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Transcript
Earth Science SOL Review You should know this vocabulary for each unit! Introduction to Earth Science Unit • The outermost surface of the Earth; the 2 types are continental and oceanic • Crust • Found between the crust and core of the Earth; convection currents occur here • Mantle • Center of the Earth made of iron and nickel; outer part is a liquid while the inner part is a solid • Core • Upper part of mantle and the crust; broken into slabs called tectonic plates • Lithosphere • Plastic layer of the mantle that the lithosphere rides on; moves at the rate your fingernails grow • Asthenosphere • The shape of the land • Topography • A line on a topographic map that represents a constant elevation; when they are close together it represents a steep slope • Contour Line • The difference in elevation from one contour line to another; a large interval would be used for mountainous areas • Contour Interval • The amount of space on object takes up; units of cm3 or mL; can be determined using water displacement • Volume • The amount of matter in an object; does NOT depend on gravity; measured using grams • Mass • A measure of the gravitational force exerted by an object; depends on gravity • Weight • How compact an object is; calculated as mass divided by volume; units of g/mL or g/cm3 • Density • Lines that run east-west and measure north and south of the equator; called parallels • Latitude • Lines that run north-south and measure east and west of the prime meridian • Longitude • The factors that do not change during an experiment; in the Myth Busters episode this would have included things like the speed of the car • Constants • This is the trial that all the others trials are compared to (or the baseline); in the Myth Busters episode this was the car’s fuel economy without drafting behind a semi • Control • This is the variable that is controlled or manipulated in an experiment; in the Myth Busters episode this was the distance the car was behind the semi • Independent variable • This is the variable that changes as the independent variable changes; in the Myth Busters episode it was the fuel economy (or mpg) of the car while drafting behind the semi • Dependent variable Earth’s Resources Unit • A subatomic particle with a positive charge; located in the nucleus of an atom • Proton • A subatomic particle with no charge; located in the nucleus of an atom • Neutron • A subatomic particle with a negative charge; located in the electron cloud of an atom • Electron • An atom that gains or loses one or more electrons and has a charge • Ion • An atom with a different number of neutrons than atoms of the same element; example is carbon-14 (has 2 more neutrons than carbon12) • Isotope • An object that is inorganic and naturally occurring; also contains crystals and has a consistent internal composition • Mineral • One of the most common silicate minerals that comes in many different colors; used to make glass • Quartz • The mineral that effervesces, or bubbles, in acid; the mineral that makes up limestone • Calcite • The name given to minerals that have basal cleavage (meaning they split into sheets); includes biotite and muscovite • Mica • The property in which a mineral bubbles in acid; responsible for the formation of caves and sinkholes • Effervescence • The way a mineral reflects light; examples include metallic and glassy • Luster • When a mineral breaks into flat planes; biotite and muscovite exhibit this property • Cleavage • When a mineral breaks unevenly; quartz exhibits this property • Fracture • When a mineral glows under ultraviolet (UV) light; fluorite exhibits this property • Fluorescence • Mineral property involving a scratch test; scale of 1-10 with talc being a 1 and diamond being a 10 • Hardness • The powdered form of a mineral; pyrite, or fool’s gold, exhibits this property • Streak • The process by which rocks change from one type of rock to another • Rock Cycle • Rock formed by the cooling and crystallizing of magma/lava; examples include granite, basalt, pumice, and obsidian • Igneous Rock • Rock formed by the compaction and cementation of sediments; examples include sandstone, shale, conglomerate, and limestone • Sedimentary Rock • Particles formed by the weathering of rocks • Sediments • Type of rock that forms when rock is changed by heat and pressure; examples include marble, quartzite, and gneiss • Metamorphic Rock • Forms when rock melts; molten rock • Magma • Type of igneous rock that forms when magma cools slowly beneath Earth’s surface; rocks have large crystals or coarse texture; example is granite • Intrusive Igneous Rock • Type of igneous rock that forms when lava cools quickly at Earth’s surface; rock has small/no crystals or fine texture; examples include pumice and obsidian • Extrusive Igneous Rock • Metamorphic rock property in which the minerals separate into bands or layers; examples include slate and gneiss • Foliation • Metamorphic rock property in which minerals do NOT separate into bands or layers; examples include marble and quartzite • Nonfoliated • The process in which sediment, such