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GENDER
blur
Research report
by Eva-Luna Schulte
What is the role of gender in dress?
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GENDER BLUR
What is the role of gender in dress?
Research report
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Research report graduation project
What is the role of gender in dress?
Eva-Luna Schulte
__________________________________________________________
Coaches
C. F. Freiherr von Maltzahn
Sven Carlin
AMFI Amsterdam Fashion Institute
Fashion and Management
January 2016
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Table of contents
Inhoudsopgave
Abstract
Researchquestions
Methodology
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Introduction
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I:Howisgenderdefined?
Biologicalperspective
Sociologicandphilosophicperspective
Femininityandmasculinity
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II:Inwhatwayaregenderanddressrelated?
Communicationthroughdress
Historicalanalysis
Peacockrevolution
Hippies
Constructionofmasculinityandfemininityinclothing
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III:Whatmovementsareinfluencinggenderindressandfashion?
‘Degenderizing’
Genderneutralityandunisex
Blurredlinesinfashion
Gender-blurringmovementsbeyondfashion
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IV:Isthereafutureingender-neutralclothing?
Looseningup
Biologicaldifferences
Isitmorethanjustatrend?
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Conclusion
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Abstract
The purpose of this research report is to study the role of gender in dress. To answer this question, we
will start to define the meaning gender. To understand the role of gender in dress, we will discuss the
relation between gender and dress. Further more we will discuss news items and movements that are
blurring existing gender lines and to what extent these influence dress.
A recent study found there is no male and a female brain, only individual brains. Another study found
the brain to be influenced by social factors more than ever expected. Generation Z and Generation Y
perceive gender different from generations before, less fixed and rather fluid. Gender stereotypes are
being dismantled by these generations, among others due to changed power relations between men and
women. Critics to traditional gender lines state they limit people. Gender-neutral fashion dismantles
the notions of masculinity and femininity and enables every person to identify with what gender they
wish to do.
Research questions
To research the main question of this study “What is the role of gender in dress”, I have compiled the
following research questions:
1. How is gender defined?
2. In what way are gender and dress related?
3. Are gender lines blurring in fashion, dress and beyond?
4. Is there a future in gender-neutral clothing?
Methodology
By an extensive theoretical research on a sociological, biological and cultural perspective we aim to
define the notion of gender from different perspectives. By analysing fashion history as well as the
notions of masculinity and femininity we aim to understand in what way gender is related to dress.
Further, the study aims to identify to what extent and what movements are blurring gender lines, by
monitoring news developments. A number of interviews with Generation Y and Generation Z are
conducted to gain a better understanding of this consumer group and their perspective on gender.
For a more extended methodology I refer to the Process Book page 6.
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Introduction
The meaning of ‘gender’ is changing in western societies. With Caitlyn Jenner on the cover of the
Vanity Fair, transgender people are gaining a voice in society. One of the biggest pop-artist of this
time, Miley Cyrus, states to be gender fluid and speaks out on the topic. Where gender (and sex) was
ought to be binary, gender studies - from a sociologic as well as biologic perspective - have found
gender to be less binary than previously thought, and aim to focus on the grey area in between.
Gender-neutral fashion is a trend: catwalks have been filled with feminine men and masculine women.
It is not the first time unisex or gender-blurring lines are seen on the catwalk or subcultures. However
today, retail is adopting the trend as well. Department store Selfridges launched a gender-neutral popup store ‘Agender’. Diesel launched a gender-neutral advertisement and speaks out on the wider
movements concerning gender neutrality. But gender-neutrality goes beyond: England is banning
gender stereotyping language in schools, there is a rise of gender neutral toys, the acceptance of a third
gender-neutral pronoun in Sweden and some countries now even the accept of the third gender option:
‘intersex’ on your passport. And, a recent study by Daphne Joel found there not to be a male and a
female brain, rather individual ones.
