Download 5. Mewujudkan masyarakat liberal dan bertolak ansur, rakyat

Policy Making
At the end of the session, student is able to:
1. Define policy and its characteristics,
2. Explain policy questions, its aspects and paradox,
3. Differentiate policy formation, policy decision, political
analysis of policy, & policy research and evaluation,
4. Explain dilemmas influencing polity in terms of
globalization, migration, individualism, political
agency, and ecological problems, and
5. Differentiate various polity approaches in policy
making
1
What is Policy?
 Simply as a vision of where we want to go
and guidelines for getting there (First, 1992:
p. 14)
 It is wide rather than narrow, long term rather
than short term, and that it involves
leadership
 The leader is needed to paint the vision that
becomes the policy statements
2
Characteristics of Policy Statement
1. Statement of position, not statement of
procedure
2. Apply to a clearly defined population
3. No specific time reference
4. Apply to a specific area whereby the policy
making body has authority/ influence/
control
3
Megatrends (John Naisbitt 1982)
From Industrial
To
Force Technology
National Economy
Short term
Centralization
Institutional help
Representative
Hierarchies
North
Either/ Or
Information Age
High Tech/ Touch
World Economy
Long term planning
Decentralization
Self-help
Participatory
Networking
South
Multiple Option
4
Wawasan 2020
(Sembilan Cabaran)
1. Mewujudkan negara Malaysia bersatu yang
mempunyai matlamat dikongsi bersama
2. Mewujudkan masyarakat yang berjiwa bebas,
tenteram dan maju dengan keyakinan terhadap diri
sendiri, bangga dengan apa yang ada dan dicapai
serta gagah menghadapi pelbagai masalah
5
Wawasan 2020
(Sembilan Cabaran)
3. Mewujud dan membangunkan masyarakat
demokratik yang matang, mengamalkan satu
bentuk persefahaman matang, demokrasi Malaysia
berasaskan masyarakat yang boleh menjadi contoh
kepada banyak negara membangun
4. Mewujudkan masyarakat yang sepenuhnya bermoral
dan beretika
6
Wawasan 2020
(Sembilan Cabaran)
5. Mewujudkan masyarakat liberal dan bertolak ansur, rakyat
pelbagai kaum bebas mengamalkan idea, kebudayaan dan
kepercayaan agama masing-masing dan pada masa yang sama
meletakkan kesetiaan mereka kepada satu negara.
6. Mewujudkan masyarakat saintifik dan progresif, mempunyai
daya perubahan tinggi dan memandang ke depan, yang bukan
sahaja menjadi pengguna teknologi tetapi juga penyumbang
kepada tamadun saintifik dan teknologi masa depan
7
Wawasan 2020
(Sembilan Cabaran)
7. Mewujudkan masyarakat penyayang dan
budaya menyayangi, iaitu sistem sosial yang
mengutamakan kepentingan masyarakat,
kebajikan insan tidak akan berkisar kepada
negara atau orang perseorangan tetapi
sekeliling sistem keluarga yang kukuh
8
Wawasan 2020
(Sembilan Cabaran)
8. Memastikan masyarakat yang adil dalam
bidang ekonomi
9. Mewujudkan masyarakat makmur yang
mempunyai ekonomi bersaing, dinamik, giat
dan kental.
9
Etiology of Policy Questions
 Arises from conflict among humans over the
distribution of goods, i.e. conflicts of interest.
 But, it lies in the incompatibility of the actual
goods that human beings seek.
 Ask how to allocate such goods?
 The allocation is the business of politics.
 No policy without politics nor politics without
policy
10
Etiology of Policy Questions
 Policy questions is different from
constitutional, moral questions, and questions
aimed at forming the set of alternatives from
which policies might be selected.
 Policy process involved policy analysis,
formation, decision as well as the political
analysis of policy
11
I. Policy Questions
 Is a request for a fairly stable, but modifiable,
line of action aimed at securing an optimal
adjustment of the conflict between different
goods, all of which must be pursued, but
which, taken together, cannot all be
maximized (Green, 1994).
 Can only be formulated if we can state the set
of values or goods from which the question
arises.
12
Policy Issues
 “Nested” within a set of mutually incompatible values
or goods.
 Consider the issues surrounding the imposition of
UPU’s entrance requirements:
~ Levels of attainment racially or ethnically balanced
~ High academic achievement, and
~ Culturally pluralistic communities
 Maximizing any one of these goods, will inhibit the
advancement of the others.
 The policy problem arises by accepting all aims of
education, and yet they cannot all be maximized.
13
Policy Issues
 No technical solution to policy questions.
 It is practical questions, never theoretical.
 It is a statement of what we should do.
 Information and analyses can improve decision
of action.
 But policy questions can be answered even
without such information.
14
Aspects of Policy Questions
1. Scarcity
2. Conflict of goods
3. Policy, Politics, and Utopia
15
1. Scarcity

