Download Storage – long term memory

Memory
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding
Process information three ways:
1. Encoding its meaning (semantic)
2. Visualizing it
3. Mentally organizing it
• Can be done at unconscious level
• Effortful encoding - retained longer
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 1: Encoding its
meaning (semantic)
Encoding meaning
• When we’re encoding information:
• Usually don’t encode information
literally (“word for word”)
• Encode meaning of information
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 1: Encoding its
meaning (semantic)
Encoding meaning, continued
• More we understand info,
• More meaningful info
• Easier to encode
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
“Christmas morning I had to drive
to the store to get milk, and I got
into a car accident. I went to the
hospital, but it wasn’t serious, and
I was home in time for Boxing.”
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 1: Encoding its meaning
(semantic)
Schema influenced
• Our schemes influence our memories
Example
• Australians are used to December being
summer, Americans are used to December
being winter, so that influences how we
remember the short story
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 2: Visualizing/by images
• Mental pictures
• Easier to encode & process images of
something, compared to words,
• typewriter
concepts, etc.
• void
• candle
• Easier to remember images than • inherent
• fire
abstract concepts
• process
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 2: Visualizing/by images
• “Picture worth a thousand words”
• Talking about something vs. showing
a picture
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 2: Visualizing/by images
• Strongest encoding: encoding both
semantically & visually
• Mental aids often use both visual &
semantic encoding
• Mnemonic devices
• Method of loci
• Peg word system
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 3: By mentally organizing
information for encoding
Two main ways:
1) Chunking
• Organizing meaningful groups
• Group like w/ like
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
1) Chunking
Your mother asks you to pick up the following
from the store:
-Apples
-Mustard
-Ketchup
-Bread
-Muffins
-Milk
-Oranges -Yogurt
-Grapes
How might you group them to make it easier to
remember?
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 3): By mentally organizing
information for encoding
Two main ways:
1) Chunking
• Canadian postal codes vs. US postal codes
• 20147 or 22031 vs. A1C 5S7 or E8W 9G2
• HOMES, ROYGBIV
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 3): By mentally organizing information
for encoding
What’s easier to memorize:
• CIATVLSDFBISBHS
A bunch of random letters…
or
• CIA TV LSD FBI SBHS
Or letters grouped in a meaningful manner?
• This also goes back to semantic encoding – information
is easier to memorize if it is given meaning
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding - 3): By mentally organizing information
for encoding
Two main ways:
2) Hierarchies
• Outline or flow charts
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding: best method?
Experiments done where people processed information in one of three ways:
1. Visually
2. Acoustically
3. Semantically
Which method best for encoding & recalling later?
• Semantic encoding deeper, information remembered longer
• Seeing or hearing information - shallow encoding
Basically…
• Semantic best
• Easier to remember information if:
• Given meaning
• We understand it
• Otherwise, we’re just memorizing non-sense
Unit IX - Memory: encoding
How we encoding: best method?
• Visually: worst
• Acoustic: low, unless info presented “uniquely”:
• Rhymes
• To the tune of a song
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – background
• Three stage processing model of
memory
• AKA: Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
• Richard Atkinson & Richard Shiffrin
• DO NOT mix this up with “encoding,
storage, recall”
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
First stage: Sensory memory
• Immediate, initial recording of sensory
information
1) Iconic memory
• Fleeting visual memory
• Lasts ½ second, replaced by next image
2) Echoic memory
• Sensory memory of auditory stimuli
• Lasts about 3, 4 seconds
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Second stage: Short term memory
• Active memory
• Can hold few items briefly
Duration
• Long enough to decide if important
• Decays quickly, unless effortfully encoded
• 3-10 seconds, 20 seconds maximum
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Second stage: Short term memory
Capacity
• Limited
• “Magic number seven” - George Miller
• Numbers better than letters (ZIP
codes)
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Capacity
• Adult brain: estimated stores a billion bits
of information
• How much can we store?
• A thousand times more? A million times
more?
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Information
There’s more we don’t know about LTM than we do know
Q: Is everything we ever encoded stored in our brains?
A: We don’t know
Q: Is it all in there, just can’t recall it?
A: We don’t really know
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Information
Q: Where are memories stored?
A: Again, unknown; know they’re not all stored in one place
Q: What did you have for breakfast?
A: We don’t know
Q: What did you have for lunch?