To gain a better understanding on the role of gender in dress, we will first study how gender is defined
in general by the use of gender studies from a sociological perspective and we examine a biological
approach as well. To understand gender roles in western society, we will examine the notion of
‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’. Further, by the use of a historical analysis we will try to gain a better
understanding of the relation between dress, gender and social norms.
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Are gender lines blurring in western society? According to a research conducted by NPD Marketing
Cooperation Generation Y and Generation Z perceive gender different from the previous generations.
They perceive gender as less fixed, rather fluid or interchangeable. How will a new perspective on
gender influence our dress?
The research report will result in a gender-neutral photo series. The visualisation of a rather genderneutral generation can help brands to understand the ‘new’ and (financially) growing consumer.
Generation Y and Generation Z perceive gender differently from the generations before. The photo
series are substantiated with quotes from interviews with generation Y and generation Z, an article and
findings from the research report.
The research report as well as the photo series is a subsidy for the fashion industry. It enables fashion
professionals to gain a better understanding of the gender-neutral movement, a growing consumer
group, and enables them to identify and communicate with them. It can be a contribution for gender
studies, to understand the relation between gender and dress. And, for everyone interested in gender or
dress, this project contains valuable information.
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I: How is gender defined?
In the western world, we recognize who is male or female based on someone’s sex characteristics even
before birth. The term sex defines the differences in sex characteristics, chromosomes and hormones
between males and females. The term sex and gender are often used intertwined in western society.
From a biological perspective, gender is caused by sex differences (McLeod, 2014). However, today
within a scholarly context, gender is considered to be known as a social construct, and to not only be
determined by ones sex (Arvanitidou, 2013; Diamond, 2002; Paoletti, n.p.). This chapter discusses the
meaning of gender, from a biological approach as well as a rather sociologic approach1.
Biological perspective
Gender has been a widespread topic the past decades, not only in the field of sociology and
philosophy, but in the field of biology as well. The meanings of ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ differ from which
perspective you perceive it. Dick Swaab is a neuroscientist and states the differences between males
and females that construct gender are made half way during pregnancy. The genetics that are created
at this stage will eventually cause the brains to develop different (Sekseneutrale opvoeding, 2013). He
phrases how chromosomes create gender differences and women’s brains develop to be better at
caring duties and men’s brains for technical duties. However, a recent study by Lise Elliot (2009) has
found the social factors to be more powerful than previously thought.
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The full analysis of different scholars and their theories on gender can be found in the process book page 8-13.
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Elliot is a neuroscientist who has studied the differences between girls’ and boys’ brains, as well as
adult females and males brains, in relation to binary sex differences. In her book ‘Pink brain, Blue
Brain, How small differences grow into troublesome gaps, and what we can do about it’ (Elliot,
2009), she states we have come to the point where we say girls and boys act certain ways, ‘because
that is the way they are built’. But in fact, Eliot states the differences between infants to be malleably
small, but become amplified overtime due to the social influences of parents, teachers, peers and
culture in a whole that (unwittingly) reinforce male and female stereotypes. Elliot states there are
differences in hormones and genes between girls and boys. However, the social factors2 are found to
be more powerful than previously thought. Elliot states that if we perceive sex differences as
developing, rather than biological facts, boys and girls have the ability to reach full potential. Another
recent study by neuro- and behavioural scientist Daphna Joel found there to be no such thing as a male
or a female brain (Vermeulen, 2015). Joel states: "We need to stop using terms like male and female
brains neuroscience. There are not only two forms. When it comes to brains, there is multiplicity".
Not only within gender the binary system is questioned. In fact, sex as well. Saul McLeod3 (2014)
refers to atypical syndromes in ‘Biological Theories of Gender’. First he discusses the Turners
syndrome, which causes a female to develop only one X chromosome (1 in 5000 change). This is
irregular because in biology, women are said to have XX chromosomes. Men are said to have XY
chromosomes. Secondly he discusses the Klinefelter's syndrome develops an extra syndrome with
men, which means XXY (1 in 750 men). Both syndromes affect people socially, physically and
cognitively (McLeod, 2014). Jo B. Paoletti 4 states in ‘Fashion, Dress and Gender’ scholars are
studying sex to not be binary (either-or). She states “1-100 adults have genetic or physical
characteristics other than ‘standard’ male or female, including as many as 1 in 1500 intersex babies.
