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Psychology 2e
Chapter 8
Sociocultural Diversity
and Gender
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Module 21
SOCIOCULTURAL DIVERSITY
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Learning Objectives
21.1 Describe culture and diversity.
21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
21.3 Outline how culture influences our conceptions of self and identity.
21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
21.5 Explain psychological research that examines socioeconomic status.
21.6 Explain how privilege and social power structures relate to stereotypes,
prejudice, and discrimination.
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Culture
Learning Objective 21.1 Describe culture and diversity.
• Culture refers to a shared set of beliefs,
behaviors, values, and attitudes held by a group of
people or a society.
– Affects the decisions we make, the values we hold, and
even the way in which we see ourselves
– Language, spiritual beliefs, and moral values are also
important parts of culture
• Norms are a culture’s understood rules that tell us
what behavior is acceptable or unacceptable.
– help us decide what behaviors are “normal” or
“abnormal”
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Common Characteristics of Culture (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.1 Describe culture and diversity.
• Culture is learned
– Children learn norms and values from parents or from
society
• Culture is shared
– Social phenomenon that connects humans and helps
them work together
– David Matsumoto: rules established by a culture
actually help to ensure that culture’s survival (1999)
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Common Characteristics of Culture (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.1 Describe culture and diversity.
• Culture changes over time
– Cultural norms create an environment that shapes our
behavior
– Norms can change drastically over time
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Cultural Diversity (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Etic: studying the similarities between cultures
objectively from the outside
• Emic: studying the differences between cultures
subjectively from the inside
• Cultures are shaped by:
– Geographic factors like climate and the availability of
natural resources
– Human factors like population density, increased
exposure to other cultures, and technological
development
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Cultural Diversity (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Much diversity within the United States
• Lancaster, Pennsylvania – Horses and buggies
driven by Amish residents share the road with cars
• Texas – Some road signs appear in Spanish and
English
• Northern Maine – Some road signs appear in
French and English
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Cultural Differences and Similarities: China and
the United States (1 of 5)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Studying how cultures vary gives a greater
understanding of other points of view and
increases appreciation for diversity
• Many cultural differences and similarities
between China and the United States
– Baby Shower
 U.S. – usually held a few weeks before the baby’s birth
 China – held after the baby arrives
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Cultural Differences and Similarities: China and
the United States (2 of 5)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Many cultural differences and similarities
between China and the United States
– Funeral
 U.S. – tradition to wear black clothing
 China – immediate family wears black, but the
grandchildren wear blue, and the great-grandchildren
wear light blue
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Cultural Differences and Similarities: China and
the United States (3 of 5)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• United States: Weddings
– Brides wear white gowns
– Couples create “wedding registries” (list of gifts
they hope to receive)
– Bride and groom hug and shake hands with
guests after the ceremony
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Cultural Differences and Similarities: China and
the United States (4 of 5)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• China: Weddings
– White associated with mourning and is avoided
at traditional weddings; red symbolizes
happiness, many brides wear red dresses
– Traditional to give a newly married couple a
check or cash in a red envelope as a wedding
gift
– Bride and groom joined by their parents and
other relatives at end of reception; all thank
guests for attending
 Displays importance of family
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Cultural Differences and Similarities: China and
the United States (5 of 5)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Similarities
– Celebrations and rituals that mark family events such
as births, marriages, and deaths are important, but
these events are celebrated differently
– Weddings are important celebrations of family and
friendship, involving quite a lot of planning, budgeting,
feasting, and gift-giving
– Many modern wedding ceremonies are marked by
cross-cultural influences
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Conformity and Culture
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Conformity: changing one’s own behavior to
match that of other people
• Solomon Asch’s study of conformity (1950s):
Americans at that time had a strong tendency to
conform
– Recent research has found less conformity among
participants
• Greater effects of conformity in collectivist cultures
such as Hong Kong, Japan, and Zimbabwe
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Immigration and Acculturation
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Acculturation: the process of adapting to a new or
different culture, often the dominant culture
• Acculturative stress: the stress resulting from the
need to change and adapt to the dominant or
majority culture
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Integration into Culture (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Integration: one maintains one’s original cultural
identity while still forming positive relationships
with dominant culture members
– Low acculturative stress
• Assimilation: the minority person gives up the old
cultural identity and completely adopts the ways of
the majority culture
– Moderate levels of stress
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Integration into Culture (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Separation: a pattern in which the minority person
rejects the majority culture’s ways and tries to
maintain the original cultural identity
– Members refuse to learn the language of the dominant
culture
– Members socialize only with others from their original
culture
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Integration into Culture (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 21.2 Explain how culture varies across time and place.
.
