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The Interaction Between Jazz and Hip-Hop Music Created by African American Muslims
Muslims in America have often been overlooked, receiving scant attention from
academia. Such a lack of discourse is perplexing given the rich and diverse history of Muslims
in the United States. One group in particular, African American Muslims, have created and
continue to contribute significantly to popular musical genres such as jazz and hip-hop, inventing
new forms of expression that transcend the normative conceptions of music. It is well
documented that many black jazz musicians converted to Islam in the 1950’s, which
simultaneously influenced not only their lifestyle and identity, but also their music. Further,
many hip-hop artists either identify as Muslim, or are influenced by Islam, often incorporating
the ideals and language of Islam in their music; yet, little research has examined these musicians
or their work. Perhaps even more startling is the lack of research detailing the interaction and
extent to which jazz, notably African American Muslim jazz artists, influenced hip-hop music
and the degree to which hip-hop influences jazz. Numerous hip-hop acts utilize jazz samples,
pay homage to jazz musicians, and incorporate the language and aesthetics of Islam in their
work; in addition, jazz musicians often borrow from hip-hop and collaborate with hip-hop artists.
While investigating the IDEALS archive, I discovered that no research projects have examined
the interaction between jazz and hip-hop in the American Muslim community, although a few
projects examined Muslim hip-hop. The aim of this study is to explore and come to a better
understanding of these interactions through use of interviews, oral narratives, and testimonials
with the Urbana-Champaign community, in order to assess the existence and significance of the
relationship between jazz and hip-hop music created by African American Muslims.
Methodology
Eight in-depth interviews were conducted with various members of the UrbanaChampaign community. All of the interviewees were middle to upper-middle class males, five
Caucasians, one African American, and two from mixed racial heritages. Interviews took place
in coffee shops, as well as in the apartments, dorm rooms, and offices of the interviewees.
Interviews spanned anywhere from twenty-five to ninety minutes. Interviewees were selected on
the basis of their considerable knowledge of jazz, hip-hop, or both genres. The aim was to
generate an expert opinion on the interaction between jazz and hip-hop created by African
American Muslims or those influenced by Islam. Unlike other previous research projects in the
IDEALS archive, many of the interviewees in the present study were knowledgeable about
African American Muslim hip-hop music.
Five of the interviewees were undergraduates between the ages of 20 and 22 at the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. One of the undergraduates1, Ben Iliszi, was a jazz
studies major who listens to jazz and hip-hop extensively; another, Phillip Angyal, was a
linguistics major that studied abroad in Cairo, Egypt. He is an avid fan of jazz and hip-hop, is
fluent in Arabic, and is knowledgeable about Islamic culture particularly after his time abroad.
Two of the interviewees, Malik Shorter, a phenomenal drummer, and William Coles, a thoughtprovoking emcee, were childhood friends who are passionate and knowledgeable about jazz and
hip-hop music. These four undergraduates played in a musical group together described as an
eclectic blend of progressive hip-hop and jazz. This musical collective was nominated for best
Hip Hop artist multiple times at the Urbana-Champaign Local Music Awards. Three of these
undergraduates, Iliszi, Shorter, and Coles, were former members of the Urbana-Champaign HipHop Congress, a club organized by University students to celebrate hip-hop music and culture.
1
Those interviewed in this study were given pseudonyms to assure confidentiality.
The last undergraduate, Shawn Shepp, plays in a University sponsored jazz big band and is also
an avid jazz and hip-hop fan. Another interviewee, Pete Schroeder, age 23, is an alumni of the
University, one of the founders of the Urbana-Champaign Hip-Hop Congress, and a Chicagobased hip-hop producer. The two final interviewees were jazz department faculty members
between the ages of 50 and 54, each with extensive knowledge about jazz. One jazz faculty
member, Richard Fillmore, converted to Islam in 1988; the other, David Green, didn’t discuss his
religious views.