Because many cultural manifestations of ‘masculinity’ and ‘femininity’ are based on a binary, heteronormative view of sex, they have also tended to reflect the sense that men and women are opposites or
complements of each other, and that heterosexual attraction is the ideal form of desire.” (Paoletti,
2014).
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The social factors that influence children include the way people speak towards their sons and daughters
respond and interact with them (Elliot, 2009).
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Saul McLeod tutors Psychology (BSc) at The University of Manchester.
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Jo B. Paoletti is a Professor and Director of Undergraduate Studies and trains in apparel design and the history
of textile and clothing.
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Australia, New Zealand and Nepal allowed people not to choose from two genders on their passport
but offered a third option ‘X’. (BBC News, 2011; the Guardian, 2015). People who cannot identity to
be male or female, may it be biological or socially, may choose the third option. In 2013, Germany
was the first European country to allow for the option ‘intersex’ short ‘X’ on their passport. This
option is meant for intersex children or trans genders (Nandi, 2013). “It’s not clear how many people
would want to take advantage of the “x” option. Castillo said an estimated 1.7% of the population is
intersex – making them about as common as people with red hair – but some identify as men or
women” (the Guardian, 2015). These findings argue that sex or gender might not be as binary as
previously thought. If sex is not binary, then it follows that gender is not binary either (Paoletti, 2014).
Besides the biological perspective, much research is done in the field of sociology and philosophy. In
this field, gender is perceived as a social-construction. This will be explained during the following
paragraph.
Sociologic and philosophic perspective
On the words gender and sex Paoletti states in ‘Fashion, Dress and Gender’: “In academic literature,
the words ‘sex’ and ‘gender’ have specific meanings that are interchangeable in popular usage. To the
scholar, ‘sex’ is used to denote biological categories (male, female); ‘gender’ is used for distinctions in
role appearance, and behaviour that are cultural in origin, but stemming from an individual’s sex
(masculinity, femininity)”. Her latest work ‘Sex and Unisex: Fashion, Feminism, and the Sexual
Revolution’ (2015) Paoletti speaks on the ‘white space’ between (or beyond) masculine and feminine.
Judith Lorber is Professor Emerita of Sociology and Women’s Studies at The CUNY Graduate Centre
and Brooklyn College of the City University of New York. In ‘The Social Construction of Gender’
(1994; 99-100) she states: “[…] gender is constantly created and re-created out of human interaction,
out of social life, and is the texture and order of that of social life. Yet gender, like culture, is a human
production that depends on everyone constantly ‘doing gender’5”. Lorber states this binary gender
system to be social institution. Susan Kaiser considers gender to be a social construction as well, in her
book ‘The Social Psychology of Clothing: Symbolic Appearances in Context’ (1990). Kaiser states
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Candace West and Don Zimmerman introduced the concept ‘Doing gender’ in 1987 in Gender and Society
magazine. According to this research gender is performed, and the interactions of this performed behaviour in
the performance is based on what is socially accepted for ones assigned gender, based on their sex (West and
Zimmerman, 1987).
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how western society acknowledges two, and only two, genders, and how these binary genders are
oversimplified in their meaning. She used the fashion and beauty culture as an example to describe
how women are expected to be interested in this culture, where men are not. She emphasizes how
culture is a framework for our beliefs on gender, but allows for change as well. She refers to
Thompson (1975) and Wairau (1984) whose research found children at the age of two to use clothing
to divide people in the binary gender, even before they understand biological differences. To gain a
better understanding of the relation between clothing and gender, Kaiser argues we must study the
cultural ideology and the structure of gender relations.