Why we need a policy?
1. Increasing the satisfactions available to human
beings – increased productivity
~ can be balanced by abundance.
2. Doing something about their desires – improved
moral and discipline
~ can be made to meet not by the satisfaction of
wants, but by their proper and harmonious
composition.
Thus, one source of policy questions is the mismatch
between human desires and satisfactions
16
2. Conflict of Goods
 Policy questions arise because the goods
that human beings seek to secure in the
world are interdependent and often jointly
discordant
17
3. Policy, Politics, and Utopia
 Human goods (values?) cannot all be present
sufficiently to satisfy human desires.
 They cannot all be maximized.
 They exist even when human interests do not.
 Thus, a need for solution to policy problems in
utopian terms
18
Presuppositions of Policy Questions

Policy questions are different from moral,
constitutional, and research questions:
1. Constraints of time;
~ the answer will be revised
~ have to be answered on time, though the
information needed for the answer is not on
time.
19
Presuppositions of Policy Questions
2. Policy decisions and ethical decisions are
different because policies and moral rules
or principles differ.
~ Policies are drawn from within a set of
alternative actions all of which are either
morally indifferent or capable of evoking
moral approval.
~ Defining the set of policy choices is the
expression of moral conviction and
estimations of value, but selecting from
within that defined set is not.
20
The Policy Process
1. Policy analysis
2. Policy formation
3. Policy decision
4. Political analysis of policy
5. Policy research and evaluation
21
1. Policy Analysis
 The rational or technical assessment of the net
marginal trade-offs between different policy choices.
 To discover a balance between competing values.
 An activity whose theory is the theory of marginal
utilities – exercise rationality.
22
2. Policy Formation
 An activity of gaining agreement on what form a specific
policy can or will take, as opposed to what form it ought
to take.
 Involve conversation, persuasion, argument, endless
meetings.
 Employ governmental management and rhetoric theory.
 Example : at Federal, the theory of inter-agency politics;
– “Don’t fight over turf, just take up space”.
- “For the interest of the nation”.
23
3. Policy Decision
 The authoritative action of some office,
administrative, or legislative by which a line of action
is established.
 Employ the theory of polity, the political and legal
theory by which authority is distributed, obligations for
decision are assigned throughout the structure of
political institutions, and agents of authority are
enjoined to act.
24
4. Political Analysis
 Is concerned with measuring the political
weight of a policy.
 The aim is not so much to determine the net
social benefits of a particular policy, but to
determine its constituency.
 Whether the best thing to do is the same as
the best thing to be done.
 It estimates who will vote for it.
 It employs the theory of political behavior
25
5. Policy Research & Evaluation
 R&E can contribute to each of those activities.
 The rational of policy decision and political
analysis are the standards of political
judgment.
 The exercise of political judgment is a practical
and evaluation activities
 Researcher can involve in these activities in
the context of government.
26
Dilemmas Influencing
the Context of Polity
(Anthony Giddens, The Third Way 1998)
1. Globalization
2. Migration
3. Individualism
4. Political Agency
5. Ecological Problems
27
1. Globalization
Understood as an economic term;
 More countries are involved in mutual trading
 Create economic area that spills national
boundaries
 Expanded role of world financial markets
 Global impact of individual needs
28
Effects of Globalization
 Creates new demands for regenerating local
identities
 Regional and transnational groups contribute
governance
 Transforms the institutions of societies in
which we live – rise of new individualism
29
2. Migration
 Import of new systems of values
 Enculturation of host values
 Unskilled work load to skilled labor ratio
 Education divide
30
3. Individualism
 Associated with retreat of tradition and custom
 New individualism often associated with
pressures of democracy
 Challenge to find new means of production
solidarity and social cohesion
31
4. Political Agency