• Marginalized: the person neither maintains contact
with the original culture nor joins the majority
culture
– greatest acculturative stress
– may suffer a loss of identity and feel alienated from
others
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Self and Identity
Learning Objective 21.3 Outline how culture influences our conceptions of self and identity.
.
• Individualism: emphasis on individuality,
independence, and personal needs
• Collectivism: emphasis on the interdependence of
all people in a group
• Independent self-concept: an individual’s
perception of self as entirely independent from
others
• Interdependent self-concept: an individual’s
perception of self as fundamentally connected to
others
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Culture and Personality (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Geert Hofstede’s Four Dimensions of Cultural
Personality
– Individualism/collectivism
 Individualistic cultures tend to have loose ties between
individuals, with people tending to look after themselves and
their immediate families only
 In collectivistic cultures, people are from birth deeply tied into
very strong in-groups
– Power distance
 The degree to which the less-powerful members of a culture
accept and even expect that the power within the culture is
held in the hands of a select few rather than being more evenly
distributed
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Culture and Personality (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Geert Hofstede’s Four Dimensions of Cultural
Personality
– Masculinity/femininity
 How a culture distributes the roles played by men and women
within the culture
 “Masculine” cultures are assertive and competitive, “feminine”
cultures are more modest and caring
– Uncertainty avoidance
 Cultures tend to have strict rules and laws with lots of security
and safety measures and tend toward a philosophical/religious
belief in One Truth
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Culture and Creativity
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
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Culture and Cognition
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Prototype: a concept that closely matches the
defining characteristics of the concept
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Culture and IQ Testing (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Difficulties in IQ Testing:
– People raised in a different culture, or even a different
economic situation from the one in which the designer
of an IQ test is raised, are not likely to perform well on
such a test
– Taking a test that is written in an unfamiliar language or
dialect poses a problem
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Culture and IQ Testing (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Cultural bias refers to the tendency of IQ tests to
reflect, in language, dialect, and content, the
culture of the person or persons who designed the
test
– A person who comes from the same culture (or even
socioeconomic background) as the test designer may
have an unfair advantage over a person who is from a
different cultural or socioeconomic background
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Culture and Emotion
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• The degree of individualism or collectivism in our
culture can affect how we label and express
emotions
– The label a person applies to a subjective feeling is at
least in part a learned response influenced by that
person’s language and culture
• Display rules are learned ways of controlling
displays of emotion in social settings
– Display rules are different between cultures that are
individualistic and those that are collectivistic
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Culture and Abnormal Behavior (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Cultural relativity is the need to consider the
unique characteristics of the culture in which the
person with a disorder was nurtured to be able to
correctly diagnose and treat the disorder
• The sociocultural perspective of abnormality sees
abnormal thinking as the product of behavioral
shaping within the context of family influences, the
social group to which one belongs, and the culture
within which the family and social group exist
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Culture and Abnormal Behavior (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Culture-bound syndromes are disorders unique to
specific cultures
– For example, anorexia and bulimia in Western
societies
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Culture and Abnormal Behavior (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• The idea of “culture-bound” has been replaced by
three concepts:
– Cultural syndromes
 Are recognizable as a distinct set of symptoms or
characteristics of distress
– Cultural idioms of distress
 Terms or phrases used to describe suffering or distress within
a given cultural context
– Cultural explanations or perceived cause
 Culturally defined ways of explaining the source or cause of
symptoms or illness
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Culture and Anxiety (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Ataque de nervios, or “attack of nerves”: a person
may have fits of crying, shout uncontrollably,
experience sensations of heat, and become very
aggressive, either verbally or physically
– In Latin American countries usually comes after some
stressful event such as the death of a loved one
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Culture and Anxiety (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Taijin kyofusho (TKS)
– Found primarily in Japan
– Involves excessive fear and anxiety
• Panic disorder
– Occurs at similar rates in adolescents and adults in the
United States and parts of Europe
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Eating Disorders and Culture
Learning Objective 21.4 Describe the major areas of cross-cultural psychology research.
.
• Eating disorders are also found in non-Western
cultures
• Chinese and Chinese American women are far
less likely to suffer from eating disorders than are
non-Hispanic White women
• One problem with studying anorexia and bulimia
in other cultures is that the behavior of starving
oneself may be seen in other cultures as having
an entirely different purpose than in Western
cultures
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Factors Affecting Overall Functioning
Learning Objective 21.5 Discuss psychological research examining socioeconomic status.
.
• Factors that influence an individual’s overall level
of functioning:
–
–
–
–
Socioeconomic status
Education level
Primary language
If applicable, degree of acculturation
• Although psychosocial functioning has been part
of the diagnostic process for some time now,
greater attention has traditionally been paid to
specifically identifying symptoms of pathology
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Stereotypes and Prejudices (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.6 Explain how privilege and social power structures relate to stereotypes,
prejudice, and discrimination.
