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Emily Shuman The CHNOPS elements are Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur. They make up the 6 most common elements found in biomolecules. There are 2 different types of Chemical Bonds: ionic, and covalent Ionic Bonds The ability of an atom to attract electrons is called electronegativity Some atoms have such high electronegativity that they don’t share electrons with other atoms, but pull them away instead An atom with a very low electronegativity holds its outer electrons very loosely An atom with a very high electronegativity, like chlorine, can take electrons from an atom with very low electronegativity, like sodium. When an atom gains electrons, it becomes nagatively chared, and when an atom loses electrons, it becomes positively charged. Atoms that lose or gain electrons are ions. These ions form bonds by electrically attracting each other. This bonding is how salt (NaCl) forms. Covalent Bonds A covalent bond is when two atoms share electrons. With hydrogen, each atom shares its electron with the other one. Atoms combine to form simple compounds so that they can have the electrons they need. Single bonds happen when the atoms share one electron, double bonds happen when the atoms share two. In a molecule, atoms can share electrons with a different type of atom, such as carbon and hydrogen sharing to form methane. Triple bonds are rare, but nitrogen molecules share three pairs of electrons, and form a triple bond. Carbohydrates are what’s found in our food that give us energy They are used to store and transport energy in the cells Physical Properties The basic building block of carbs are a sugar moleculemade of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Some contain one sugar molecule, others contain hundreds. Some are straight chains of sugars, others branch out. Simple carbohydrates, like fructose, glucose, or sucrose, are made of one or two linked sugars, while complex carbs are made of three or more Chemical Properties All carbohydrates are digested the same way in the body. It tried to break them down into single-sugar strands, which can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Chemical Properties All carbohydrates are digested the same way in the body. It tried to break them down into single-sugar strands, which can be absorbed into the bloodstream. The digestible carbs are converted to glucose (blood sugar) to be used as universal energy for the body. Fiber is a type of carbohydrate that is not digested to be used as energy. Instead, it passes straight through the body as soluble or insoluble fibers. They are not used by the body in any way, but they are good for the body because they attach to fatty substances and carry them out as waste. This prevents bad cholesterol Physical Properties Lipids are made from carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms. They have less oxygen atoms than carbohydrates. Lipids are also insoluble, which means they don’t dissolve, in water. There are two different kinds of triglycerides: saturated fats, with not double bonds, and unsaturated fats, with at least one double bond. What they’re used for There are 2 different kinds of lipids that are important to the body. They are triglycerides and phospholipids. Triglycerides are fats and oils These are used for storage of energy in the body. Phospholipids are a major part in the cell membrane. Enzymes in the body and in nature regulate complex chemical reactions They accelerate chemical reactions much aster than manmade catalysts A Catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical reaction, but are unchanged at the end of the reaction They can only work on one kind of molecule for a chemical reaction : Substrates. A substrate is a molecule in which an enzyme reacts Enzymes also help to break down large molecules such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates into smaller molecules. There are four very important properties of water : Cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, and specific heat Cohesion Cohesion refers to the attractive force of similar molecules in the same phase. Water’s hydrogen molecules are what causes cohesion. Cohesion can be thought of as the sum of all the hydrogen bonds in water It is important because it is what keeps strands of water together as it resists the force of gravity to go up a tree trunk and into its leaves. Adhesion Adhesion is the attractive force between molecules in one phase, such as water, and molecules in a different phase, such as solids. Adhesion is important because the attraction between the molecules of water and the molecules of the solid tree trunk also help in tansporting the water from the roots to the leaves. Surface Tension Surface tension is the energy needed to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount The molecules of water are held together by hydrogen bonds that are strong enough to withstand forces produced by light objects, like a feater, or a water bug. If a heavier object tries to apply more force to the water surface, the hydrogen bonds will break under the pressure and the object will fall through the water Specific Heat Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a 1-gram sample of a substance, like water, by 1 degree Celsius The specific heat of water is 4.184 Joule per gram per degree Celsuis A Joule is a unit of energy in the British measuring system Specific heat can also be expressed in Calories. This is equal to 1 calorie per gram for one degree celsius Water has a high specific heat because its Polarization alows it to form networks of hydrogen bonds, so that much of the energy used to heat water is disrupting these networks. That’s what water needs a very high temperature before it can biol. This helps us withstand lots of environmental changes in temperature There are 3 parts of a nucleotide. They are a sugar, a phosphate, and 4 nitrogen bases. The sugars and phosphates are alternating on the outside of the double-helix structure. The four Nitrogen bases are Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine. Adenine and Thymine are always paired together in a base pair, and Cytosine and Guanine are always paired together. Proteins can function in many different ways Proteins in nerve cells Nerve cells are responsible for transmitting pain signals to the brain. They are lined up end to end, like a telephone line The receiving end of each line is a receptor protein, which picks up the signal and passes it on to the next nerve cell Structural Proteins Structural proteins help maintain the shape and size of cells in the body They stack together like bricks to form column-like supporst that hold up the cell Hormones A hormone is an organic substance that controls most functions of the body, such as growth and puberty These hormones are made with proteins that travel through the blood to glands in the body that regulate them Collagen Collagen is a connective tissue found in animal cells made up of proteins It attaches the parts of our body, like bones and muscles, together