African American Muslim Jazz and Hip-Hop Artists
Before investigating the relationship and interaction between jazz and hip-hop created by
African American Muslims, interviewees were asked to name black jazz musicians or hip-hop
artists who are either Muslim or influenced by the tenets of Islam; the interviewees formed a
diversity of responses. Some interviewees, such as jazz studies major Ben Iliszi and emcee and
hip-hop aficionado William Coles, were unable to think of any jazz musicians, although Iliszi
listed a few black Muslim emcees such as Q-Tip from A Tribe Called Quest. Iliszi and Coles
explained their lack of knowledge is likely a result of their listening mostly for secular, political,
or poetic messages. It appears that some jazz and hip-hop fans know of few Muslim artists and
don’t actively listen and attempt to understand Islamic references or themes. This finding may
be the result of an interviewee’s background, what they can relate to, or their disinterest in
learning more about music influenced by religion and spirituality. Other interviewees, such as
the avid jazz and hip-hop fan Shawn Shepp, could recall a number of African American Muslim
jazz musicians, such as Yusef Lateef and Art Blakey, as well as black musicians influenced by
spirituality, such as Pharoah Sanders, John Coltrane, and Dizzy Gillespie. However, Shepp was
unable to recall any Muslim hip-hop artists, explaining that he “can never know who exactly is
Muslim, its not always clear. Hip-hop artists may make Islamic references, but it is hard to know
who is actually a practicing Muslim.”
On the other hand, other interviewees such as Angyal, Shorter, Fillmore, and hip-hop
producer Pete Schroeder had extensive knowledge of African American Muslim hip-hop and
jazz musicians. Jazz musicians listed included Art Blakey, Yusef Lateef, McCoy Tyner, Billy
Higgins, David Williams, Pharoah Sanders, Bobby Watson, and Ahmad Jamal, Ahmad Jamal
being noted by Schroeder as a “pivotal artist in hip-hop culture, inspiring hip-hop producers like
J Dilla and black Muslims such as Ali Shaheed Muhammad and Kamaal Ibn John Fareed (QTip) from A Tribe Called Quest. Hip-hop artists or those influenced by the tenets of Islam listed
included Mos Def, Q-Tip, Everlast, Lupe Fiasco, Rakim, Chuck D, the Wu-Tang Clan, Busta
Rhymes, Brand Nubian, Native Deen, Freeway, and Capital D. Thus, some interviewees had a
substantial amount of knowledge about African American Muslim music and artists, while others
knew of only a few black Muslim musicians.
The Impact of Religion and Spirituality on Jazz Music
Religion and spirituality appear to exert a considerable amount of influence on jazz. A
prime example of such influence is the later works of the brilliantly innovative saxophonist and
composer John Coltrane. Although Coltrane was raised a Christian, he experimented with
numerous religions, including Islam, which greatly influenced albums such as 1965’s A Love
Supreme. A Love Supreme is noted as Coltrane’s personal gift to a higher power, where he
expresses his love for God. The album culminates with the final suite, Psalm, in which he plays
a devotional poem through his tenor saxophone. According to jazz faculty member Richard
Fillmore, “Coltrane took his music to another level, relating his existence to his relationship with
God.” Similarly to Coltrane, Fillmore was raised in a Christian household but later found his
own spiritual direction in Islam. Fillmore believes that “creative people believe they are a
vessel, that the music comes through them. A lot of people attribute that to God.” In his view,
religion and spirituality can positively influence jazz musicians by “finding its way into the
music. Whatever you do in your life; for example, how you interact with others, what goes on
around you, and how you pray is reflective of the music you write, perform, and play.”
However, he also believes that “music doesn’t always have to reflect everything about a person”;
nevertheless, as a devout Muslim, Fillmore believes his avoidance of temptation, faith in God,
and manner in which he lives and interacts with others allows him to express himself through his
music. Thus, his music becomes an extension of his religious and spiritual beliefs.