• Stereotype: a set of characteristics that people
believe is shared by all members of a particular
social category or group; a concept held about a
person or group of people that is based on
superficial, irrelevant characteristics
– Can be formed by using only superficial information
about that person or group of people
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Stereotypes and Prejudices (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.6 Explain how privilege and social power structures relate to stereotypes,
prejudice, and discrimination.
• Prejudice: negative attitude held by a person
about the members of a particular social group
• Discrimination: treating people differently because
of prejudice toward the social group to which they
belong
– Laws exist to prevent discriminatory behavior, but they
do not prevent some people from holding
discriminatory attitudes
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Types of Prejudice and Discrimination (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.6 Explain how privilege and social power structures relate to stereotypes,
prejudice, and discrimination.
• Bullying
• Negative racial or ethnic attitudes
• Prejudice against different faith-based
perspectives, or even against those who don’t
have the ideal body weight
• Outgroups: people you don’t identify with
• In-groups: people you do identify with
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Types of Prejudice and Discrimination (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 21.6 Explain how privilege and social power structures relate to stereotypes,
prejudice, and discrimination.
• In-groups and out-groups are formed at very
young ages (Ruble et al., 2004) and remain well
into adulthood
• After the formation of in-groups, prejudice and
discrimination toward the out group are likely to
emerge
• Superficial features of the out-groups grow into
stereotypes, are resistant to change, and tend to
endure over time
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Scapegoating
Learning Objective 21.6 Explain how privilege and social power structures relate to stereotypes,
prejudice, and discrimination.
• Scapegoat: a person or group to blame one’s
troubles on
– Caused by the need to direct anger, hurt, and suffering
toward something or someone
– Common for the group with the least social power to
bear the brunt of the more powerful group’s frustrations
– Occurs often in schools
 Sports team blames loss on a single event of the competition
instead of looking at their play overall
 Bullying behavior in schools and on social network sites
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Module 22
GENDER
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Learning Objectives
22.1 Define gender and discuss the development of gender roles.
22.2 Compare and contrast two theories of gender-role development.
22.3 Describe gender differences.
22.4 Discuss how the roles of women and men in societies are perceived.
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Gender (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 22.1 Define gender and discuss the development of gender roles.
• Gender: the behavior associated with being male
or female
• The concept of gender is affected by:
– Expectations of one’s culture
– The development of one’s personality
– One’s sense of identity
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Gender (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 22.1 Define gender and discuss the development of gender roles.
• Gender roles: the culture’s expectations for
masculine or feminine behavior, including
attitudes, actions, and personality traits associated
with being male or female in that culture
• Gender identity: the individual’s sense of being
male or female
– Influenced by both biological and environmental factors
(in the form of parenting and other child-rearing
behaviors)
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Gender-Role Development (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 22.2 Compare and contrast two theories of gender-role development.
• Social learning theory emphasizes learning
through observation and imitation of models, and
attributes gender-role development to those
processes
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Gender-Role Development (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 22.2 Compare and contrast two theories of gender-role development.
• Gender schema theory: gender identity acquisition
in which a child develops a mental pattern, or
schema, for being male or female and then
organizes observed and learned behavior around
that schema
– Combines social learning theory with cognitive
development
– Children develop a schema for being male or female
– Rather than being simple imitation and reinforcement,
children acquire their gender role behavior by
organizing that behavior around the schema of “boy” or
“girl”
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Gender-Role Development (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 22.2 Compare and contrast two theories of gender-role development.
• Androgyny: a gender role characteristic of people
whose personalities reflect the characteristics of
both males and females, regardless of gender
– Androgynous people can make decisions based on the
situation’s demands rather than being masculine or
feminine
– Androgynous people are more flexible in everyday
behavior and career choices
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Gender Differences (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 22.3 Describe gender differences.
• Cognitive Differences
– Females score higher on tests of verbal abilities
– Males score higher on tests of mathematical skills and
spatial skills
– Difference is attributed to physical, hormonal,
psychological, and social issues
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Gender Differences (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 22.3 Describe gender differences.
• Social and Personality Differences
– Differences in social interaction patterns and
personality traits between men and women are often
the result of stereotyped thinking about the sexes
– Men usually use the “report” style of communication
which seems to involve switching topics frequently, with
attempts to dominate the conversation by certain
members of the group
– Women usually use the “relate” style of communication
with each other, revealing a lot about their private lives
and showing concern and sympathy
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Gender Roles
Learning Objective 22.4 Discuss how the roles of women and men in societies are perceived.
• Pressure to conform to gender roles
• Individualistic cultures: more nontraditional,
especially for women
• Collectivistic cultures: more traditional views
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