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CHAPTER 11
STRESS AND HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY
►LECTURE GUIDE
SOURCES OF STRESS (TEXT PAGE 363)
Distinguish between stressors and stress. Identify the major sources of stress. Describe the
three types of conflict. Explain what is meant by "self-imposed stress" (text pp. 363-367).
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Stressor – any environmental demand that creates a state of tension or threat (stress) that
requires change or adaption.
Adjustment – any effort to cope with stress.
Stress – a state of psychological tension or strain.
Stress can be caused by inherently negative stressors (like natural disasters) or positive
stressors (like winning the lottery).
Change
• All stressful events involve change, and anything – good or bad – that causes change has the
potential to be stressful.
• See Table 11-1 on page 364 of the text for a list of positive and negative life events and the
corresponding amount of stress that each tends to cause.
Everyday Hassles
• Many psychologists have pointed out that much stress is generated by “hassles,” life’s petty
annoyances, irritations, and frustrations.
• Pressure – a feeling that one must speed up, intensify, or change the direction of one’s
behavior or live up to a higher standard of performance.
Frustration
• Frustration – the feeling that occurs when a person is prevented from reaching a goal.
• Frustration has many causes: Delays, lack of resources, losses, failures, and discrimination.
• “Road Rage” can result from frustration. See the “Thinking Critically About …” box on
page 366 of the text for coverage of this form of frustration.
Conflict
• Conflict – simultaneous existence of incompatible demands, opportunities, needs, or goals.
• Lewin (1935) identified three basic types of conflict (see the “Summary Table” on page 366
of the text for an overview):
o Approach/approach conflict – the result of simultaneous attraction to two appealing
possibilities, neither of which has any negative qualities.
o Avoidance/avoidance conflict – the result of facing a choice between two
undesirable possibilities, neither of which has any positive qualities.
o Approach/avoidance conflict – the result of being simultaneously attracted to and
repelled by the same goal.
Self-Imposed Stress
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When individuals carry around a set of irrational, self-defeating beliefs that add unnecessarily
to the normal stress of living. These problems are self-created.
Stress and Individual Differences
• Optimists, who tend to appraise events as challenges rather than threats, are generally better
able to cope with stressful events than pessimists, who are more likely to dwell on failure.
• People with an internal locus of control see themselves as being able to affect their situations
while those with an external locus of control are more likely to appraise events negatively.
Hardiness and Resilience
• People with a trait we call hardiness tolerate stress exceptionally well or seem to thrive on it.
They also feel that they control their own destinies and are confident about being able to cope
with change.
• Resilience – the ability to “bounce back,” recovering one’s self-confidence, good spirits, and
hopeful attitude after extreme or prolonged stress
COPING WITH STRESS (TEXT PAGE 368)
Compare and contrast direct coping and defensive coping. Describe and give an example of
the three strategies for coping directly with stress. Describe and give an example of the major
ways of coping defensively (text pp. 368-371).
Direct Coping
• Direct coping refers to intentional efforts to change an uncomfortable situation.
• When engaging in direct coping, we generally choose among three basic options:
Confrontation, compromise, and withdrawal.
Confrontation
• Confrontation – acknowledging a stressful situation directly and attempting to find a solution
to the problem or to attain the difficult goal. (Example: Learning new skills to overcome a
challenge.)
• Confrontation may involve expressions of anger, which can be effective if expressed with
restraint.
Compromise
• Compromise – deciding on a more realistic solution or goal when an ideal solution or goal is
not practical. (Example: Accepting a less desirable position to avoid having to relocate.)
• Compromise is one of the most common and effective ways of coping directly with stress.
Withdrawal
• Withdrawal – avoiding a situation when other forms of coping are not practical. (Example:
Leaving a job/position to circumvent an unavoidable negative consequence.)
• While withdrawal can be an effective means of coping when compromise is not possible and
confrontation will be self-defeating, people who use it run the risk of withdrawing from all
similar situations in the future.
Defensive Coping
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Defense mechanisms – self-deceptive techniques for reducing stress, including denial,
repression, projection, identification, regression, intellectualization, reaction formation,
displacement, and sublimation.
o Denial – refusal to acknowledge a painful or threatening reality.
o Repression – excluding uncomfortable thoughts, feelings, and desires from
consciousness.
o Projection – attributing one’s repressed motives, feelings, or wishes to others.
o Identification – taking on the characteristics of someone else to avoid feeling
incompetent.
o Regression – reverting to childlike behavior and consequences.
o Intellectualization – thinking abstractly about stressful problems as a way of
detaching oneself from them.
o Reaction formation – expression of exaggerated ideas and emotions that are opposite
of one’s repressed beliefs or feelings.
o Displacement – shifting repressed motives and emotions from an original object to a
substitute object.
o Sublimation – redirecting repressed motives and feelings into more socially
acceptable channels.
Explain how socioeconomic status, culture, and gender affect levels of stress and ways of
coping with stress (text pp. 372).