According to undergraduate Malik Shorter, “spirituality is a huge part of jazz, a genre
that is a lot about freedom of expression. Black musicians at the time, particularly in the 1950’s,
were trying to find an identity. Many jazz musicians either were spiritual or respected religions
such as Islam.” Through Islam a number of black jazz musicians found an identity that,
according to Professor Fillmore, “related to them” and their life experiences. This newfound
Muslim identity in turn impacted their work. Linguistics major Phillip Angyal relates that it is
not always clear how Islam or other religions affect jazz, but believes it influences the music
because it enables artists to incorporate a “new style of playing. African American jazz
musicians such as Yusef Lateef traveled to holy sites and religious spaces, which influenced his
music and inspired new modes and styles.” Akin to many other African American jazz
musicians, Lateef converted to Ahmadiyya Islam in the 1950’s and released albums with titles
such as Eastern Sounds and songs such as Blues for the Orient. Through use of Eastern-tinged
titles as well as double reed instruments such as oboe and bassoon, Lateef was able to blend
Eastern music with American jazz, thereby “creating a sound that he was trying to recreate,” said
Angyal.
The Impact of Religion and Spirituality on Hip-Hop Music
Religion and spirituality also seem to influence hip-hop in ways similar to and different
from the way it impacts jazz. Some of the interviewees were uncertain about how religion
influences hip-hop; for example, William Coles doesn’t “really pay attention to Islamic
references in hip-hop, they pass over my head. I don’t read the Bible or the Qur’an so I can’t
really say.” Instead, Coles generally “looks for secular, political, or poetic messages.” Malik
Shorter said, “I’m not really sure. Hip-hop is an extension of jazz music and is predominately an
African American art form like jazz. Perhaps hip-hop artists use Islamic references and imagery
to maintain that old school jazz flavor.” What Shorter means is, it may be the case that hip-hop
artists interact with jazz music created by African American Muslims by throwing Islamic
references in their rhymes in order to connect with their heritage and community (as jazz
musicians did), as well as to “keep with tradition, maintain styles, and give props to Muslim jazz
musicians who came before them.” As African American jazz musicians began experimenting
with religions such as Islam, their music reflected their new beliefs. Hip-hop artists could
possibly be emulating or “giving props to” to African American Muslim jazz musicians by
incorporating some level of spiritual thought, Islamic references, in their music. Therefore, jazz
and hip-hop music created by black Muslims or those influenced by Islam do appear to interact
with one another. According to Fillmore, each genre offers “a form of flattery to the Muslim
community, acknowledging and relating itself to Islamic culture.” Further, Angyal relates that
there are a “disgusting amount of jazz samples used in hip-hop.” Hip-hop producers such as Pete
Rock, DJ Premier, Ali Shaheed Muhammad, and numerous others sample jazz extensively in
their music, redefining jazz and creating a uniquely vibrant sound. Some of these samples could
have been acquired from Muslim jazz musicians and may be used by black Muslim hip-hop acts.
Angyal believes that religion, particularly Islam, impacts hip-hop notably in the “subtle
Islamic references” that find their way into hip-hop lyrics. For example, legendary hip-hop
artists such as A Tribe Called Quest, Mos Def, the Wu-Tang Clan, Public Enemy, Rakim, as well
as modern rapper Lupe Fiasco frequently reference the language of Islam in their work. Two
members of A Tribe Called Quest are Sunni Muslims, as is Mos Def and Lupe Fiasco; Rakim is
a 5 percenter, Chuck D of Public Enemy is said to have started off in the Nation of Islam before
gradually shifting towards mainstream Islam, and members of the Wu-Tang Clan are said to
have affiliations with The Nation of Gods and Earths. From Mos Def reciting “Bismillah ir
Rahman ir Raheem” at the beginning of the track Fear Not of Man to Wu-Tang Clan member
GZA subtly referencing an Islamic holy city, “I’m deep down in the back streets in the heart of
Medina, about to see off something more deep than a misdemeanor,” in the song Gold, hip-hop
is infused with Islamic references. What do these references suggest?