One of the most controversial books on gender is written by philosopher Judith Butler. In her book
‘Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversive Identity’ (1990), Butler deconstructs the concept
gender and even sex as socially and culturally constructed. Butler states gender is something you
become, by practice, by act and by doing; it is not a fixed factor. She states the theory of
performativity can be reflected on gender. The heterosexual binary sex and gender perspective is seen
as natural, as an effect of biology: a ‘naturalised concept’ and is considered normal. And everything
that does not comply with the male hegemony is not normal, or a freak (Butler, 1990).
A recent theory is one by Sam Killermann, he is a sociologist and states to fight for social justice. In
his book “A Guide to Gender” Killermann (2014) states ‘gender’ is to break down into three distinct
pieces; your gender identity, gender expression and biological sex. Gender identity is who you know
yourself to be, gender expression is the way you present yourself through dressing and manners (often
to align with social norms), and third there is biological sex, which is based on your sex characteristics
(Killermann, 2014). This theory is interesting, because it offers the approach to see gender as more
complex, and rather fluid, which aligns with the most recent thinking of sexologist and gender studies
(Paoletti, n.p.).
To illustrate how the binary gender system is not universal, I would like to refer to the Indonesian
Bugis Society. The Bugis Society acknowledges five different genders, Bugis is familiar and
acknowledges five genders in their society: men, women, calalai (masculine women), calabai
(feminine men) and bissu (perfect combination of male and female).
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Femininity and masculinity
Butler (1990), Lorber (1994), Lindberg (2008) and Kaiser (1990) state that within the binary gender
system, male qualities are valued higher than what are considered female qualities. Typical masculine
qualities are considered to be power, strength, rationality, wisdom, and enterprising (Butler, 1990).
Typical feminine qualities, such as, emotional, balanced, being friendly and caring are valued less than
masculine qualities; female is considered to be weaker (Laqueur, 1990). Specifically, these qualities
are not related to sex, but to the gender. It does not mean ‘women’ are valued less than men. But,
typical male qualities are valued higher than typical female qualities in western society. Butler (1990)
argues that the group that is considered ‘women’ exists because we have defined ‘women’. There is no
fixed meaning before we give it meaning, specifically we define women in the process of making the
meaning women. For example, there is a strong link between femininity and beauty (Freedman, 1986).
“Girls are traditionally encouraged to be concerned with appearance; beauty, then, becomes a kind of
duty” (Kaiser, 1997; 66). She argues we must study the cultural ideology and the structure of gender
relations in order to understand the relation between dress, appearance and gender. “The stereotypical
masculine or feminine qualifications are not personally characteristics of individual men and women
but socially constructed representations of gender, on the basis of what society expects from each sex”
(Condor, 1987 ; Lloyd & Duveen, 1993; Arvanitidou; 2014). Paoletti (2015) argues the notions of
masculinity and femininity to be interdependent; something is masculine, because it is not feminine,
and vice versa. Gertrude Âström, chairman of the Swedish women’s lobby, states in the documentary
‘Sekseneutrale opvoeding’ (2013) that gender stereotypes are harmful because they limit people; it
pushes people in boxes. In addition to that, it is more accepted to adopt masculine characteristics as a
woman, than for a man to adopt feminine characteristics (Kane, 2006; Martin, 1990), one could argue
due to the fact that ‘masculine’ would be valued higher than ‘feminine’ (Lindberg, 2008). Adopting
masculine features as a woman increases the status of women, whereas adopting feminine features as a
man, would be considered a degrading of the statue (Feinman, 1981; 1984, Lindberg, 2008).
Lorber (1994) notes how gender roles change in society. She refers to fathers taking on the role of a
nurturing father, girls and boys wearing unisex clothing and men and women getting the same
education and working the same jobs (Lorber, 1994). Lorber questions why it is still so important to
mark a child as a boy or a girl. “What would happen if they were mistaken? They would quite literally,
have changed places in their social world” (Lorber, 1994; 101). She states gender to be a process and it
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is conducted by individuals learning what is expected of them, and by seeing what others do, people
know how to act and react in expected ways. This creating and recreating stimulates gender roles.