A: Again, we really don’t know.
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Information
Q: Do memories decay, or do we just lose the ability to
access them?
A: We don’t know.
Q: What do we know?
A: We don’t know what we don’t know. Or do know.
Q: What do we know?!?
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Information
Q: Do memories decay, or do we just lose the ability to
access them?
A: We don’t know.
Q: What do we know?
A: We don’t know what we don’t know. Or do know.
Q: What do we know?!?
A: Again, we don’t know what we don’t know.
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Basically, all we know, as far as we know, is that Long Term
Storage has limitless capacity.
So this can
never happen…
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Two type of LTM
1) Implicit or Procedural memory
• Skills: both motor & cognitive
• Classical & operant conditioning effects
• Without conscious recall
• Cerebellum
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
Two type of LTM
2) Explicit or Declarative memory
• Memory of facts & experiences
• With conscious recall
• Hippocampus
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Three stages
Third stage: Long term memory
2) Explicit or Declarative memory
Two types:
1. Semantic – Facts
• George Washington was the first president
of the United States
2. Episodic – Personal experiences
• Your tenth birthday party.
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Working memory
• Memory you are working with
• Temporary storage of recently used information, so at
preconscious & conscious level
• Using both new information & information retrieved from
Long-Term Memory
• Integrating the two
Example:
• Baking cookies: using information from LTM (where the
vanilla is stored, how to whip butter, etc.) & new
information (the recipe)
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Storing memories
• Information enters cortex through senses
• Where info goes depends on type of info
Example
• Implicit memory stored in different places
than explicit
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Storing memories
Synaptic changes
• Evidence showing location of memories
involves synapses:
• Changes in rate of neurons firing
• Changes in amount neurotransmitters
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Synaptic changes
Long-term potentiation
• Strengthening of synapses firing potential
(takes less to fire)
• Neural basis for learning & remembering
associations
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Synaptic changes
Long-term potentiation, continued
• Experiments have shown that:
• Blocking LTP disrupts learning
• Increasing LTP increases learning
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Synaptic changes
Long-term potentiation, continued
• Disrupting brain (electrical shocks, head
injury) before LTP does not disrupt Long
Term Memory
• But does disrupt Short Term Memory
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Synaptic changes
Long-term potentiation, continued
Example:
You’re ready to leave for school and you put a
book down in order to put your coat on.
While you are doing this, your brothers asks
you a question. You leave without the book.
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Synaptic changes
Long-term potentiation, continued
Example:
Putting the book down: automatic encoding, STM,
LTP has not occurred; has not made it into LTM.
Brother interrupting: disrupts LTP, so you forget
the book
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Hormones
• Certain hormones produced when excited or stressed can boost
memory
• Why we remember emotionally charged events better
• More emotion, more memory; less emotion, less memory
• September 11, first kiss, etc.
Flashbulb memory
• Clear memory of an emotional significant moment or event
• Likely because of hormonal release
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Hippocampus
• Left: verbal information
• Right: visual information & location
Theory:
• Hippocampus registers, temporally stores info
related to senses & location
• Explicit memories
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Cerebellum
• Related to
• Implicit memories
• Conditioning
• Rabbit eye puff example
Amygdala
• Emotional memories
Unit IX - Memory: storage
Storage – long term memory
Biological aspects of LTM
Infantile amnesia
• Remember skills (implicit), cerebellum
developed
• Don’t remember facts or experiences
(explicit), hippocampus not developed
• Much of what we store based on words
• Words have no meaning – so not encoded
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – background
• Retrieving encoded information from Long
Term Memory
• Bringing it to consciousness
• Information in conscious or pre-conscious,
already accessible
• Getting information from lower levels of
conscious difficult
• “Remembering”
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – process
• Memory: series of associations
• To retrieve encoded information, need
way to access it
• Need to associate information being
retrieved with something else
• Idea behind mnemonics (HOMES)
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – process
• Retrieving information like looking
for something in file
• Usually many ways to retrieve the
information
• More ways to retrieve file (the more
associations you can make), easier it
is to retrieve.
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – process
•
•
•
Retrieving information like looking for something in file
Usually many ways to retrieve the information
More ways to retrieve file (the more associations you can make), easier it is to
retrieve.
