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Psychology 2e
Chapter 5
Development Across
the Life Span
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Module 11
TOPICS IN DEVELOPMENT
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Learning Objectives
11.1 Understand methods used to study development.
11.2
Describe the issues of continuity/discontinuity and stability/change.
11.3
Describe how environmental and biological factors interact in development.
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Table 11.1: A Comparison of Three
Developmental Research Designs
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Developmental Research Designs (1 of 5)
Learning Objective 11.1: Understand methods used to study development.
• Human development: the scientific study of the
changes that occur in people as they age from
conception until death
• The participants who are exposed to the
independent variable in any experiment should be
randomly assigned to the different experimental
conditions
• Disadvantage
– The age of the people in the study should always be an
independent variable, but people cannot be randomly
assigned to different age groups
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Developmental Research Designs (2 of 5)
Learning Objective 11.1: Understand methods used to study development.
• Special designs used in researching age-related
changes
– Longitudinal design
– Cross-sectional design
– Cross-sequential design
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Developmental Research Designs (3 of 5)
Learning Objective 11.1: Understand methods used to study development.
• Longitudinal design: research design in which one
participant or group of participants is studied over
a long period of time
– Advantage: looks at real age-related changes as those
changes occur in the same individuals
– Disadvantages: the lengthy amount of time, money,
and effort involved in following participants over the
years as well as the loss of participants when they
move away, lose interest, or die
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Developmental Research Designs (4 of 5)
Learning Objective 11.1: Understand methods used to study development
• Cross-sectional design: research design in which
several different age groups of participants are
studied at one particular point in time
– Advantages: quick, relatively inexpensive, and easier
to accomplish than the longitudinal design
– Disadvantage: one is no longer comparing changes in
the same individuals as they age; instead, individuals
of different ages are being compared to one another
– Cohort effect: impact on development when a group of
people share a common time period or life experience
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Developmental Research Designs (5 of 5)
Learning Objective 11.1: Understand methods used to study development.
• Cross-sequential design: research design in which
participants are first studied by means of a crosssectional design but also followed and assessed
for a period of no more than six years
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Areas of Developmental Psychology (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 11.2: Describe the issues of continuity/discontinuity and stability/change.
• The big questions of developmental psychology
– Continuity or discontinuity: does development happen
in a smooth, continuous progression, or in a series of
clear-cut stages?
– Stability or change: what remains stable over the
course of human development, and what changes?
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Areas of Developmental Psychology (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 11.2: Describe the issues of continuity/discontinuity and stability/change.
Three areas of development:
• Physical development: development of the body,
is fairly discontinuous, occurring in clearly defined
stages that are distinct from each other
• Cognitive development: development of thinking
and reasoning skills, is fairly continuous, and it
changes over time
• Psychosocial development: encompasses our
emotional and social lives
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Areas of Developmental Psychology (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 11.2: Describe the issues of continuity/discontinuity and stability/change.
Aspects studied under psychosocial development:
• Temperament: a child’s innate personality and
emotional characteristics
• Attachment: the first emotional bond a child forms
with its primary caretaker, the psychological
characteristics and social relationships a person
has throughout childhood, adolescence, and
adulthood
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Nature versus Nurture
Learning Objective 11.3: Describe how environmental and biological factors interact in
development.
• Nature: the influence of our inherited
characteristics on our personality, physical growth,
intellectual growth, and social interactions
• Nurture: the influence of the environment on
personality, physical growth, intellectual growth,
and social interactions
– Includes parenting styles, physical surroundings,
economic factors, and anything that can influence
development but does not come from within the person
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Figure 11.1: DNA Molecule
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Genetic Influences (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 11.3: Describe how environmental and biological factors interact in
development.
• Study of the human life begins with looking at the
complex material contained in the cells of the
body that carries the instructions for life itself
• DNA molecules: contain the instructions for all of
an organism’s traits known as genes
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Genetic Influences (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 11.3: Describe how environmental and biological factors interact in
development.
• Gene: section of DNA having a certain pattern of
chemical elements
– Dominant: a gene that actively controls the expression
of a trait
Disorders carried by dominant genes: Huntington’s disease
and Marfan’s syndrome
– Recessive: a gene that tends to fade into the
background when paired with a dominant gene;
diseases are inherited only when a child receives two
recessive genes, one from each parent
Diseases carried by recessive genes: cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell
anemia, Tay-Sachs disorder, and phenylketonuria or PKU
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Genetic Influences (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 11.3: Describe how environmental and biological factors interact in
development.