Jazz studies major Ben Iliszi thinks that “Islamic themes are used in hip-hop and jazz to
display exoticism, to provide a gateway to another world” for both the artist and the listener.
Black Muslim jazz musicians like Yusef Lateef used exotic, alluring, and unfamiliar sounds in
his music starting in the 1950’s, just as many African American Muslim conscious hip-hop
artists do. Using unfamiliar concepts from other cultures can potentially attract an audience
because it “just sounds cool,” said Iliszi, and also provides musicians with an identity regardless
of whether they are practicing Muslims. Although it is difficult to conclude that a direct
connection exists between jazz and hip-hop musicians who draw from Islam, it seems plausible
that because the two genres share many qualities and inspirations, they interact and influence one
another.
An additional way in which religion and spirituality can impact hip-hop (as well as jazz)
is what Pete Schroeder refers to as, “bringing forth a community.” Schroeder believes that
“religion draws people together, just as music does.” The communal aspect of religion, bringing
people together to eat, pray, and work towards a higher goal “goes hand-in-hand with hip-hop
and jazz.” Angyal agrees, adding that both jazz and hip-hop are “purely expressive forms of
music that often interact. They speak to their own community as well as the greater community,
transmitting messages and commenting on their surroundings.” Thus, a community and common
interests often emerges through religion, which manifests itself in genres such as hip-hop and
jazz. Through Islam, African American musicians could come together, become active in their
community, and inspire others to “seek truth,” said Professor Fillmore.
Fillmore further asserts that by adhering to Islamic doctrine, jazz and hip-hop artists “tell
a story, a beginning, a middle, and an end where they are able to reflect upon their existence”
through their craft. Both jazz and hip-hop share this communal characteristic, further reinforcing
an interaction and relationship between African American Muslim jazz and hip-hop, based on
what Schroeder terms “intellect, faith, and consciousness.” This can be observed in the number
of black jazz musicians who converted to Islam and became prominent members of the
Ahmadiyya community in the 1950’s; it can also be seen in the collectives formed by black hiphop artists (some of them Muslim). For example, The Ummah, a hip-hop music production
made up of Muslims Q-Tip and Ali Shaheed Muhammad of A Tribe Called Quest, and J Dilla of
Slum Village. Notably, Ummah means “community” or “nation” in Arabic.
Why Black Jazz and Hip-Hop Artists Converted to Islam
A range of responses was collected when interviewees were questioned about why
African American jazz and hip-hop artists converted to Islam and the purpose Islam served.
Similar to the replies given concerning which artists were Muslim, some interviewees, such as
Iliszi, had no opinion on the matter. Coles was also unsure, at least initially, but later offered a
response. However, the common response found throughout the interviews was that Islam
afforded African Americans, a historically stigmatized group, the opportunity to seek truth but
also find an identity within a religion that, according to Professor Fillmore is “not limited to one
ethnicity or cultural group, it doesn’t matter what your background is. Islam, like jazz, is
inclusive.” Many interviewees felt that African American jazz musicians in the 1950’s
converted to Islam in order to escape oppression from a time characterized by a high degree of
racial strife and civil unrest. Blacks were frequently discriminated against in society, and
according to Shorter, one way for blacks to overcome repression was to convert, which could
“blur the color line, so that African Americans were not considered black anymore.” Jazz faculty
member David Green agreed, saying “black musicians converted for cultural reasons, to shed the
last vestiges of slavery. Islam became a way to shed segregation and uplift African Americans.”
Perhaps this provided blacks a greater degree of acceptance by the dominant culture, as African
Americans were able to distance themselves from negative stereotypes and according to
Schroeder, “be seen as respectable, conversion was a way to separate oneself and be unique.”
