Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Biology Unit 4: Cellular Energy and Microscopy Name _________________________ Hour _____ I. Cellular Energy (Photosynthesis & Respiration) A) Energy = the ability to do ___________________. Examples of cell energy uses: * Nucleoli building _______________________. * Ribosomes building ______________________. * Spindle fibers moving _____________________. * Gland cells secreting _______________ into ECF (exocytosis – active transport). B) Energy is stored in the ________________ that join atoms to form molecules. 1. Carbohydrates are made of C, H, & O (C6H12O6 - monosaccharides) & provides __________ - _______ energy storage. Plants store their extra carbohydrates as _______________ and animals store it as ______________________. 2. Lipids are made of C, H, & O also and found as solid ____________ in animals and __________ in plants. Lipids provide__________ - ___________ energy storage. 3. ATP – Adenosine TriPhosphate; a molecule made in the __________________ bonds between phosphate groups can be broken to release energy for cellular processes; . ADP – ____________________________________ AMP - _____________________________________ (not an energy molecule) C. Photosynthesis: Process by which all plants, some bacteria and some protists use light energy to power chemical reactions that convert H2O and CO2 into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates (glucose). 6 carbon dioxide molecules + 6 water molecules reactants 1 glucose molecule + 6 oxygen molecules light/energy products Visible Light a. Part of the electromagnetic spectrum 1 Pigments – Compounds that produces a color in plant or animal tissue. b. Pigments are located in the _____________________________ and _________________________ of plant cells. c. Chlorophyll – ________________________________________________________________________________ Q: From which parts (colors) of the visible light spectrum does chlorophyll absorb the most energy? ____________________ ____________________ Q: From which parts of the visible light spectrum does chlorophyll absorb the least energy? _____________ Q: What is the primary color of most plants? ____________________ Explain your answer. _________________________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________________________ Q: Why do the leaves of deciduous trees change color in the fall? __________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________ Chemical Reaction: Write the chemical name beneath each chemical formula for photosynthesis below. 6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2 ____________ ___________ __________ ___________ __________________ _____________ Factors that affect photosynthesis (Text p. 240) a. _____________________________________________ b. _____________________________________________ c. _____________________________________________ D. Cellular Respiration: A process that releases energy by breaking bonds in food molecules. There are two chemical pathways depending on oxygen (O2) availability : (a) Anaerobic - w/o oxygen, (b) Aerobic - with oxygen 6 oxygen molecules + 1 glucose molecule 6 carbon dioxide molecules + 6 water molecules + energy reactants products Energy in our food: Photosynthesis converts solar/radiant/light energy into ____________ energy, or energy stored in the electrons bonding sugar molecules. Short-term energy molecules (carbohydrates), and long term energy molecules (lipids), are found in the food we eat. The energy from food that we eat is measured in calories. A calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius. A Calorie (w/a capital “C”) as seen on most food labels, is also called a Kilocalorie, equal to 1000 calories (small “c”). Though cellular respiration is a complex biochemical process it can be simplified into 1 of 2 energy pathways, both of which take place after glycolysis. 1 pathway will be taken if oxygen is present, the other if oxygen is not present. 2 Step #1: Glycolysis Process occurs in the cytoplasm where a _______________ (C6H12O6) molecule is broken in half releasing _____ ATP’s. Glycolysis results in 2, 3-Carbon pyruvic acid molecules which will then enter a mitochondrion. If no Oxygen (O2) is available If Oxygen (O2) is available Anaerobic Respiration/ Fermentation Aerobic Respiration * Path taken after glycolysis when O2 is not available * Path taken after glycolysis when O2 is present * Little Energy is Released. * MUCH ENERGY IS RELEASED 2 types of Fermentation: Step #2: Alcoholic Fermentation Step #2: Kreb’s/Citric Cycle Occurring in the cytoplasm of yeast (a fungus) and many bacteria. This process produces carbon dioxide (a gas allowing bread to rise) and alcohol. 2 ATP’s made. Occurs in mitochondria after glycolysis. Uses O2 to extract more energy from the 2 halves of glucose (pyruvic acid molecules). 2 ATP’s made or Step #2: Lactic Acid Fermentation Step #3: Electron Transport Chain Occurring in the cytoplasm of all other organisms. In some fungi and bacteria, lactic acid fermentation makes cheese and yogurt. In animals (like us) lactic acid fermentation during strenuous exercise can cause muscle fatigue and soreness. 