as sand, is laid down in a river, lake, or ocean • Deposition • When the pore space between sediments becomes less and less • Compaction • The process in which sediments are glued together to form a sedimentary rock • Cementation • An organic sedimentary rock formed from ancient swamps and forests • Coal • Type of sedimentary rock that contains the mineral calcite; can form from the shells of marine organisms • Limestone • A very common intrusive igneous rock; commonly used for counter tops • Granite • Type of sedimentary rock that is made up of fragments of other rocks; includes sandstone, conglomerate, and shale • Clastic sedimentary rock • The type of energy that uses a dam • Hydroelectric power • The type of energy that uses heat within the Earth; oftentimes located near plate boundaries • Geothermal power • The type of energy that uses energy from the Sun • Solar power • The type of energy that is renewed within a human lifetime; includes solar, wind, geothermal, and hydroelectric power • Renewable energy • The type of energy that takes a very long time to form; often uses fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas; includes nuclear power and coal burning power plants • Nonrenewable energy • A form of energy that uses radioactive isotopes such as uranium; uses the process of nuclear fission, or the splitting of a nucleus • Nuclear Power • A renewable energy source that uses wind turbines • Wind Power History of the Earth Unit • Law that says that older sedimentary rocks are on the bottom • Law of superposition • Law that says that a fault or igneous intrusion is younger than any layer it cuts through • Law of cross-cutting relationships • The age of an object, such as a rock layer, relative to the ages of layers around it • Relative age • The numeric age of an object, such as a rock; determined using radiometric dating • Absolute age • The remains, impression, or other evidence of an organism preserved in rock; nearly always preserved in sedimentary rock • Fossil • The fossil of an organism that can be used to date rock layers; these organisms were found all over Earth at one time but then went extinct; an example is trilobites • Index fossil • A way to determine the absolute age of rocks by comparing the amount of parent isotopes to the amount of daughter isotopes • Radiometric dating • A type of radiometric dating that uses Carbon14; used to date organic things, such as wooly mammoths and bones • Carbon dating • The amount of time it takes for half of the parent isotope to decay into the daughter isotope • Half life • The process in which minerals in groundwater replace the organic material of an object; example is petrified wood • Petrification • The longest unit of geologic time; divided into eras • Eon • The unit of geologic time that is divided into periods; examples include Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic • Era • Unit of geologic time that is shorter than an era but longer than an epoch; examples include the Jurassic and the Quaternary • Period Plate Tectonics Unit • The theory that states that the supercontinent, Pangaea, split apart and the continents drifted to their current locations • Continental drift • The process by which tectonic plates are pushed apart at a mid-ocean ridge • Sea floor spreading • The theory that states that large pieces of lithosphere move around on the surface of the Earth at different speeds and directions • Plate tectonics • Where one plate goes under another • Subduction zone • A deep hole in the ocean crust that forms at a subduction zone • Trench • A chain of volcanic islands that form above a subduction zone; examples include the Aleutian and Marianas Islands • Island arc volcanoes • Waves generated by earthquakes • Seismic waves • The fastest moving seismic waves; also called primary waves • P waves • The second seismic wave to arrive at a seismograph station; called secondary waves • S waves • Seismic waves that travel on the surface of the Earth • Surface waves • The point along a fault where the initial slip takes place during an earthquake • Focus • The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake • Epicenter • Plate boundary where two plates are colliding; this type of boundary was responsible for forming the Appalachian Mountains in VA • Convergent boundary • Plate boundary where two plates are pulling away from each other; example is the MidAtlantic Ridge • Divergent boundary • Plate boundary where two plates are sliding past each other; example is the San Andreas Fault in California • Transform boundary • A fracture in Earth’s crust where rocks slide past each other • Fault • A bend in Earth’s crust; examples include anticlines (A-shaped) and synclines (U-shaped) • Fold • The sudden return of land to its undeformed (or original) shape; happens during an earthquake • Elastic rebound • The difference in arrival time between P waves and S waves; used to determine how far away an earthquake occurred • Lag time • Mountains formed when two continents collide; examples include Himalayas and Appalachians • Folded mountains • a spot located over a mantle plume that remains volcanically