These issues also relate to the communal aspect of Islam and its influence on musicians;
for example, black jazz musicians joining Ahmadiyya Islam gave African Americans “strength
in numbers during times of oppression,” said Schroeder. Conversion provided a viable
alternative where, according to Coles, blacks could “re-represent themselves to the mainstream
culture, reclaim their identity, and give voice to a marginalized population.” Are these
alternatives not relatable to the problems facing blacks and other minorities today? Although
progress has been made, groups such as African Americans still encounter discrimination.
Perhaps it is the case that some black hip-hop artists converted to Islam for reasons similar to
why African American jazz musicians converted. “There are a lot of different reasons why
people find religion; for example, disillusionment with economic conditions, cultural reasons,
and gaining connection with a group,” said Fillmore. It is possible that hip-hop artists also
sought Islam in order to fulfill such needs. As Green says, “we are still dealing with these
issues,” and could be a factor as to why African American jazz and hip-hop artists converted and
continue to convert to Islam. Again, Islam is a very egalitarian, inclusive religion; such values
are of particular value to historically ostracized groups like African Americans. In my view,
Islam provides African Americans some level of comfort; particularly, the potentiality of
overcoming marginalization and the ability to form an identity that connects with one’s “roots,
history, and culture,” said Angyal.
Relationship and Interaction between Jazz and Hip-Hop Created by Black Muslims
It is apparent that jazz has influenced hip-hop. Whether influencing hip-hop musically,
culturally, and stylistically, “jazz holds a foundation for hip-hop,” said Shorter, hip-hop evolved
out of genres such as jazz, funk, soul, and blues. Both jazz and hip-hop have flow, are organic,
have what Professor Green calls an “improvisatory element,” and are predominately African
American revolutionary forms of music. Both genres gave and continue to give voice to a
marginalized population; young African Americans with few resources were able to “get what
they could, what they could afford. For example, a cheap saxophone in the 1950’s, or a turntable
in the 1980’s. African Americans mastered these instruments at a young age, and it sold, they
were able to make money,” said Shepp (hence albums such as Eric B. and Rakim’s Paid in Full).
Yet again, an interaction is evident, both hip-hop and jazz started off as music that youth sought
to perform at a high level, in order to “produce good art and build a cultural community.”
The genres revolutionized music and put a continually ostracized minority, African
Americans, on wax. Jazz (particularly be-bop) and hip-hop (gangsta rap and other forms) were
initially scrutinized and dismissed by society because of their association with black culture, as
well as how different and forward thinking they were. Jazz samples can be heard in countless
hip-hop records, so much so that Pete Schroeder thinks that “there is no measurement of the
degree to which jazz has influenced hip-hop. Jazz helped hip-hop create a new sound.” Further,
cultural factors associated with jazz such as style, dress, and language have also inspired and
interacted with hip-hop artists. For example, slang used by jazz musicians, such as “man, what
you played with those cats was so killin,” arguably could have had an effect on hip-hop artists
known for their distinctive slang, groups such as the Wu-Tang Clan and Public Enemy. Hip-hop
has also impressively influenced jazz, according to Shorter, “going full circle. Today, jazz music
has taken on more of a hip-hop feel. Artists such as Charlie Hunter have collaborated with Mos
Def, Kurt Rosenwinkel has played on Q-Tip’s 2008 album The Renaissance, and Ron Carter
collaborated with A Tribe Called Quest for the song Verses From The Abstract.”