Example
• Santa Clause might be in:
• Christmas file
• Fat person file
• People who dress in red file
• People who don’t really exist file
• People who travel by reindeer file
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Fewer retrieval cues
in which to prime and
awaken associations
Retrieval – types
Recall
• Ability to retrieve information not in conscious
memory
Example:
More retrieval cues
in which to prime
Fill in the blank questions
and awaken
associations
Recognition
• Ability to identify items previously learned
Example:
Multiple choice questions
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – types, continued
• We remember more than we can recall
• I.e. can identify information in memory
more than can pull information from
memory
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
Retrieval cues
• Provide reminders of information we
otherwise couldn’t recall
Example
• Yearbook photos
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
• Memory held in storage by web of
associations
• To retrieve certain memory, need to
identify strand that leads to it
• Called priming
• “Waking of associations”
• Usually done unconsciously
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Seeing this picture may prime the following
associations:
• Mammals
• Animals
• Different names for this animal (rabbit, bunny,
hare, cottontail)
• Things associated with rabbits (long ears, fuzzy,
Easter, etc.)
• Famous rabbits (Bugs bunny, Roger Rabbit, etc.)
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
• When asked to spell “hair”, the
association with the picture has been
primed, so many people would spell the
word “hare,” instead of “hair” or “here.”
• This is because the association between
the picture and the word “hare” has been
primed
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Priming is related to the earlier demonstration
where you given 12 words having to do with
the word “needle”
Even though the word “needle” wasn’t among
those words, many people remember the word
being present
This is because the association between the
word “needle” and all the other words was
primed.
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
• Cues that aid recall of information not
recalled spontaneously
• Something that helps one recall
information
Example
ROYGBIV
Enough to prime and awaken the
associations leading you to
remember the colors of the
rainbow
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
Types of retrieval cues:
• Words
• Events
• Pictures/images
All these things can prime associations
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
Other types of retrieval cues
Context effects
• Being in same context as when memory
encoded/where you experienced something
• Familiar context activates memory
Example
• Taking test in same classroom as learned material
• Scuba example
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
Other types of retrieval cues
State-dependant memory
• What we learn in one state (happy, sad, etc.),
sometimes more easily recalled when in that state
again
Example:
Do something while intoxicated, can’t remember it
when sober, but remember it when intoxicated
again.
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
Other types of retrieval cues
Mood-congruent
• The mood we’re in influences what we remember
• Tendency to recall experiences consistent with one’s current mood
• Emotions become our retrieval cues
Example:
• In a bad mood, only remember how hot & muggy it was when you
went to Disney Land
Example:
• People w/ depression: parents unloving, not supportive, etc.
• When treated: parents loving, always there for them, etc.
Unit IX - Memory: retrieval
Retrieval – Retrieval cues
Other types of retrieval cues
Mood-congruent
• Strongly related to perception:
• Bad mood; likely remember events
negatively
• Good mood; likely remember events
positively
• How encoded, how remembered
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – background
• Forgetting a good thing
• Information interferes with retrieval
• Affect our ability to think abstractly
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Encoding failure
• If not encoded, doesn’t go into LTM
• Therefore, can’t be recalled
• Inattention to details produces encoding
errors
• Change blindness, automatic vs. effortful
encoding (penny example)
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Encoding failure, continued
• If encoded incorrectly, stored & recalled
incorrectly
Example
• Mood congruent
• Mood effects perception effects encoding
(friend doesn’t say “hi” in hall, etc.)
• Related to perception
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Storage decay
• Even if encoded properly, we still forget
• Unused information decays over time
Debate:
• Does it decay?
• Or does our ability to retrieve decay?
• Or, is it because of interference?
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Storage decay
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve
• Information initially forgotten quickly
• But levels off with time
• Remember as much after three years as do after
twenty-five years
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Retrieval failure
• Information in there, just can’t get to it
• Not enough information available to
access, retrieve
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomena
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Forgotten events are like books you can’t find in the
library:
-Some because they were never acquired (encoding
failure)
-Some because they were thrown away (storage
decay)
-Some because you don’t have enough information to
look it up and retrieve it (retrieval failure)
Page 368
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Interference/negative transfer
• Information blocks information
• Learning information may interfere
with retrieving other information
• Especially when information is similar
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Interference/negative transfer
Two types:
1) Proactive interference
• Earlier information disrupts later information
Examples:
• Learning new telephone number – blocked by old ‘phone number
• Learning new locker combination – blocked by old one
• College French – trouble because of high school Spanish
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Interference/negative transfer
Two types:
2) Retroactive
• Newer information disrupts older information
Examples:
• Learning new students’ names makes last years’ students
harder to remember
• College French makes remembering high school Spanish
difficult
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Interference/negative transfer
Way to remember difference between Proactive &
retroactive:
P.O.R.N.