• Chromosomes: rod-shaped structures found in the
nucleus of each cell and are nothing more than
tightly wound strands of genes
• Each egg and each sperm has 23 chromosomes
• A missing or extra chromosome in a cell can
cause mild to severe problems in development
• Chromosome disorders: Trisomy-21 and Fragile X
syndrome
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Environmental Influences
Learning Objective 11.3: Describe how environmental and biological factors interact in
development.
• Environmental influences that surround us before
birth and during our lives significantly affect our
development
– Parents or other caretakers: early childhood
– Friend or teacher: mid to late teens
– Culture
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Module 12
Prenatal, Infant and
Childhood Development
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Learning Objectives
12.1 Trace physical development from conception through birth and identify
influences on prenatal development.
12.2 Explain the role of sensitive and critical periods in development.
12.3 Learn about childhood physical and motor development.
12.4 Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
12.5 Outline the development of communication and language.
12.6 Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the role of the
caregiver.
12.7 Discuss social, cultural, and emotional development through childhood.
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Prenatal Development
Learning Objective 12.1: Trace physical development from conception through birth and identify
influences on prenatal development.
• Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg
• Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm
• Zygote: cell resulting from the union of the ovum
and sperm; has 46 chromosomes
• Mitosis: the process during which zygote divides
first into two cells, then four, then eight, and so on
till the mass of the cells becomes a baby
• Twins or multiples occur when division process
doesn’t happen this way
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Prenatal Development: Twinning
Learning Objective 12.1: Trace physical development from conception through birth and identify
influences on prenatal development.
• Two main types of twins
– Monozygotic twins: identical twins
Formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of
cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo
Infants developing from each embryo will be the same sex and
have identical features
– Dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins
Occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm,
resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the
same time
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Figure 12.1: Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
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Stages of Prenatal Development
Learning Objective 12.1: Trace physical development from conception through birth and identify
influences on prenatal development.
• The germinal period: first two weeks after
fertilization, during which the zygote moves down
to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
• The embryonic period: the period from two to eight
weeks after fertilization, during which the major
organs and structures of the organism develop
• The fetal period: the time from about eight weeks
after conception until the birth of the child
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The Three Periods of Pregnancy: The Germinal
Period
Learning
Objective 12.1: Trace physical development from conception through birth and identify
influences on prenatal development.
• Zygote divides and moves
down to the uterus
• The mass of cells, now
forming a hollow ball, firmly
attaches itself to the wall of
the uterus
• The cells begin to develop
into specialized cells – skin
cells, heart cells, stem cells
and so on
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The Three Periods of Pregnancy: The Embryonic Period
Learning Objective 12.1: Trace physical development from conception through birth and identify
influences on prenatal development.
• Once attached to the uterus,
the developing organism is
called an embryo
• Cells continue to specialize
and become the various
organs and structures of a
human infant
• In 2 to 8 weeks from
conception, the embryo has
primitive eyes, nose, lips,
teeth, little arms and legs
and a beating heart
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The Three Periods of Pregnancy: The Fetal Period
Learning Objective 12.1: Trace physical development from conception through birth and identify
influences on prenatal development.
• A period of tremendous
growth
• Length of the fetus increases
by about 20 times
• Its weight increases from 1
ounce at 2 months to a little
over 7 pounds
• The organs of the fetus
develop and become
functional
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Periods of Pregnancy: Critical Periods
Learning Objective 12.2: Explain the role of sensitive and critical periods in development.
• Critical or sensitive periods: times during which
certain environmental influences can have an
impact on the development of the infant
• Prenatal Hazards:
– Teratogens: any factor that can cause a birth defect
Alcohol consumption particularly during the critical embryonic
period can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), a series of
physical and mental defects
Exposure to alcohol in early pregnancy is the leading known
cause of intellectual disability
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Periods of Pregnancy: Teratogens
Learning Objective 12.2: Explain the role of sensitive and critical periods in development.
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Physical Development
Learning Objective 12.3: Learn about childhood physical and motor development.
• Immediately after birth:
– respiratory system begins to function
– blood circulates only within the infant’s system as the
umbilical cord has been cut
– body temperature is regulated by infant’s own activity
and body fat
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Physical Development: Reflexes
Learning Objective 12.3: Learn about childhood physical and motor development.