Although it is clear that African American jazz and hip-hop influence one another,
interviewees had difficulty describing an interaction between individuals influenced by Islam in
jazz and hip-hop music. Most were sure an interaction existed, “a special interaction, but I’m not
exactly sure what it is,” said Shorter. Muslim jazz faculty member Fillmore concurred, he said,
“it’s a good question. I’m sure there is some connection, just not a direct connection I can think
of.” Shepp and Coles were also unable to formulate a response, claiming that they don’t know
enough about Islam and other contextual elements. A few interviewees believed that such an
interaction would be subjective, especially if one lacks knowledge about the context surrounding
jazz, hip-hop, and Islam. However, I was surprised to find that despite the interviewees’
inability to answer my inquiry about the interaction between black Muslim jazz and hip-hop,
many indirectly answered the question when responding to earlier questions I posited. An
interaction does seem to exist; for example, African American jazz and hip-hop artists likely
converted to Islam for similar reasons, to escape oppression, form an identity, and find truth in a
time where blacks still receive unequal treatment. This connection runs deep, young black jazz
and hip-hop artists formed communities that provided a viable alternative to the dominant
mainstream culture. According to Shorter, “Christianity is associated with dominant culture, and
racism often plays a part of that culture.” What Shorter is relaying is that perhaps African
American jazz and hip-hop musicians sought refuge in a religion like Islam because it was a
better fit, an ideology permitting them to “reclaim their identity and historical past.” As many of
the interviewees described, Islam served a purpose for many black jazz musicians in the 1950’s
as well as modern African American hip-hop artists; Islam is not limited to one ethnicity, and as
such, is inclusive, allows blacks to overcome obstacles and oppression, as well as the residual
effects of slavery and segregation. Although one may not directly observe this interaction, hiphop and jazz are derived from a similar foundation.
Jazz and hip-hop created by African American Muslims or those influenced by the tenets
of Islam also affect one another because they both comment on the surrounding world. Perhaps
this is why jazz and hip-hop artists (some of them Muslim) collaborate, to join together (thus
forming a community) to express themselves and transmit messages to society. Therefore,
Muslim jazz and hip-hop artists express themselves through Islam, making references to their
faith and incorporating Islamic doctrine in their playing. As Professor Fillmore stated earlier,
Islam influenced black musicians and enabled them to use their spirituality to positively impact
their work. Muslim hip-hop artists interact with Muslim jazz musicians (directly or indirectly)
when they use Islamic references, give props to jazz, and maintain a cultural tradition. This
cultural tradition continues to bring people together, producing a communal effect both
spiritually and musically. Similar to the way in which Islam promotes community, the music
created by African American Muslim jazz and hip-hop artists also engages the community.
Whether engaging in a jam session, collaborating with musicians from different genres, or using
music to transmit messages and promote community involvement and activism, Islam similarly
impacts jazz and hip-hop music. Thus, an indirect interaction does exist, an interaction that will
undoubtedly impact future generations of young, black jazz and hip-hop artists. According to
Shorter, “music created by black Muslim jazz musicians was often a response to the Civil Rights
Movement and oppression, just as hip-hop created by African American Muslims is often a
response to current day issues” that are the result of residual racial problems. Although it is
difficult to pinpoint an exact interaction between jazz and hip-hop music created by African
American Muslims, the two genres have a great degree of commonalities, so much so that it is
nearly impossible to dismiss the notion that they are not somehow linked.
Conclusion
Research focusing on the unique experiences of Muslims in the United States has been
lacking, particularly African American Muslims and their contributions to popular art forms such
as jazz and hip-hop music. These individuals as well as their larger communities are in need of
examination. The aim of this study was to inspect African American music influenced by the
tenets of Islam, as well as to discover if an interaction exists (as well its extent) between jazz and
hip-hop music created by black Muslims. Jazz appears to greatly influence hip-hop, and hip-hop
appears to greatly influence jazz. Interviews were conducted with an assortment of members of
the Urbana-Champaign community who were very knowledgeable about jazz and hip-hop.
Interviewees maintained that spirituality and religion impact jazz and hip-hop, that Islam served
and continues to serve a purpose for African Americans, and an interaction likely exists between
individuals influenced by Islam in jazz and hip-hop. Although such an interaction is complicated
and difficult to describe, an association between the genres seems probable given the shared
history and culture of African Americans in the United States.