Proactive – Old interferes
Retroactive – New interferes
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Positive transfer
• Old information helps learning of new
information
Example:
• Learning Latin helps us learn French
• If you know how to play the cello, it’ll be
easier to learn the viola.
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Motivated forgetting: Consciously done
• Aware being done:
• Protect/enhance self-image
• Minimize anxiety
• Block painful, embarrassing memories
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Motivated forgetting: Unconsciously done
• Not aware being done
• Repression
• Defense mechanism to protect self
• Freud/Psychoanalytical
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Motivated forgetting: Unconsciously done
• Controversial
• Forgetting common
• However, many memory researchers think
repression rarely, if ever, occurs.
• Highly emotional events tend to be
remembered more easily (flashbulb memory)
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Amnesia
• Loss of memory
• Caused by:
• physical trauma
• viral infection
• Usually affects Explicit/Declarative memory
Unit IX - Memory: forgetting
Forgetting – reasons for forgetting
Amnesia
Two kinds
1) Retrograde amnesia
• Memory loss: info acquired before trauma
2) Anterograde amnesia
• Memory loss: info presented after trauma
• Unable to make new memories
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: encoding
• Memory construction begins at encoding
• Encoded incorrectly -> stored incorrectly
Example
You encode that the robber drove a blue
car, you’ll remember it as a blue car.
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: encoding
Missing information
• Often make inferences to fill in
missing information
• Based on assumptions, schemas, etc.
• Which becomes encoded
On the table, there is:
•Candle
•Bottle of wine
•Glasses of wine
•Plates of pasta
•Forks, spoons, etc.
What color were the menus?
Don’t remember the menus, but assume
there were menus…
So you fill in the info
What color were the menus?
Don’t remember the menus,
but assume there were menus…
So you fill in the info
How do you fill it in?
Schema, etc.
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: retrieval
• Memories can be altered during
retrieval
• Again, filling in missing information
with assumptions
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: between encoding &
retrieval
• Misinformation can be added, distorting our
memories
Misinformation effect/eyewitness misinformation
effect
• Incorporating misleading information into one’s
memory of events,
• Causes distortion of memories
• Difficult to tell real from misinformation
How fast were the
cars going when they
hit each other?
How fast were the
cars going when they
smashed into each
other?
Depending on what verb(s) were used,
people remembered the event differently.
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: distortion
• About how fast were the cars going when they collided with each
other?
• About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each
other?
• About how fast were the cars going when they bumped into each other?
• About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
• About how fast were the cars going when they contacted each other?
•Smashed : 40.8 miles per hour
•Collided : 39.3 miles per hour
•Bumped: 38.1 miles per hour
•Hit : 34.2 miles per hour
•Contacted : 31.8 miles per hour
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: distortion
Imagination effects
• Fill in the gaps of missing information with
plausible guesses
• Based on schema
• Later, recall guessed detail as if they
happened
• Again, think menu
example
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: distortion
Imagination effects
Experiment
• People told to imagine doing certain
actions (stapling)
• Later, recalled these events as if they
actually happened
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction: distortion
Source amnesia/source misattribution
• Attributing to the wrong source an event that
we have experienced, heard about, read
about, or imagined
Examples:
• Seeing photos of a vacation
• Believing you went on the trip
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction
Discerning true & false memories
• Difficult to determine true from false memories
• Misinformation effect, imagination effect, source
amnesia, mood effecting our memories, etc., many
things can shade our memory
• Because memory isn’t simply recorded and able to be
played back perfectly, difficult
• Many things distort our memories
Unit IX - Memory: memory construction
Memory construction
Discerning true & false memories
• Suggestibility of people
• Leading questions can influence
memory
• What color was his jacket? vs. He
was wearing a blue jacket, right?