• Reflexes: a set of innate involuntary behavior
patterns
– Used by pediatricians to determine whether or not an
infant’s nervous system is working properly
• Reflexes that help infants survive
–
–
–
–
–
Grasping
Moro (startle)
Rooting
Stepping
Sucking
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Figure 12.2: Five Infant Reflexes
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Figure 12.2 (continued): Five Infant Reflexes
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Motor Development
Learning Objective 12.3: Learn about childhood physical and motor development.
• Motor Development:
– From birth to about 2 years of age infants show
tremendous amount of development in motor skills
• Major physical milestones of infancy are:
–
–
–
–
–
–
raising head and chest
rolling over
sitting up with support
sitting up without support
crawling
walking
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Figure 12.3: Six Motor Milestones
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Figure 12.3 (continued): Six Motor Milestones
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Brain Development
Learning Objective 12.3: Learn about childhood physical and motor development.
• Brain Development
– at birth, an infant's brain has over 100 billion neurons
– from birth to 3 years, neurons grow as the brain triples
in weight due to growth of new dendrites, axon
terminals, and increasing numbers of synaptic
connections
– natural process
• Synaptic pruning: necessary loss of neurons as
unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are
cleared away to make way for functioning
connections and cells
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Sensory Development (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.3: Learn about childhood physical and motor development.
• Sensory Development at Birth
– Most sensory abilities such as the sense of touch,
smell, and taste are fairy well developed
– Hearing is functional at birth and takes a little while to
reach its full potential
Newborns seem most responsive to high pitches, as in a
woman’s voice, and low pitches, as in a male’s voice
– Vision is least functional and takes six months to fully
develop; newborns have poor color perception and a
fixed distance of about 7-10 inches for clear vision
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Sensory Development (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.3: Learn about childhood physical and motor development.
• Methods to help gauge infant's sensory abilities:
– Preferential looking: assumes that the longer an infant
spends looking at a stimulus, the more the infant
prefers that stimulus over others
– Habituation: the tendency for infants (and adults) to
stop paying attention to a stimulus that does not
change
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Cognitive Development
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Brain triples its weight in the first two years; by 5,
the brain is 90 percent of its adult weight, paving
the way for major advances in cognitive
development such as:
– Development of thinking
– Problem solving
– Memory
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Cognitive Development: Piaget's Theory
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Jean Piaget: developed a four-stage theory of
cognitive development based on observation of
infants and children
– According to Piaget’s theory, children:
form schema, a mental concept formed through experiences
with objects and events
possess schemata (plural of schema) by virtue of a process
called assimilation
alter the schema to include further detail in a process called
accommodation
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Table 12.2: Piaget’s Four-Stage Theory
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Piaget’s Theory: Sensorimotor Stage (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2): the stage in
which the infant uses his or her senses and motor
abilities to interact with objects in the environment
• Infants:
– have involuntary reflexes at birth
– begin to interact deliberately with objects by grasping,
pushing, tasting as their sensory and motor
development progresses
– move from repetitive actions to complex patterns
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Piaget’s Theory: Sensorimotor Stage (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• By end of sensorimotor stage, infants:
– develop a sense of object permanence, the knowledge
that an object exists even when it is not in sight
– develop symbolic thought, the ability to represent
objects in one’s thoughts with symbols such as words
– are capable of thinking in simple symbols and planning
out actions
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Piaget’s Theory: Preoperational Stage (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Preoperational stage (ages 2-7): the stage of
cognitive development in which the preschool
child learns to use language as a means of
exploring the world
• At this stage, a child:
– develops language and concepts
– can ask questions and understand through
symbolic thinking
– is not yet capable of logical thinking
– believes anything that moves is alive (animism)
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Piaget’s Theory: Preoperational Stage (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Limitations of children in this stage
– They tend to believe that what they see is literally true
– Egocentrism: the inability to see the world through
anyone else’s eyes
– Centration: the tendency of a young child to focus only
on one feature of an object while ignoring other
relevant features; due to centration, children in this
stage often fail to understand that altering the way
something looks doesn’t change its substance
Conservation: the ability to understand that altering the
appearance of something does not change its amount
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Figure 12.4: Conservation Experiment
Conservation is the ability to understand that altering the appearance of
something does not change its amount, its volume, or its mass.