active; does not have to be near a plate boundary; example is Hawaii • Hot spot • Super hot rock material shot out of a volcano • Pyroclastic material • Physiographic region of VA made up of mostly sediment; contains swamps and estuaries; flat topography • Coastal Plain (or Tidewater) • Physiographic region of VA located between the Valley and Ridge and Piedmont; contains rugged igneous and metamorphic rocks that are over 1 billion years old • Blue Ridge Mountains • Physiographic region of VA characterized by caves and sinkholes in the limestone (karst topography) • Valley and Ridge • Physiographic region of VA that contains our state’s most abundant natural resource, coal • Appalachian Plateau Weathering and Erosion Unit • Dark, organic matter found on top of the soil • Humus • Large chunks of weathered bedrock; found on the Earth and on the surface of the moon • Regolith • Rock found underneath the soil layers • Bedrock • The rock from which the soil forms; it is oftentimes the bedrock underneath the soil • Parent rock • The ability of water to flow through a material • Permeability • The percentage of pore space in a rock or sediment • Porosity • The top of the zone of saturation; or the upper surface of an aquifer; will rise and fall with rain and drought • Water table • A body of rock or sediment that can hold or allow the flow of groundwater • Aquifer • A dip in the water table that forms due to the pumping of a well • Cone of depression • Groundwater zone where the pore space is completely filled with water • Zone of saturation • Groundwater zone where the pore space is mostly filled with air; located above the water table • Zone of aeration • Fan-shaped deposit of sediment that forms where a river enters a larger body of water; example is where the Mississippi River enters the Gulf of Mexico • Delta • A fan-shaped deposit of sediment that forms at the base of a mountain • Alluvial fan • The term for land that has a lot of caves, caverns, and sinkholes; limestone is the rock found in these areas; the Valley and Ridge region of Virginia • Karst topography • Rain, sleet, snow, hail, etc. • Precipitation • When water vapor turns into water; occurs when temperature drops below the dew point • Condensation • When water turns into water vapor • Evaporation • The natural flow of water onto Earth’s surface where the water table touches the surface • Spring • An area of land where all of the water drains to the same place; separated by divides, such as mountain ridges • Watershed • A large sheet of ice found in very tall mountains; found in the Rockies, Andes, Himalayas, and the Alps; carves out a Ushaped valley • Alpine glacier Oceanography Unit • A mountain under the ocean formed over a hot spot • Seamount • The flattest regions on Earth; located on the ocean floor • Abyssal plains • The part of the continent that is underwater; located between the shoreline and the deep ocean basin; includes the continental shelf and the continental slope • Continental margin • The wedge-shaped deposit of sediments at the bottom of the continental slope • Continental rise • A flow of sediment that moves from the continental shelf down the continental slope to the deep ocean; can carve out submarine canyons; responsible for forming the continental rise • Turbidity current • Locating how deep or far away something is using sound waves; used to make topographic maps of the ocean floor • Sonar • A mountain range located on the ocean floor; extends for 40,000 miles; site of sea floor spreading; form at divergent boundaries; youngest ocean crust found here • Mid-ocean ridge • A large wave created by underwater earthquakes or landslides; also called a tidal wave, but NOT caused by the moon’s gravitational pull • Tsunami • Movement of nutrient rich water from the bottom of the ocean to the surface; very important for ocean plants and animals on the continental shelf • Upwelling • A measure of how salty the water is • Salinity • The rise and fall of water level caused by the gravitational pull of the moon (and to a lesser extent the gravitational pull of the Sun) • Tides Weather Unit • The study of Earth’s atmosphere, including the weather • Meteorology • The amount of energy absorbed or released when water changes phases • Latent heat • The movement of matter caused by differences in density; caused by temperature differences; occurs in mantle, ocean, and atmosphere • Convection • The transfer of energy or heat when objects or molecules come into direct contact • Conduction • The transfer of energy through electromagnetic waves; does not require any matter; the main form of energy transfer in the upper atmosphere where air molecules are very spread out • Radiation • The curving of wind due to Earth’s rotation; it’s what causes storms to rotate CCW in the northern hemisphere and CW in the southern hemisphere • Coriolis effect • Global wind belt located between the equator and 30o North and South; winds blow east to west • Trade winds • Global wind belt located between 30o and 60o latitude; located in the northern and southern hemisphere; winds blow west to east • Westerlies • Global wind belt located between 