Socioeconomic, Cultural, and Gender Differences in Coping with Stress
• Poor people have to deal with more stress than people who are financially secure – with some
data indicating that that people in low-income groups cope less effectively with stress
because they have fewer resources to draw on for support.
• Studies have also found that the way individuals cope with stress varies for people from
different cultural backgrounds.
o Most European Americans seek explicit social support, such as discussing the source
of their stress and seeking advice and emotional solace.
o Most Asian Americans seek implicit social support which involves simply being in
close contact with others, without disclosing the source of their stress.
• Gender differences in coping with stress have been observed under some circumstances.
o Even when stress levels were physiologically equal, women tend to report
experiencing more stress; also, women experience more stress when problems
develop in long-term relationships.
o Men and women may also use different coping methods to deal with stress.
o Men are more likely to turn to alcohol or become aggressive.
o Women are more likely to ruminate about the problem or turn to the “tend-andbefriend” response, which is to tend to their young and seek support from others.
HOW STRESS AFFECTS HEALTH (TEXT PAGE 373)
Explain why "experiencing too much stress over too long a period can contribute to physical
problems." In your explanation, include Cannon’s theory of the fight-or-flight response and
the several stages of Selye's general adaptation syndrome (text pp. 373-375).
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Health Psychology – a subfield of psychology concerned with the relationship between
psychological factors and physical health and illness.
Acute or chronic stress is linked to lowered immunity and poor health and make people more
vulnerable to everything from the common cold to an increased risk in heart disease.
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Walter Cannon discovered the fight-or-flight response, during which your hypothalamus
stimulates the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system and the adrenal glands to
release stress hormones such as adrenaline and norepinephrine into the blood (see Figure 11-1
on page 374 of the text for an illustration of the physiological response to stress). The
primary purpose of this system was to prepare an animal for external threats by either
attacking of fleeing from them. Cannon observed that regardless of the nature of the threat,
this same reaction occurred. When stress is prolonged, we are likely to experience some type
of physical disorder because the human body is not designed to sustain this type of “fight-orflight” response for long durations.
General Adaption Syndrome (GAS) – according to Hans Selye, the three stages the body
passes through as it adapts to stress: alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion.
o Alarm Reaction, Stage 1, is the first response to stress. It begins when the body
recognizes that it must fend off some physical or psychological danger. Activity of
the sympathetic nervous system is increased, resulting in the release of hormones
from the adrenal gland.
o Resistance, Stage 2, physical symptoms and other signs of strain appear as we
struggle against increasing psychological disorganization. The use of inappropriate
coping techniques may be used if the stress is extreme or prolonged.
o Exhaustion, Stage 3, we draw on increasingly ineffective defense mechanisms. Some
people lose touch with reality and show signs of emotional disorder or mental illness.
Others show signs of “burnout,” including the inability to concentrate, irritability,
procrastination, and a cynical belief that nothing is worthwhile.
Summarize the evidence that shows chronic stress can contribute to heart disease. Include
Type A and Type D personalities in your summary (text p. 375).
Stress and Heart Disease
• Type A behavior pattern is used to describe people who respond to life events with
impatience, hostility, competiveness, urgency, and constant striving and distinguishes from
Type B, which is more easy going.
• Both high heart rate and high blood pressure (more prevalent in Type A) are known to
contribute to coronary heart disease (CHD) and there is considerable evidence that chronic
anger and hostility (also Type A) also predict heart disease.
• People who are Type D, or Distressed Personality, characterized by depression, negative
emotions, and social inhibition, are linked with heart disease too because of the excessive
amounts of the heart damaging chemical cortisol that they produce.
Summarize the research evidence that "stress also affects the functioning of the immune
system" (text pp. 376-377).
Stress and the Immune System
• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) – a new field that studies the interaction between stress on
the one hand and immune, endocrine, and nervous system activity on the other.
• Chronic stress has been linked to suppressed functioning of the immune system.
• Increased stress has been shown to increase susceptibility to influenza and upper respiratory
infections in both mice and humans.
• Likewise, volunteers who reported being under severe stress and who had experienced two or
more major stressful events during the previous year were more likely to develop cold when
they were exposed to a cold virus.
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STAYING HEALTHY (TEXT PAGE 377)
Describe the four proven ways to reduce stress (text pp. 377-379).
Reduce Stress
Calm Down
• Exercise: running, walking, biking, swimming, or other aerobic exercise can help reduce
stress by lowering your resting heart rate and blood pressure. Exercise can also raise selfesteem; lower anxiety, depression, or irritability; and reduce aches and pains.
• Expressive writing can alleviate stress and help one cope with a difficult situation.
• Relaxation training, such as lying quietly and alternately tensing and relaxing every
voluntary muscle in your body, and breathing exercises can help to alleviate stress.
Reach Out
• A strong network of friends and family who provide social support can help to maintain good
health and lower stress levels.