Lorber (1994; 102) refers to J.W. Scott (1988) stating “Because gender is a process, there is room not
only for modification and variation by individuals small groups but also for institutionalized change”.
If we perceive femininity and masculinity to be (partly) created by sociologic interaction, it is related
to culture. Kaiser (1997) states appearance, which includes fashion, dress and hairstyles, to contribute
to the creation of what is considered ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’. Hence culture changes, so does the
cultural meaning of ‘femininity’ and ‘masculinity’. The following chapter will discuss in what way
gender, femininity and masculinity and dress are related by the use of fashion theory, gender studies
and an historical analysis.
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II: In what way are gender and dress
related?
Communication through dress
As Freud put it: “When you meet a human being, the first distinction you make is ‘male or female?’
(Freud, 1973: 146). According to Mary Ellen Roach-Higgins and Joanne Eicher (1992) dress is used
for two functions; a modifier of body processes and as a medium for communication. Dress as a
modifier of body processes is used in order to protect the body from physical environment, which can
be for example for the cold. Second, dress is used as a medium for communication. Roach-Higgings
and Eicher (1992) note how dress itself has no meaning, only the meaning that individuals assign to
dress. They state how this meaning is tight to time and place. According to Kaiser (1990) children at
the age of two, divide people by the cultural codes of gender, which includes appearance and a way of
doing, before they understand biological differences. Crane (2000) understands clothing to be one of
the most visible forms of consumption, to perform a major role in the social construction of identity.
Helene Roberts in her book “Fashion” (2009) refers to Samuel Butler who describes two children
looking at a bible illustration of Adam and Eve: “Which is Adam and which is Eve?” asks one child.
“I don’t know,” answers the other, “but I could if they had their clothes on.” Dress can be used as a
communication tool to communicate information such as one’s gender or status (Rosencranz, 1972).
In the male hegemony gender and sexuality are generally understood as particularly significant
examples of social and power relations that are expressed in and through the body (Foucault 1981;
Butler 1990). “The differences between the male and the female body are usually obvious, and this is
accentuated through the way the individual is dressed and how they hold, move and generally control
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their physical presence. However, that the need for certainty in differentiating between the sexes is so
important reveals the political significance of the gendered meanings given to the subjectivity of the
person occupying the body” (Nicolson, 2015; 43). Gender roles have become so naturalised that
people do not realise they are producing there gender roles, but only started to notice, when someone
does not produce them (Lorber, 1966). When someone is not confirming to the gender norms, it makes
us feel socially dislocated (Lorber, 1996; Butler, 1994). Clothing is used as a communication tool in
this social construct and helps us to define who is male and who is female (and much more), if these
rules no longer apply, it becomes more difficult to identify people (Friedman, 2016). These meanings
that is assigned to dress, or a specific clothing item, constantly changes and is tied to time and place
(Roach-Higgings and Eicher, 1992). What has been the role of gender in dress throughout history?
The following chapter will highlight a collection of moments in fashion history, which did not
conform to the traditional gender roles, as we know them today. This analysis will help us to gain a
better understanding on the relation between gender, dress and (power) relations between men and
women.
Historical analysis
Before 1800 - Before the Victorian period, there were no significant differences between sexes in their
way of dressing. Both parties would wear long decorated costumes (Arvanitidou, 2013). One’s class
determined the colours and shapes of the gowns, not one’s gender (Davis, 1992). Only from the
Victorian Period onwards, women’s clothing became more expressive. “[…] a high-heeled shoe is
widely perceived as the sexiest, most feminine shoe a woman can wear” (Shawcross, 2005).
Nowadays, one could argue only women are ‘allowed’ within the social construction of fashion to
wear heels. But heels have not always been the landmarks of ‘femininity’. The high heel was
introduced in the 1590s, but was adopted in men’s wardrobe as well during Louis XIV regime in 1660,
and continued to be popular for over a century. The heels were worn by the royal court as a symbol of
power and statue (Shawcross, 2005). In addition to that, during the 18th century, men would wear lace
and rich velvets and cosmetics including powders and rouge (Kaiser, 1990).