60o latitude and the poles; located in both the northern and southern hemisphere; winds blow east to west (like in the trade winds) • Polar easterlies • Layer of the atmosphere closest to the surface where temperature decreases with height • Troposphere • The second layer of the atmosphere located above the troposphere where temperature increases with height; contains the ozone layer • Stratosphere • The third layer of the atmosphere where temperature decreases with height; the coldest layer of the atmosphere; this is also the name for the lower part of Earth’s mantle • Mesosphere • The outermost layer of the atmosphere where temperature increases with height; contains the ionosphere and the exosphere • Thermosphere • Part of Earth’s atmosphere where auroras exist; lower part of the thermosphere • Ionosphere • A brilliant light display caused by solar wind interacting with air molecules in Earth’s upper atmosphere; located above the north and south poles • Aurora • A molecule made up of 3 oxygen atoms (O3); found in the stratosphere; absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation • Ozone • A molecule that was commonly found in hairsprays and refrigerants; destroys ozone and is responsible for the ozone hole; short for chlorofluorocarbons • CFCs • Where two air masses collide • Front • Large body of air with a uniform temperature and humidity; examples are continental polar (cP) and maritime tropical (mT) • Air mass • Type of front where cold air advances into warm air; symbol is spikes or triangles on a weather map; cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms are created • Cold front • Type of front where warm air slowly advances into cold air; symbol is red semi-circles on the weather map; steady rain is common; low level nimbostratus clouds are created • Warm front • Type of front created when air masses of similar density collide; the front stalls and steady rain can fall in an area for days; symbol is triangles and semi-circles on opposite sides • Stationary front • Type of front in which cold air overtakes warm air; can create very violent weather; symbol is triangles and semi-circles on the same side • Occluded front • A towering thunderstorm cloud; associated with cold fronts; can also be created on hot summer days due to convection (hot air rising and condensing) • Cumulonimbus cloud • Cotton ball clouds • Cumulus clouds • Low level sheet like clouds • Stratus clouds • Highest altitude clouds found at the top of the troposphere; made of ice crystals • Cirrus clouds • Temperature at which the rates of condensation and evaporation are equal; dew and clouds form below this temperature • Dew point • The process in which a solid turns directly into a gas; an example is snow turning into water vapor • Sublimation • The process in which Earth’s atmosphere acts like the glass in a greenhouse and traps heat; keeps the Earth’s surface warm; Earth would be an ice ball without it • Greenhouse effect • The gradual increase in Earth’s average temperature due to the addition of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide; caused by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and gas • Global warming • Caused by the uneven heat distribution at Earth’s surface • Wind • Wind blowing during the daytime from the ocean towards the land • Sea breeze • Wind blowing at nighttime from the land towards the ocean • Land breeze • Wind blowing during the daytime from the valley up the mountain; eagles and hawks soar on this • Valley breeze • Cold wind blowing down the mountain side; usually stronger at night during the wintertime • Mountain breeze • Day to day changes in atmospheric conditions • Weather • The typical weather patterns for a given location over a period of several years; determined by latitude, elevation, proximity to bodies of water (such as an ocean), and position relative to mountains; examples are polar, temperate, and tropical • Climate • A narrow, violent funnel-shaped column of spiral winds • Tornado • A tropical cyclone (counterclockwise movement of air) characterized by sustained winds of 75 mph or greater; called cyclones and typhoons in other areas of the world • Hurricane Astronomy Unit • A saying to remember the order of the planets (Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune) • My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Nachos • Earth’s twin; has the runaway greenhouse effect • Venus • The first four planets of our solar system; made up of mostly solid rock • Terrestrial planets • The outer four planets of our solar system that have massive gaseous atmospheres; made up of mostly hydrogen and helium • Gas giants • A ring of rocky material located between Mars and Jupiter; separates the inner and outer planets • Asteroid belt • A ring of rocky and icy material located outside the orbit of Neptune • Kuiper Belt • A rocky, icy body with a very eccentric orbit and a tail; its tail always points away from the Sun because of solar wind • Comet • A rocky object that burns up in the Earth’s atmosphere; also called a shooting star • Meteor • A meteor that reaches and strikes Earth’s surface; usually very