Intelligence
& Testing
Intelligence & testing: introduction & background
Introduction & Background
Intelligence
•Cognitive ability
•Ability to learn from experience, solve
problems, use knowledge to adapt
•Ability to think rationally, understand the
world, & use resources well when faced
with a challenge
Intelligence & testing: introduction & background
Introduction & Background
Controversy
•No one definition for intelligence
•First one – Oxford Dictionary of
Psychology”
•Second one – textbook
•Third one – some random textbook I
forgot to write down the name of…
Intelligence & testing: introduction & background
Introduction & Background
Controversy
• Dispute: what is intelligence?
• Cognitive abilities
• If so, which ones?
• And how do we measure them?
• Speed?
• Accuracy?
• Problem solving ability?
Intelligence & testing: introduction & background
Introduction & Background
Reification
•Taking abstract concept, treating it as
something concrete
Example:
•History will judge…
•Society says…
•My intelligence…
Blah, blah,
blah, blah…
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
• You have quadruplets
Starting at age six…
• One specializes in math
• One specializes in language
• One specializes in music
• One specializes in ballet
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
•Now at age 16, they’re all at the height of
their disciplines.
•Are they all equally intelligent?
What color is
this picture?
Can you say
it is only one
color?
Who is a better hockey player?
or…
Patrick Roy
Joe Thornton
Who is a better athlete?
or…
Patrick Roy
McKayla Maroney
Who is a better musician?
or…
or…
Yo Yo Ma
Jimmy Page
Thelonious
Monk
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
• Can you compare a composer with a painter?
• Or a hockey goalie with a center?
• Or a hockey goalie with a gymnast?
• Or a cellist with a jazz pianist with Jimmy Page
• Is it apples to oranges?
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
This is a flower
It should grow to a foot tall.
If you water it, fertilize it, give it enough sun,
etc.; how tall will it grow?
A foot tall
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
This is a flower
It should grow to a foot tall.
If you don’t water it, don’t fertilize it, dump your
coke onto it, forget to put it out into the sun…
How tall will it grow?
Less than a foot tall
Think back to the “Nature vs. Nurture” chapter
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types?
• Is there only one type of intelligence?
• Or several?
• Can you put one number to measure
intelligence?
Example:
• Person is really good at math
• But has trouble in English class
Games Goals
played
Assists (helped
make a goal)
Points (goals
+ assists)
Plus/Minus: +1 on
ice for own goal,
-1 on ice for
opposing team
goal
Penalties
in minutes
Power
play
goals
Shots
per game
• Which of
these
numbers is
the most
important?
• Can one
number be
used to
describe all
of these
stats?
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Background
• Overall intelligence - quantified with single
scale. You can measure intelligence with one
number
• Good at certain things, bad at certain things
• Not different intelligence for different
things
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Spearman’s Two-factor theory of Intelligence
•Charles Spearman
•We all have:
•General intelligence - measured with one
number: “g"
•Task-specific intelligence - unique to each
individual: “s”
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Spearman’s Two-factor theory of Intelligence
Factor analysis
• Statistical procedure that identifies related
items (factors) on test
Example: To determine their verbal s score,
just look at verbal related questions (wouldn’t
look at math)
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Spearman’s Two-factor theory of Intelligence
General intelligence
• Single factor of intelligence that
underlies all cognitive abilities
• Referred to as “g”
• One number “measures” our entire
intelligence
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Spearman’s Two-factor theory of Intelligence
General intelligence
• If you’re smart in one thing, you’re still fairly
smart in all things
Example:
• Really good at math, but struggle in English.
• You’re still doing better in English than most other
people.
• You’re good in English, just not as good as math.
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Spearman’s Two-factor theory of Intelligence
General intelligence
• If you’re smart in one thing, you’re still fairly smart in all
things
Example:
• Natural athlete – great football player, but a good figure
skater?
• Likely not, but probably a better figure skater than a
non-natural athlete.
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Spearman’s Two-factor theory of Intelligence
Specific intelligence
• “Task specific intelligence”
• Something we’re better in compared to other
• Unique to each individual
• Referred to as “s”
Example:
Little better at math than English
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – One Factor
Spearman’s Two-factor theory of Intelligence
Controversial that there is one general
intelligence (then & now)
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Background
•One kind of intelligence - too simplistic
•Different factors of intelligence
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
• L.L. Thurstone
• Didn’t believe in single
intelligence
• 7 primary mental abilities (book
says 8)
• Thurstone believed that people
would score high on one factor,
and low on the other factors.