Victorian Era - During the Victorian Era (traditional) gender roles became more sharply defined.
According to Helene Roberts (1977) dress for women was related to their place in society. During the
Victorian Era, how a woman dressed was a reflection of the economic wealth of her husband, who was
seen as the supplier of the family (Arvanitidou, 2013; Craik, 1993), a women’s place was the home
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(Summers, 2001). Summers notes in ‘Bound to Please’: “Corsetry restricted the movement of female
children to that considered appropriate, and when worn over a period of years physically prevented the
expansion of the ribs, abdomen and waist. That no equivalent garment existed for male children
reveals that femininity rather than masculinity was considered dangerously labile and in need of
marshalling” (Summers, 2001). During this time women were ought to wear a corset, people believed
that women were so weak, they would not be able to keep upright without (Roberts, 2009). The corset
can be seen as a reflection of a women’s position at the time; weak, less intelligent (than men),
dependent, sexually attractive, controlled and passive (Summers, 2001; Roberts, 1977).
1900 - For centuries women in western cultures have been prohibited to wear trousers, only from 1900
on the pants gained a place in women’s wardrobe (Ewing, 1986). Fashion designer Paul Poiret is seen
as the first to create trousers for women in 1913. Inspired by Eastern culture the trousers were loosefitting and wide-legged. During World War I, women took over many man’s job. During the jobs in
factories women started wearing overalls and trousers. After World War I not many women were
willing to give up the freedom of wearing pants. Fashion designer Coco Chanel designed horseback
riding pants for women6. The term ‘Garçonne’ was used to describe ‘women who looked like boys’
(Fukai and Suoh, 2005). Several Hollywood actresses such as Kathrine Hepburn and Marlene Dietrich
brought trousers for women in fashion during the 1930s. Not all people were as fond of women in
trousers, conservatives considered trousers for females to be unnatural and masculine (Ewing, 1986).
Only by 1939 Vogue featured the first ladies pants in their magazine, hence many women had started
wearing trousers for sports. Only by the late 1960s pants on women became completely accepted, first
for casual wear and finally for the workplace (Ewing, 1986; Fukai and Suoh, 2005).
Peacock revolution
During the 1960s not only trousers for women became completely accepted. Provocative fashion
trends such as unisex (Fukai and Suoh, 2005) made their way in society, this reflected the rising wave
of gender politics and the sexual revolution7. The 1960s and 1970s are seen to be the era wherein
gender stereotypes were questioned and dismantled, a time wherein feminist and gay rights
movements were gaining a voice, and the fashion industry reacted to these movements (Paoletti,
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Up to then women needed a special ‘women-seedle’ when riding a horse because of their dresses.
“The 1960s is often remembered as an era of sexual freedom. The pill provided women with a reliable method
of contraception while abortion was legalised and homosexuality was decriminalised” (Victoria and Albert
Museum, n.d.).
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2015). Diverse movements made their entry in society, one of them being the peacock revolution. The
peacocks were a rather small group of men. They wore colourful suits in bright colours and patterns
and grew their hair. People were scared of the growing hair; conservatives stated ‘men were
essentially turning into women’ (The perfect suit, 2011). The 150 years prior, suits had always been
darker colors. Now men’s suits became shinier, the whole look was bright and combined with highheeled boots (Victoria and Albert Museum, n.d. ; The perfect suit, 2011). The suit is seen as
synonymous with masculinity, and to according to ‘The Perfect Suit’ (2011) people stated about this
change ‘everything we know, is being taken away from us’. “Things are loosening up in the sixties.
The ways of being a man are shifting. You got the decriminalisation of homosexuality, it is a time of
new freedoms. So in an interesting way men’s clothing reflects those broader changes in terms of
fashion generally” (The perfect suit, 2011). However, the peacock revolution did not last longer than a
few years, and was gone by 1969 (ibidem).
Hippies
Besides the rather feminine movements during the 1960s and 1970s unisex movements occurred as
well. Men and women bought their clothes at the same boutiques for similar garments (Victoria and
Albert Museum, n.d.). Hippies protested against capitalism and materialism (Lobenthal, 2005).