small but can be large; leading theory for why the dinosaurs went extinct 65 million years ago • Meteorite • Caused by Earth’s tilt of 23.5o • Seasons • When the Earth is tilted as far north or south as possible; marks the first day of summer and winter; around June 21st and December 21st • Solstice • When the sun is over the celestial equator; marks the first day of spring and fall; around March 21st and September 21st • Equinox • Type of tide that occurs twice a month during full and new moons when the Sun, moon, and Earth are aligned; responsible for a very large tidal range • Spring tide • Type of tide that occurs twice a month during 1st quarter and 3rd quarter moons; the Sun and moon pull at a right angle relative to Earth, partially cancelling each other’s pulls; responsible for a very small tidal range • Neap tide • When the moon casts a shadow on the Earth and our view of the Sun is blocked; can happen when there is a new moon; the corona of the Sun can be seen • Solar eclipse • When the Earth casts a shadow on a full moon; the moon appears blood red • Lunar eclipse • The center of the Earth or Sun (and other planets and stars) where pressure and temperature are highest; nuclear fusion occurs here in stars • Core • When lighter elements combine to form larger elements; hydrogen combines to form helium in the core of stars • Fusion • The surface of the Sun; the part of the Sun that we see • Photosphere • The outermost layer of the Sun that can be seen during a total solar eclipse • Corona • Dark spots on the photosphere of the Sun; relatively cooler than the rest of the photosphere; 11-year cycle where more of these appear due to Sun’s magnetic field being stronger • Sunspots • Charged particles (or ions) leaving the surface of the sun; causes the tail of a comet to point away from the sun; also responsible for auroras • Solar wind • Theory that says that the Sun, planets, and everything else in our solar system formed from one cloud of gas and dust about 4.6 billion years ago • Solar nebula theory • Theory that states that everything in our Universe started out at a single point about 14 billion years ago; event would have been similar to a massive supernova; evidence for this theory is a red shift in stars and galaxies and cosmic background radiation (or leftover debris from the explosion) • Big Bang Theory • The apparent shortening or stretching of a wave that occurs as a star travels towards (blue shift) or away from (red shift) Earth • Doppler effect • The apparent stretching of the wavelength of light as a star (or galaxy) travels away from Earth; tells us that the Universe is expanding; used as evidence for the Big Bang Theory • Red shift • The apparent shift in a star’s position as the Earth revolves around the Sun; the more the star appears to shift, the closer it is to Earth; can be used to determine a star’s distance from Earth • Parallax • The actual brightness of a star; also called a star’s luminosity; Sun’s is average • Absolute magnitude • How bright a star appears from Earth; depends on the star’s absolute magnitude and its distance from Earth; Sun’s is the brightest because it is so much closer than any other star • Apparent magnitude • A cloud of gas and dust; all stars start out as this • Nebula • A concentrated disk of matter that forms when gravity pulls a nebula together; can turn into a main sequence star if it gets hot enough for fusion to begin • Protostar • Star that forms once nuclear fusion begins in the core; located in a diagonal band on the HR Diagram; can be red, yellow, orange, white, or blue; red stars are cooler and burn longer than blue stars • Main sequence star • Large, cool star that stars the size of our Sun become after the main sequence stage • Red giant • A small, yet hot, star; the leftover core of a star; form after the red giant stage; our Sun will eventually become one of these • White dwarf • A white dwarf that has cooled down and no longer gives off any light; our Sun, and other small stars, will end its life as one of these • Black dwarf • A very large but relatively cool star; larger than a red giant; blue main sequence stars will eventually swell to form this • Red supergiant • A large explosion in space; occurs during the collapse of a red supergiant • Supernova • A very dense star that forms when gravity collapses on a red supergiant and smashes the matter into neutrons • Neutron star • A single point of infinite density; occurs when the largest stars in the Universe collapse; an object so dense that not even light can escape its gravity • Black hole • A diagram that plots all stars based on how bright they are (their luminosity or absolute magnitude) and how hot they are (their temperature) • Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram • A collection of billions of stars; there are at least a billion of these scattered across the Universe; the 3 types are spiral, elliptical, and irregular • Galaxy • We are located in one of the arms of this galaxy; it is a spiral galaxy; a black hole may be located at its center; made up of 100 billion stars • Milky Way Galaxy • What you are going to do to the SOL • Dominate!