Mental abilities
1. Verbal comprehension
2. Word fluency
3. Number ability
4. Spatial ability
5. Associative memory
6. Perceptual speed
7. General reasoning
ability
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities
• However, what happened was, generally, if someone
scored high on one, scored high on others.
• Score low on one factor, scored low on all others.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Verbal comprehension
Word fluency
Number ability
Spatial ability
Associative memory
Perceptual speed
General reasoning ability
For example: Scored highest
on #3, still score high on the
other six.
• Supports g - idea of a single intelligence. Basically, he
disproved his whole thesis
We now get into
the “everybody
wants to peel their
own banana part of
the lesson…
One type or many types? – Multiple
intelligence
Background
• Most psychologists believe that
there are different factors of
intelligence, that putting one
number on our intelligence is too
simplistic.
• However, exactly what those
factors of intelligence are is
debatable, and there are several
different theories.
• Here are some of the most
common ones.
• Know the general idea of each
one
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Multiple intelligence
• Howard Gardner
Levels
• Linguistic intelligence (“word smart”)
• Logical-mathematical intelligence (“number/reasoning smart”)
• Spatial intelligence (“picture smart”)
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (“body smart”)
• Musical intelligence (“music smart”)
• Interpersonal intelligence (“people smart”)
• Intrapersonal intelligence (“self smart”)
• Naturalist intelligence (“nature smart”)
Criticism - talents or intelligence?
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Guilford’s 3-factor structure of the intellect
• JP Guilford
• Looked at intellectual functioning (how we think, not what
we know)
Dimensions
• Contents - What we think about
• Operations - How we think about it
• Products - Results and conclusions we obtain
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Guilford’s 3-factor structure of the intellect
View like a cube
• Each dimension subdivided by mental task
• So 120+ kinds of intelligence
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
• Academic intelligence is different from
“Managerial” intelligence
• People who are successful in business weren’t
necessarily successful in school, or scored high on
an IQ test.
• Problem solving abilities, manage oneself, others,
etc.
• Believed in only three intelligences
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Types of intelligence
• Analytical /Componential Intelligence– assess by
traditional intelligence tests
• Experiential/Creative– adapting to novel situations
using novel solutions
• Practical/Contextual– used to solve every day
tasks, usually ill-defined and have several solutions
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Types of intelligence
•Focused on the practical intelligence
•Practical – used to solve every day
tasks, usually ill-defined & have
several solutions
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Analytical /Componential Intelligence – strategies
that we go through to process info
• metacomponents (what is the problem?)
• performance components (what do I have to do to
solve it?)
• knowledge-acquisition components (HOW do I solve
it?)
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Experiential/Creative – use experience on
any given task
• strong – cope well with novelty
• weak – need predictable routines and
constraints
Intelligence & testing: one type or many types?
One type or many types? – Multiple intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence
Practical/Contextual – takes the external
world into account
• know how to adapt to the environment
Intelligence & testing: Emotional Intelligent
Emotional Intelligent
• People considered intelligent by traditional
standards aren’t necessarily going to be
successful later on
• Success might be related to emotional
intelligence
Seymour Epstein & Petra Meier
• First to use term emotional intelligence
Intelligence & testing: Emotional Intelligent
Emotional Intelligent
Daniel Goleman
• EQ
Five domains of EQ
1. Knowing your emotions
2. Managing your own emotions
3. Motivating yourself
4. Recognizing and understanding other people's
emotions
5. Managing relationships, ie., managing the emotions
of others.
Intelligence & testing: Emotional Intelligent
Emotional Intelligent
David Caruso
• Devised Multifactor Emotional Intelligence
Scale (MEIS)
• Tests emotional intelligence and its three
components:
1. Ability to Perceive Emotions
2. Understand Emotions
3. Regulate Emotions
Intelligence & testing: Emotional Intelligent
Emotional Intelligent
Controversy
• Emotional ability is important, but is it
intelligence?
• Does it take concept of intelligence too far?
Intelligence & testing: Intelligence and creativity
Intelligence and creativity
Creativity
• Ability to produce novel & valuable ideas
• Difficult to measure
Intelligence & testing: Intelligence and creativity
Intelligence and creativity
• Score high on intelligence tests; usually score
high on creativity tests
• Score high on creativity tests; usually score
high on intelligence tests
• To a point
• Highly creative do not usually score higher on
intelligence tests than less creative people
• Your IQ plateaus at a certain point
Intelligence & testing: Intelligence and creativity
Intelligence and creativity
Five components of creativity
Robert Sternberg
1. Expertise
2. Imaginative thinking skills
3. Venturesome personality
4. Intrinsic motivation
5. Creative environment
Intelligence & testing: Intelligence
The take away from all this…
• No agreement as to what exactly
intelligence is
• If no agreement as to what
intelligence is, how can be accurately
measure it?