Representation of diverse interests
Reconcile the competing claims of these interests
Provide diversity of public goods
Regulate markets in public interests and foster market
competition
 Foster social peace through control of the means of
violence and through the provision of policing
 Promote active development of human capital through
education system
 Foster regional and transnational alliance to pursue
global goals
32
5. Ecology




Pollution
Global warming
Sustainable development
Ecological modernization
- science, technology, political will, political censor
- partnership between industries and government
- international agreements
33
Lifelong Learning
 Learning to know: the mastery of learning tools rather
than the acquisition of structured knowledge
 Learning to do: education to equip people to do the
types of work needed in the future
 Learning to live together with others: education to
avoid conflict or peacefully resolve it
 Learning to be: education that contributes to a
person’s complete development
34
Education for the Future
i. Skills and knowledge to prepare for the eventuality of
job diversification and job flexibility. This ensures
resiliency in employability of citizens
ii. Engagement and commitment in active citizenry
roles vis a vis professional activism, community
activism and national agenda activism. This
ensures a high level of citizenry participation
35
Education for the Future
iii. A high tolerance for change. As globalization sets in,
the rapid flow of information precipitates
transformation of life cultures, work cultures,
relationships, and identities.
iv. Integrity of positive values that are receptive of
progress, change, and continuous development. The
result of this enlightenment is the people’ sense of
being empowered in their quest for a better living
36
Social Principles in
Educational Policy Making
 Individual rights
 Unity
 Expansionism
 Utilitarianism
 Diversification
 Entrepreneurialism
37
Individual Rights
 And WHEREAS it is considered desirable that
regard shall be had so far as it is compatible
with policy (National Educational Policy) with
that provision of efficient instruction and
avoidance of unreasonable public
expenditure, to the general principle that
pupils are to be educated in accordance with
the wishes of their parents:
38
Unity
 Education Act 1996 (Act 550)
 An act to provide for education and for matters
connected therewith.
 And WHEREAS education plays a vital role in
achieving the country’s vision of attaining the status
of a fully developed nation in terms of economic
development, social justice, and spiritual, moral and
ethical strength, towards creating a society that is
united, democratic, liberal and dynamic.
39
 And WHEREAS the above (National Educational
Policy) is to be executed through a national system of
education which provides for the national language to
be the main medium of instruction, a National
Curriculum and common examinations, the education
provided being varied and comprehensive in scope
and which will satisfy the needs of the nation as well
as promote national unity through cultural, social,
economic and political development in accordance
with the principles of Rukunegara.
40
Utilitarian, Entrepreneurialism
 And WHEREAS it is the mission to develop a
world class quality education system which
will realize the full potential of the individual
and fulfill the aspiration of the Malaysian
nation
41
Utilitarian, Entrepreneurialisim,
Diversification
 WHEREAS the purpose of education is to
enable the Malaysian society to have a
command of knowledge, skills and values
necessary in a world that is highly competitive
and globalize, arising from the impact of rapid
development in science, technology and
information
42
Polities in Policy Making
Environment
 Populist
 Democratic populist
 Democracy
 Liberal
 Conservative
 Socialist
 Capitalist
 Federalist
43
Populist
 As representative of the people in various
sects and creed
 Preference for local culture and values
 Focused on local needs
 Local employment market
44
Democratic Populist
 Representative of a larger section of the
population sharing similar culture, values,
mission or purpose
 Regional interests
 Exhibit more tolerance and readiness to
accept variations and differences between
culture and values within the group
45
Democracy
 Dominance of the majority
 Representatives from all major and sub groups
 Recognition of individual differences and differing





needs
Equitable development of potential
Dialogical democracy
Guided democracy
Pluralist-democracy (organized interest groups)
Liberal democracy
46
Liberal
 Favor individualism
 Individualist initiative
 Low state control on all fronts
 Difficulty in balancing conservative values in
private lives and market fundamentalism in
employment
47
Conservative





Adherence to a class structure in the system
Hegemony of value systems and culture
Selective opportunities to elite
Privileged authority in decision making
Supports market freedom but wants strong
state control over issues such as the family,
drugs, abortion
48
Socialist
 Obligation to the development of the public
good rather than the individual
 The welfare state instead of open market
competition
 Tight bloc of “self contained” entities
 Faced with challenge to develop new identity
in socially and culturally more diverse
environment
49