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Piaget’s Theory: Concrete Operations Stage (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Concrete operations stage (ages 7-12): the stage
of cognitive development in which the school-age
child becomes capable of logical thought
processes but is not yet capable of abstract
thinking
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Piaget’s Theory: Concrete Operations Stage (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• In concrete operations stage, children are:
– Capable of conservation and reversible thinking
– Capable of considering all the relevant features of any
given object
– Begin to think more logically
– Ask questions and arrive at their own rational
conclusions
• Major limitation of children in this stage:
– Inability to deal effectively with abstract concepts
Concepts that do not have some physical, concrete, touchable
reality
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Piaget’s Theory: Formal Operations Stage
(1 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Formal operations stage (age 12 to adulthood):
the stage in which the adolescent becomes
capable of abstract thinking
• In this stage, children
– understand concepts that have no physical reality
– are deeply involved in hypothetical thinking
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Criticism of Piaget’s Theory
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Piaget’s theory has been criticized on the
following accounts:
– the idea of distinct stages of cognitive development is
not completely correct
– changes in thought are continuous and gradual rather
than reached by jumping from one stage to another
– preschoolers are not egocentric
– object permanence exists much earlier than Piaget
thought
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Vygotsky’s Theory (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• Vygotsky stressed
– social and cultural interactions with other people,
typically more highly skilled children and adults, are
important for cognitive development
– children develop cognitively when someone else helps
them by asking leading questions and providing
examples of concepts in a process called scaffolding
• Scaffolding: the process by which a more skilled
learner gives help to a less skilled learner,
reducing help as the less skilled learner improves
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Vygotsky’s Theory (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.4: Explain how cognitive abilities develop during childhood.
• According to Vygotsky, each developing child has
a zone of proximal development (ZPD)
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the
difference between what a child can do alone and
what that child can do with the help of a teacher
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Language Development
Learning Objective 12.5: Outline the development of communication and language.
• Language development allows children to:
–
–
–
–
Think in words rather than images
Ask questions
Communicate their needs
Form concepts
• Child-directed speech:
– A child’s style of speaking is influenced by the way adults
and older children talk to infants and very young children,
with higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech patterns
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Stages of Language Development (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 12.5: Outline the development of communication and language.
• Cooing
• Babbling
• One-Word Speech (Holophrases)
• Telegraphic Speech
• Whole Sentences
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Stages of Language Development (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 12.5: Outline the development of communication and language.
• Cooing: vowel-like sounds made by babies at
around two months of age
• Babbling: consonant sounds (in addition to vowel
sounds) made by infants at about 6 months of age
• One-word speech: actual words, typically nouns
representing an entire phrase of meaning in one
word (also known as holophrases) spoken by
babies just before or around age 1
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Stages of Language Development (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 12.5: Outline the development of communication and language.
• Telegraphic speech: at around a year and a half,
toddlers begin to string words together to form
short, simple sentences using nouns, verbs, and
adjectives
• Whole sentences: by age 6 or so children learn to
use grammatical terms and increase the number
of words in their sentences
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Autism Spectrum Disorder
Learning Objective 12.5: Outline the development of communication and language.
• Autism spectrum disorder (ASD): developmental
disorder encompassing a range of problems in
thinking, feeling, language, and social skills in
relating to others
– Myths connecting ASD and vaccines have been
thoroughly debunked
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Temperament (1of 3)
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the
role of the caregiver.
• Psychological and social development of infants
and children involves:
– development of personality
– development of relationships
– a sense of being male or female
• Ways in which infants demonstrate personalities
are:
– temperament
– attachment
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Temperament (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the
role of the caregiver.
• Temperament: behavioral and emotional
characteristics that are fairly well established at
birth such as:
– Easy: regular in their schedules of waking, sleeping,
and eating, adaptable to change, happy babies, easily
soothed when distressed
– Difficult: opposite of easy ones; irregular in their
schedules, unhappy about any kind of change, are
loud, active, and tend to be crabby
– Slow to warm up: less grumpy, quieter but slow to
adapt to change; if change is introduced gradually, they
warm up to new people and new situations
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Temperament (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the
role of the caregiver.
• Temperament styles are strongly influenced by
heredity or somewhat by the environment in which
the infant is raised
• A “difficult” infant raised by parents who are loud
and active exemplifies very close “goodness
of fit” of the infant’s temperament to the parents’
temperament
• A poor fit can make it difficult to form an
attachment
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Attachment (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the role of the
caregiver.