Intelligence & testing Biology and intelligence
Biology and intelligence
Brain size & intelligence
• Weak correlation
Number of synapses
• Level of education & number of synapses: strong
correlation
So…
• Education cause more synapses?
or
• People with more synapses get more education?
Intelligence & testing Biology and intelligence
Biology and intelligence
Einstein’s brain
• Same size as a normal brain
• Lower part of parietal lobe larger (math &
spatial information)
• Other parts smaller
Intelligence & testing Biology and intelligence
Biology and intelligence
Brain function
• Work better
• More organized
• Processes information faster
• More efficient
• Make connections other people don’t
Neuron function
• Perhaps neurons work/fire faster
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Aptitude
• Prediction of future performance
Examples:
-SAT
-GRE
Achievement
• Assesses what has been learned
Examples:
-AP
-SOL
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Any test must meet the following criteria
1. Standardization
2. Reliability
3. Validity
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Standardization (2 parts)
1) Procedure
• Administered same way each time
• Number of questions, time allowed, etc
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Standardization (2 parts)
2) Norms
• To evaluate performance, need something to
compare it to
• Pre-test large, representative group of people
• Determines what a high score is, a low score, a
middle score
• Others taking test compared to sample
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Standardization (2 parts)
2) Norms
Normal distribution
• Measured on a normal curve (bell curve)
• When graphed, most psychological & physical
attributes fall in a similar pattern
• Few extremes on either end
• Most in the middle
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Reliability
• Repeatable with the same results
• Test should yield dependably consistent scores
Example:
• If I take a test that tests what my dominate hand
is, it should come up with “right handed” 100% of
the time
• A depression screening test should be accurate
nearly 100% of the time.
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Reliability
How to test reliability (3 ways)
1) Test-retest
2) Split-half
3) Equivalent-form
In each case, to be considered reliable, scores
should be similar with low standard deviation
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Reliability
How to test reliability (3 ways)
1) Test-retest
• Same test
• Same person
• 2 different times
• Similar scores
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Reliability
How to test reliability (3 ways)
2) Split-half
• Same test
• Same person
• 1st time: odd questions
• 2nd time: even question
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Reliability
How to test reliability (3 ways)
3) Equivalent-form
• 2 versions (A and B) of the test
• Same person
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Validity
• Test measures or predicts what it is
supposed to measure
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Validity
Ways to test validity:
1) Criterion-validity
• Compare the test results to performance in
that area
Example
• SAT scores & college grades
• Driving test & driving (?)
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Validity
Ways to test validity:
2) Content-validity
• Is the content fair and representative?
Example:
• Lecture 2 of 40 minutes on tree frogs, but
half the test is about tree frogs
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Validity
Ways to test validity:
3) Construct validity
• Extent the test measures trait it is intending to
measure
Example
• Does an IQ test actually accurately measure IQ?
• Take test on the Civil War, but all but one question is
about World War I.
Intelligence & testing Assessing intelligence
Assessing intelligence
Principles of test construction
Roughly…
1. Standardization
Same for everyone
2. Reliability
Consistent
3. Validity
Tests what it supposed to test
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Types of intelligence tests
Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon - France
(1904)
• Test measures mental age
• Chronological age (actual age) that most
typically corresponds with performance
• A child who does as well as an average 8
year old has a mental age of 8
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Types of intelligence tests
Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon - France
(1904)
• First modern Intelligence quota (IQ)
test
• Determine which students not as
intelligent as students their own age.
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Types of intelligence tests
Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon - France
(1904)
• “regular” or “normal” intelligence is
mental age/chronological age x 100
• intelligence quotient (IQ)
• Ratio of mental age to chronological
age times 100
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Types of intelligence tests
Alfred Binet & Theodore Simon - France (1904)
MA x 100
CA
Bill is an 8-year old with the Mental Age of a
10-year old
125 IQ
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Types of intelligence tests
Lewis Terman (1916)
“Americanized” the test
• Devised while at Stanford University
• Stanford-Binet test
• Still used today in revised form
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Types of intelligence tests
Lewis Terman (1916)
Changes
• Might measure children’s IQ’s, but not
adults
• MA: 20, CA: 40, so IQ 50?