Religion and Altruism
• Research has found that elderly people who pray or attend religious services regularly enjoy
better health and markedly lower rates of depression than those who do not.
• Altruism is one of the more effective ways to reduce stress by taking our minds off of our
problems, helping us realize there are others who are worse off, and by fostering the feeling
that we are involved in something larger than our own lives.
Learn to Cope Effectively
• How you appraise events in your environment – and how you appraise your ability to cope
with potentially unsettling, unpredictable events – can minimize or maximize stress and its
impact on health.
Explain the role of proactive coping, positive reappraisal, and humor in reducing stress
(text p. 379).
Learn to Cope Effectively (continued)
• Proactive coping is the psychological term for anticipating stressful events and taking steps to
avoid them or minimize their impact.
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Positive reappraisal is a component of proactive coping. It requires finding a new meaning in a
situation, or finding a perspective or insight that you had overlooked to view events as being more
positive.
Humor is one of the most effective, stress-relieving forms of reappraisal.
Describe the four elements of a healthy lifestyle (text pp. 379-380).
Adopt a Healthy Lifestyle
Diet
• A good diet of nutritious foods is important because it provides the energy necessary to
sustain a vigorous lifestyle while promoting healthy growth and development.
• Several studies have documented that eating a healthy diet can improve the quality of life,
increase longevity, and reduce the risk of heart disease, cancer, and stroke.
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Exercise
• Regular aerobic exercise can help people cope better with stress, as well as help them feel
less depressed, more vigorous, and more energetic.
• Numerous other studies have also demonstrated a link between regular exercise, reduced
stress, increased self-confidence, and improved sleep quality.
Quit Smoking
• Smoking is linked to chronic lung disease, heart disease, and cancer and reduces the quality
of life by decreasing lung efficiency.
• Studies have also shown that quitting smoking will generally add years onto one’s life.
Avoid High-Risk Behaviors
• Every day we make many small choices that can impact our health in consequential ways.
(Examples: wearing a seat belt when in a car; using protection during sexual intercourse.)
EXTREME STRESS (TEXT PAGE 381)
Identify the five major sources of extreme stress and describe their impact (text pp. 381- 384).
Sources of Extreme Stress
Unemployment
• When joblessness rates rise, there is also an increase in first admissions to psychiatric
hospitals, infant mortality, deaths from heart disease, alcohol-related disease, and suicide.
• Other studies found that family strain increases and the individual’s sense of well-being and
happiness decreased.
• Death rates increase and psychiatric symptoms worsen during periods of unemployment and
downturns in the economy.
Divorce and Separation
• After a breakup, both partners feel they have failed at one of life’s most important endeavors,
but strong emotional ties continue to bind the pair. Life can be turbulent for many years after
the separation.
• Children are also greatly impacted by their parent’s divorce and can suffer intense emotional
distress during the time of the divorce.
Bereavement
• It is widely held that following the death of a loved one, people go through a necessary period
of intense grief, usually about a year, and then pick up their life and move on.
• However, some have challenged this standard view and agree that research on loss must
consider individual differences, as well as variations in the circumstances surrounding a loss.
Catastrophes
• Most victims go through a series of stages following a catastrophe:
o First is the shock stage, where victims are in a state of confusion and disorientation.
o Second is the suggestible stage, where victims are passive and ready to do whatever
rescuers tell them.
o Third is the recovery stage, where victims have regained their emotional balance but
anxiety may still persist.
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Combat and Other Threatening Personal Attacks
• Wartime experiences often cause soldiers intense and disabling combat stress that persists
long after they have left the battlefield.
• Similar reactions are also seen in survivors of serious accidents and violent crimes.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
• Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) – psychological disorder characterized by episodes of
anxiety, sleeplessness, and nightmares resulting from some disturbing past event. Daytime
flashbacks also occur, in which the victim relives the trauma.
• PTSD can occur immediately following a trauma, or its symptoms may appear months or
years later.
• Recovery from PTSD is strongly related to the amount of emotional support survivors receive
from family, friends, and community.
• Posttraumatic Growth (PTG) – positive growth that may follow an extremely stressful event.
THE WELL-ADJUSTED PERSON (TEXT PAGE 385)
Describe the several standards for judging whether an individual is well adjusted (text pp. 385386).
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There are many standards for judging whether an individual is well adjusted:
o Some believe a well adjusted individual has the ability to live according to social
norms.
o Others believe that well adjusted individuals enjoy the difficulties and ambiguities of
life, treating them as challenges to be overcome.
A person’s adjustment might also be determined by judging an action that he/she has taken,
using the following criteria:
o Does the action realistically meet the demands of the situation, or does it simply
postpone resolving the problem?
o Does the action meet the individual’s needs?
o Is the action compatible with the well-being of others?
Abraham Maslow believed that well adjusted individuals attempt to “actualize” themselves;
they live in a way that enhances their own growth and fulfillment.
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