• Attachment:
– is the emotional bond that forms between an infant and
a primary caregiver
– is formed within the first 6 months of the infant’s life
– shows in a number of ways during the second 6
months, such as stranger anxiety and separation
anxiety
Stranger anxiety: wariness of strangers
Separation anxiety: fear of being separated from the caregiver
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Attachment (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the role of the
caregiver.
• Ainsworth conducted an experiment by exposing
infants to strange situations and identified four
attachment styles:
–
–
–
–
Secure
Avoidant
Ambivalent
Disorganized-disoriented
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Attachment Styles
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the role of the
caregiver.
• Secure: explore happily; upset when mother
departs, but easily soothed upon her return
• Avoidant: willing to explore, don’t “touch base,”
react very little to mother’s absence or return
• Ambivalent: clinging, unwilling to explore; upset
when mother leaves, angry with her on her return
• Disorganized-disoriented: unable to decide
reaction to mother’s return, approach mother with
their eyes turned away from her, avoid eye
contact
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Cultural Influence on Attachment
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the role of the
caregiver.
• Mothers in the United States tend to wait for a
child to express a need before trying to fulfill that
need
• Japanese mothers prefer to anticipate the child’s
needs
• Attachment is an important first step in forming
relationships with others
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Harlow’s Monkey Experiment
Learning Objective 12.6: Explain temperament, the development of attachment, and the role of the
caregiver.
• Harlow’s Monkey Experiment
– In this experiment, the wire surrogate “mother”
provides the food for this infant rhesus monkey. But the
infant spends all its time with the soft, cloth-covered
surrogate. According to Harlow, this demonstrates that
“contact comfort was an important basic affectional or
love variable.”
• Harlow’s work represents one of the earliest
investigations into the importance of touch in the
attachment process
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Self-Concept (1of 2)
Learning Objective 12.7: Discuss social, cultural, and emotional development through
childhood.
• Infants begin life without understanding that they
are separate from their surroundings, and also
from the other people in their world
• Infants slowly learn to separate “me” from physical
surroundings and the other people in their world
• Self-concept is the image you have of yourself
– Based on your interactions with the important people in
your life
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Self-Concept (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 12.7: Discuss social, cultural, and emotional development through
childhood.
• Rouge test: a spot of red rouge or lipstick is put on
the end of the child’s nose and then the child is
placed in front of the mirror
– Infants from about six months to a little over a year
reach out to touch the image of the baby in the mirror,
reacting as if to another child
– At about 15 to 18 months of age, the infant begins to
touch his or her own nose when seeing the image in
the mirror
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Erikson’s Theory
Learning Objective 12.7: Discuss social, cultural, and emotional development through
childhood.
• Erikson’s theory: focused on the relationship of the
infant and the child to significant others in the
immediate surroundings – parents and then later
teachers and even peers
• Erikson believed:
– Development occurred in a series of eight stages, the first
four of which occur in infancy and childhood
– Each stage is an emotional crisis, or a turning point
– The crisis in each stage must be successfully met for
normal, healthy psychological development
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development (1 of
3)
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development (2 of
3)
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Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development (3 of
3)
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Module 13
Adolescence and Adulthood
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Learning Objectives
13.1 Trace major physical changes.
13.2 Outline the development of cognition and morality.
13.3 Consider the role of family and peers in adolescent development.
13.4 Explain identity formation.
13.5 Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and aging.
13.6 Understand cognitive changes in adulthood and aging.
13.7 Learn about social, cultural, and emotional issues in aging.
13.8 Discuss issues related to the end of life.
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Physical Development (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 13.1: Trace major physical changes.
• Adolescence: the period of life from about age 13
to the early 20s, during which a young person is
no longer physically a child but is not yet an
independent, self-supporting adult
– The “teens,” from ages 13 to 19
– Concerns how a person deals with life issues such as
work, family, and relationships
– Clear age of onset
– End may come earlier or later for different individuals
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Physical Development (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 13.1: Trace major physical changes.
• Sign of the beginning of adolescence is the onset
of puberty
– Physical changes: Primary sex characteristics (growth
and maturation of the actual sex organs) and
secondary sex characteristics (changes in the body
such as the development of breasts and body hair)
– Result of a complex series of glandular activities,
stimulated by the “master gland” or the pituitary gland
– Psychosocial and environmental factors (stress,
exercise, and nutrition) may impact timing of puberty
– Takes place at around age 10 for girls and around age
12 for boys
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Physical Development (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 13.1: Trace major physical changes.