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Types of intelligence tests
New scale - Wechsler Scales
• David Wechsler
• WAIS – Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale
• WPPSI (4 – 6 ½) - Wechsler Preschool and
Primary Scale of Intelligence
• WISC (6-16) – Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for children
Intelligence & testing Types of intelligence tests
Flynn Effect
The Flynn Effect
•Since 1960’s, IQ scores have gone up
•Though college aptitude tests have
dropped
•Don’t know why
Intelligence & testing: Stability vs. Change
Stability vs. Change
• No way to predict intelligence before age of three
Exceptions:
• Unusually fast maturing children (precocious
children)
• Severely impaired children
• After age 20, intelligence seems to hold steady
• Crystallized vs. fluid
Intelligence & testing: Extremes in intelligence
Extremes in intelligence
Mental retardation
•Intelligence test score below 70
•Unable to live on own
Ranked:
Mild: 50 – 70
Moderate: 35 – 49
Severe: 20 -34
Profound: below 20
Intelligence & testing: Extremes in intelligence
Extremes in intelligence
Mental retardation
Several causes:
•Physical injury
• Problems during prenatal or critical period
• Teratogens
• Malnutrition
• Disease
•Genetic abnormalities
Intelligence & testing: Extremes in intelligence
Extremes in intelligence
Mental retardation
Genetic abnormalities
Down syndrome
• Extra chromosome (21st pair)
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
• Inability to digest certain amino acids
• Builds up in the body
• Destroys the central nervous system
Intelligence & testing: Extremes in intelligence
Extremes in intelligence
Autism
Major characteristic:
• Impairments in social interaction
• Impairments in communication
• Restricted interests & repetitive behavior
Spectrum disorder
• Low end
• Silent
• Mentally disabled
• High end
• “socially awkward”
• Usually Asperger syndrome
Intelligence & testing: Extremes in intelligence
Extremes in intelligence
Savant syndrome
• Person with limited intelligence
• Has exceptional skill in a particular area
• Seems to be argument for multiple
intelligence
Example: Kim Peek
Intelligence & Testing
Genetic & Environmental influences
Genetic & Environmental influences
• The heritability of intelligence is
approximately 50%
• Again, heritability means that in any given
group…
• 50% of the people in the group are the
intelligence they are because of heredity
• 50% of the people in the group are the
intelligence they are for environmental
reasons
Intelligence & Testing
Genetic & Environmental influences
Genetic & Environmental influences
• For each individual person, it is impossible
to determine how much of our
intelligence, height, body shape, shoe
size, etc., is:
• Environmental
• Genetics
Environmental
reasons
heredity
Intelligence & testing Genetic & Environmental influences
Genetic & Environmental influences
• Child born in Cambridge, Massachusetts
• IQ should be 110.
• Mother stays at home
• Parents read
• Does full day kindergarten
• Goes to a good school
• What will her IQ likely be?
110
Intelligence & testing Genetic & Environmental influences
Genetic & Environmental influences
• Child born in Cambridge, Massachusetts
• IQ should be 110.
• Both parents work
• Sent to a good day care, 2:1 staff:child
• Parents read
• Does full day kindergarten
• Goes to an o.k. school
• What will her IQ likely be?
110
Intelligence & testing Genetic & Environmental influences
Genetic & Environmental influences
Child born in Roxbury, Massachusetts
IQ should be 110.
Single mother
Mother works 2 jobs
Aunt watches her, usually just put in front of the TV for
most of the day
• Eats mostly processed food
• No kindergarten
• No before or after school programs
• Bad school, 35:1 student to teacher ratio
• What will her IQ likely be?
Below 110 (90-ish?)
•
•
•
•
•
Intelligence & testing Genetic & Environmental influences
Genetic & Environmental influences
• Child born in Roxbury, Massachusetts
• IQ should be 110.
• Single mother
• Mother works 2 jobs
• Mother reads to her
• Sent to a good day care, 2:1 staff:child
• At day care, eats healthy food
• Goes to all day kindergarten
• Goes to before and after school programs
• Good school
• What will her IQ likely be?
Likely around 110