2 ATP’s made. Occurs in the mitochondria, after the Kreb’s cycle. It is the process of extracting the remaining energy stored in bonds of molecules produced during the Kreb’s cycle. 32 ATP’s made!!! Comparing Cellular Energy Processes Cellular Process Reactant(s) Location Energy Used or Stored Anaerobic Cellular Respiration (Alcoholic Fermentation) Releases 2 ATP’s From 1 Glucose Anaerobic Cellular Respiration (Lactic Acid Fermentation) Releases 2 ATP’s From 1 Glucose By-Product(s) Aerobic Cellular Respiration (Krebs’s Cycle & Electron Transport) 2 ATP’s 32 ATP’s Releases 2 + 32 ATP’s From 1 Glucose Photosynthesis Gains 1 Glucose II. Nutrients Nutrients – Substances in food that supply the energy and raw materials (molecules) an organism needs to grow, repair itself, and maintain homeostasis. For animals (humans specifically) the most needed nutrients include water, carbohydrates, lipids (fats), proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Water – The most important nutrient, comprising 65-70% of most animals. Water maintains temperature homeostasis because it heats up and cools down slowly (this is due to its polarity). Water also enables blood to flow through vessels smoothly and for chemical reactions to occur. Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in an organism (this includes the making of bigger molecules – Anabolism, and breaking down of bigger molecules – Catabolism). Carbohydrates – Carbohydrates serve 2 primary functions for animals: 1) short term energy from simple sugars (fruits, honey, & table sugar) and complex sugars/starches (potatoes, grains, & vegetables), and 2) fiber, the indigestible cellulose (plants’ structural carbohydrates) cleans the intestines of feces. 3 Lipids – Lipids/fats protect/pad organs, insulate (keep body heat in), store long-term energy, are a large component of cell membranes, and comprise some hormones (steroids). Saturated Fats contain only single bonds and are normally solid at room temperature (butter and other animal fats) Unsaturated Fats contain at least 1 double bond between any 2 carbons and are usually liquid at room temperature (vegetable oils). Polyunsaturated fats contain more than 1 double bond. It is recommended that our diet be <30% calories come from fats, with only 10% saturated. Health consequences include high blood pressure, heart disease, obesity, and diabetes. Proteins – Proteins are polymers (large molecules) made up of amino acids (small molecules). The human body can only make 12 of the 20 amino acids needed. The 8 we cannot make are called essential amino acids and must be obtained from our diet. Foods high in protein (meat, beans, nuts) are good sources of the essential amino acids. Vitamins – Organic molecules that help regulate body processes, often in association with enzymes. Vitamin deficiency may lead to dysfunction and/or death. Vitamins are found in a variety of foods & supplements (see fig. 38.6). Minerals – Inorganic nutrients that help regulate body processes and fulfill structural needs. Minerals are found in a variety of foods-supplements. Long-term mineral deficiency may lead to dysfunction or death (see fig. 38-7). 4 III . Microscopy Magnification – An increase in the size of an image. As magnification increases The distance between the objective lens and the slide decreases. **The total magnification is determined by multiplying the ocular magnification by the lens magnification. Resolving/Resolution Power – How clear the magnified specimen appears. Field of View – How much of the image is seen through ocular. 40x = 100x = 400x = Depth of View/Focus – How resolute/clear images appear at different distances from the ocular/eyepiece. *** Increasing the magnification will decrease resolving power, field of view, and depth of view! *** 5 Structures and Functions of a Common Light Microscope Color each microscope part using the color key indicated in the data table, below left. Microscope Part Microscope Part Function Arm & Base (light blue, dark blue) The 2 parts held while carrying a microscope Ocular/Eyepiece Holds a 10x lens for magnification, and where the specimen is viewed (red) Ocular Tube (light green) Creates a distance between ocular lens and objective lens for correct magnification Revolving Nosepiece /Objective Turret (pink) Moves objectives with different magnifying powers to be rotated above specimen Objective Lens 4, 10, 40, & 100x (dark green) Carries the 2nd lens for magnification Stage w/clip (black) Holds slide/specimen in place for viewing Stage Aperture (not seen in this view) Hole in the stage allowing light through NOT ON TEST Iris Diaphragm (orange) Controls light passing through specimen Light Source (yellow) Provides light needed to produce an image Course and Fine Objective Knobs (dark & light brown) Moves the stage up and down to focus or improve resolution of the image Condenser and Knob Condenses/focuses light before it passes through the specimen NOT ON TEST Light Intensity Knob Regulates light intensity from the source NOT ON TEST (gray) ↑ On/Off Switch Slide Adjustment (not seen in this view) Moves slide/specimen (forward, left, right, backward) without you touching the slide NOT ON TEST 6