• Development of the brain continues well into the
early 20s, though changes of puberty are
relatively complete after 4 years
• Prefrontal cortex of the brain is responsible in part
for impulse control, judgment and decision
making, and the organization and understanding
of information
– Does not complete its development until about age 25
years and may lead to risky behavior in adolescents
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Cognitive Development (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.2: Outline the development of cognition and morality.
• Cognitive development: less visible than the
physical development
– Change in the way adolescents think about
themselves, their peers and relationships, and the
world around them
• Piaget’s final stage of formal operations: abstract
thinking
• Search for an “ideal” world
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Cognitive Development (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.2: Outline the development of cognition and morality.
• Egocentrism and introspection: emerge as the
personal fable and the imaginary audience
– Personal fable: common feeling is “You just don’t
understand me; I’m different from you”
“It can’t happen to me” is a risky but common thought
– Imaginary audience: extreme self-consciousness
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Moral Development (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.2: Outline the development of cognition and morality.
• Understanding of “right” and “wrong”
• Lawrence Kohlberg outlined a theory of the
development of moral thinking through looking at
how people of various ages responded to stories
about people caught up in moral dilemmas
• Proposed three levels of moral development, or
the knowledge of right and wrong behavior
• Carol Gilligan (1982): men and women have
different perspectives on morality
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Moral Development (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.2: Outline the development of cognition and morality.
• Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory:
– Male-oriented
– Biased toward Western cultures
– Involves asking people what they think should be done
in hypothetical moral dilemmas but what people say
they will do and what people actually do when faced
with a real dilemma are often two different things
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Table 13.1 Kohlberg’s Three Levels of
Morality
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Parent/Teen Conflict
Learning Objective 13.3: Consider the role of family and peers in adolescent development.
• Certain amount of “rebellion” and conflict is a
necessary step
• Most parent/teen conflict is over trivial issues –
hair, clothing, taste in music, and so on
• Big moral issues – they are in agreement
(Giancola, 2006)
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Parenting Styles (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.3: Consider the role of family and peers in adolescent development.
• Relationships between parents and children can
be challenging during adolescence
• Parenting styles
– Authoritarian parenting: parent is stern, rigid,
demanding perfection, controlling, uncompromising,
and has a tendency to use physical punishment
– Permissive parenting: parents put very few demands
on their children for behavior
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Parenting Styles (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.3: Consider the role of family and peers in adolescent development.
– Permissive neglectful: parents simply aren’t involved
with their children, ignoring them and allowing them to
do whatever they want until it interferes with what the
parent wants
– Permissive indulgent: parents seem to be too involved
with their children, allowing them to behave in any way
they wish
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Erikson’s Identity versus Role Confusion
Learning Objective 13.4: Explain identity formation.
• Identity versus role confusion
• Values in life and beliefs concerning things such
as political issues, career options, and marriage
• Successful teens of the earlier four stages are
much better “equipped” to resist peer pressure
• Not successful teens come into adolescence with
a lack of trust in others, feelings of guilt and
shame, low self-esteem, and dependency on
others
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Cellular Clock Theory
Learning Objective 13.5: Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and
aging.
• Cellular clock theory (Hayflick, 1977): biologically
based
• Cells are limited in the number of times they can
reproduce to repair damage
• Evidence: existence of telomeres, structures on
the ends of chromosomes that shorten each time
a cell reproduces (Martin & Buckwalter, 2001)
• Stress speeds the destruction of telomeres
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Free Radical Theory
Learning Objective 13.5: Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and
aging.
• Wear-and-tear theory of aging: outside influences
such as stress, physical exertion, and bodily
damage
• Body’s organs and cell tissues simply wear out
with repeated use and abuse
• Free radicals are oxygen molecules that have an
unstable electron (negative particle)
• As people age, more and more free radicals do
more and more damage
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Activity Theory
Learning Objective 13.5: Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and
aging.
• Theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older
people are happier if they remain active in some
way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby
• An elderly person adjusts more positively to aging
when remaining active in some way
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Physical Development (1 of 3)
Learning Objective 13.5: Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and
aging.
• Adulthood
–
–
–
–
Young adulthood
Middle age
Late adulthood
Emerging adulthood: a time from late adolescence
through the 20s, refers mainly to those in developed
countries who are childless, do not live in their own
home, and are not earning enough money to be
independent
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Physical Development (2 of 3)
Learning Objective 13.5: Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and
aging.
