Germany to lose territory and much of
her industry; pay for war damage; and be completely disarmed.
Lloyd-George did not want to see Germany totally ruined, but he was forced by public
opinion to go along with the idea of punishing Germany and making them pay.
What Were the Terms of the Treaty of Versailles?
Military: Under the Treaty of Versailles the German army was reduced to 100,000 men.
They were allowed no tanks, no air force and no submarines. Germany was forced to give
much of their Navy to Great Britain.
Territorial: Alsace-Lorainne was returned to France and all German colonies were taken
away. Poland was given German territory and the Rhineland was demilitarized. France was
also given the Saar coalfields for 15 years.
Financial: Germany had to pay £6.6 billion in order to compensate the allies for war
damage.
Guilt: Germany had to accept full responsibility for the war
The Germans were not allowed to take part in the discussions about the treaty. They
were very bitter about how they were treated. Even the Allies were not satisfied.
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS AND DISARMAMENT IN THE 1920s
As part of the Treaty of Versailles the Allies agreed to form an international
organization to provide peace and security for all countries. This was one of President
Wilson’s 14 Points. The League of Nations was set up in 1920. It met in Geneva and was
very popular with the people of Europe. The League had three main aims. To provide COLLECTIVE SECURITY - all countries to help any member who was attacked.
PEACEFUL SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES - an international court at The Hague.
INTERNATIONAL DISARMAMENT - all members were to reduce their armed forces.
What were the Main Bodies?
The League was made up of a number of bodies:
Council: This consisted of 8 major powers, they made all the important decisions
Secretariat: Took care of all the administration
International Court of Justice: Sorted out international problems
The Assembly: Consisted of all the countries
What did the League do?
The League did much good work in resettling refugees, stopping the drugs and slave
trades, international traffic signs and settling minor border disputes. However, the
league had no armed forces, which meant they could not enforce their laws, and they
could not deal with aggressive countries.
The league had tried to apply trade and economic sanctions, but due to a lack of army
these were difficult to enforce.
Strengths and Weaknesses
The main weaknesses of the League of Nations was that it had no army, America,
Germany and Russia were not allowed to join, and Britain and France were said to look
"suspiciously like a club".
The main strengths of the League of Nations was that it solved many international
disputes including the dispute between Serbia and Albania, and also there was always a
great deal of discussion.
Disarmament
International disarmament proved impossible in the 1920s. Each country was
determined to look after its own interests and ignored the League ‘s views.
The French were afraid of attack from Germany in the future. They made alliances with
Poland, Czechoslovakia and Rumania. This was the reason why the French refused to
disarm.
The British were in favor of disarmament but did not trust the League to bring it about.
The British wanted special treatment to keep a large navy.
The Germans were determined to rearm. No country was willing to be first to disarm.
Not all countries were members of the League and this made things more difficult.
Stresemann had started policies, which he hoped would soften the Treaty of Versailles.
He then began to assure France that Germany would not attack, he had hoped this would
enable them to disarm. However, by 1933 Germany began to suffer mass unemployment,
this encouraged a strong hatred towards France, and in turn an extreme nationalist
party known as the Nazis was formed.
Conferences outside the League did achieve some success. The Washington Treaty of
1922 did limit the navies’ of Britain, Japan and America.
INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION AND
CONFLICT
1890S -1920S
REVISION GUIDE
STANDARD GRADE HISTORY