• 20s – time of peak physical health, sharp senses,
fewer insecurities, and mature cognitive abilities
• 40s – vision and hearing are beginning to decline,
and bifocal lenses may become necessary as the
lens of the eye hardens
– Skin begins to show more wrinkles
– Hair turns gray (or falls out)
– Height begins to decrease
– In women, estrogen declines as the body’s
reproductive system prepares to cease that function
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Physical Development (3 of 3)
Learning Objective 13.5: Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and
aging.
• 50s – most women go through menopause
• 60s or 70s – hearing loss becomes noticeable
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Effects of Aging on Health
Learning Objective 13.5: Describe major physical changes associated with adulthood and
aging.
• Many health problems first occur, although their
true cause may have begun in the young
adulthood years
• Common health problems that may show up in
middle age are high blood pressure, skin cancer,
heart problems, arthritis, and obesity
• Common causes of death in middle age are heart
disease, cancer, and stroke
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How to Keep Your Brain Young
Learning Objective 13.6: Understand cognitive changes in adulthood and aging.
• “Use it or lose it”
– Avoid memory problems and senile dementias by
exercising mental abilities
• Maintain a healthy level of cognitive functioning
– Work challenging crossword puzzles
• Positively impact the brain
– Reading, having an active social life, going to plays,
taking classes, staying physically active
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Psychosocial Development
Learning Objective 13.7: Learn about social, cultural, and emotional issues in aging.
• Adulthood concerns involve career, relationships,
family, and approaching old age
• College students may change majors more than
once
• Entering a career is a very serious task
• Those who are working may also change careers
several times and may experience periods of
unemployment while between jobs
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Erikson’s Intimacy versus Isolation: Forming Relationships
Learning Objective 13.7: Learn about social, cultural, and emotional issues in aging.
• True intimacy: ability to trust, share, and care,
while still maintaining one’s sense of self
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Erikson’s Generativity versus Stagnation: Parenting the Next
Generation
Learning Objective 13.7: Learn about social, cultural, and emotional issues in aging.
• Middle adulthood: persons who have found
intimacy can now focus outward on others
• Generativity: parenting the next generation and
helping them through their crises
• Educators, supervisors, health care professionals,
doctors, and community volunteers might be
examples of positions that allow a person to be
generative
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Erikson’s Ego Integrity versus Despair: Dealing with Mortality
Learning Objective 13.8: Discuss issues related to the end of life.
• Life becomes more urgent as the realities of
physical aging and the approaching end of life
become harder and harder to ignore
– Life review: people look back on the life they have lived
and deal with mistakes, regrets, and unfinished
business
Integrity: feeling of wholeness when people can look back and
feel that their lives were relatively full and come to terms with
regrets and losses; the final completion of the identity, or ego
Despair: feeling of despair – a sense of deep regret over things
that will never be accomplished because time has run out;
experienced if people have many regrets and lots of unfinished
business
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Death and Dying (1 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.8: Discuss issues related to the end of life.
• Elisabeth Kübler-Ross – theorized five stages of
reaction when faced with death
– Denial: refusal to believe that the diagnosis of death is
real
– Anger: at death itself and the feelings of helplessness
to change things
– Bargaining: dying person tries to make a deal with
doctors or even with God
– Depression: sadness from losses already experienced
and yet to come
– Acceptance: of the inevitable; dying person quietly
awaits death
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Death and Dying (2 of 2)
Learning Objective 13.8: Discuss issues related to the end of life.
• Criticism of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross’s theory
– Some people do not have time to go through all of
these stages or go through them in the listed order
– Some theorists do not agree with the stage idea,
seeing the process of dying as a series of ups and
downs, with hope on the rise at times and then falling,
to be replaced by a rise in despair or disbelief
– No “right” way to face death: each person’s dying
process is unique
– Kübler-Ross’s theory is also strongly tied to Western
cultural values and norms
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Applying Psychology to Everyday Life
Learning Objective 13.8: Discuss issues related to the end of life.
• Cross-Cultural Views on Death
– Westerners see a person as either dead or alive
– In many Native American cultures a person who by
Western standards is clearly alive is mourned as already
dead
– In Hinduism, it is believed that the dead person’s soul will
be reincarnated at either a higher level or a lower level of
status, depending upon how the person lived his or her
life
– In the culture of the Northern Cheyenne Native American
tribe, death is considered only the end of the physical
body, while the self and one’s Cheyenne nature will
persist
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