Arvanitidou (2013) asserts that hippie style tried to conceal gender differences by showing a
masquerade of equality for all, obscuring the identification of sex. What was said to be unisex, was
however, rather masculine (Arvanitidou, 2013). During the 1970s designers from Paris to Hollywood
imagined a future of equality and androgyny (Paoletti, 2015). One of these designers was Rudi
Gernreich. He took the leading hand in androgyny and believed in the interchangeability of men’s and
women’s clothing. Gernreich questioned the social conventions within fashions and broke taboos
(Felderer, 2000). In 1970 he started a unisex project ‘Dress Codes’; he had two models, one male one
female, to completely shave their body hair (Felderer, 2000). He photographed them in identical
clothing: bikinis, topless and wearing miniskirts (Felderer, 2000). On unisex clothing he remarked that
it was ‘a protest of the young’ (Gernreich, n.d.). According to Gernreich (n.d.), the youth was
questioning the conservative ideas on how male and female were represented in society. Gernreich
believed that it contributed to their communication, because ‘what was proper or not’ became less
important. He believed young people would eventually all wear the same clothes. In this period David
Bowie was very popular as well. With his gender-bending performances he challenged conventional
connotations of sexuality, sexual identity and gender identity (Auslander, 2006). During the 1980s
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figures such as Prince gained mass attention. He as well, challenged sexuality and gender by for
example with the song ‘If I was your girlfriend’.
An interesting observation by Paoletti in her book ‘Sex and Unisex’ (2015; 27) is the ‘punctuated
equilibrium’, which in biology is descripted “like a rubber band that is stretched too far, a species can
either snap (extinction) or retreat to something like its original size and shape, just slightly altered”.
For example the unisex and androgynous movements in the 1970s, were followed by the rather gender
defined fashions of the 1980s. She states the unisex movements of the 1970s did not end there. Unisex
and gender-neutral movements’ anno 2016 derive from the 1970s. It is an on-going revolution, it never
ended and the gender-neutral trend is a logical extension.
Construction of masculinity and femininity in clothing
Dress can be used as a communication tool to communicate information such as one’s gender or status
(Rosencranz, 1972). But what clothing is aligned to what gender, can be perceived as part of a cultural
construction. Hancock and Augustyn (2011) provide a nice example on trousers: “She wears the pants
in the family! Suggest that it is the woman who dominates, is aggressive, and is therefore masculine,
while her partner is perceived to be passive and feminine”. Trousers are considered to be masculine
and therefore come with ‘masculine’ characteristics. But, a clothing item does not have any meaning;
a clothing item only has the meaning that has been given to it, and that meaning is culturally defined
(Kidwell and Steele, 1989). Trousers do not have ‘masculinity’ built into them, nor does a skirt state
someone is feminine or female (ibidem). “Gendered dressing is more than complementary roleplaying; power relations are inextricably involved. Otherwise, women's adoption of trousers represents
an important readjustment of the definition of femininity, but not necessarily a change in the existing
balance of power” (Michelman and Miller-Spillman, n.d.). Feminine males are often associated with
homosexuality. However, this assumption does is less applicable for masculine femininity. This
assumption shows to what extent cross-gendered dressing is accepted, and emphasized gender
differences (McCreary, 1994; Sirin, McCreary, Mahalik, 2004; Lindberg, 2008).
As we can see in fashion history, the connotations of ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’ have not always been
the same (Lindberg, 2008). Conventional gender lines have been blurred, or have in fact disappeared.
One could argue that trends in gender, such as unisex or blurring gender lines, and modernity have
long gone hand in hand (Mauritzen, 2015). Fashion can be perceived as a reflection of the zeitgeist
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and by the analysis of fashion history one could argue fashion has responded to social conventions and
structures at the time. Gendered dressing is more than a role-play; the power relations between men
and women are indistinguishably connected to the way of dressing (Paoletti and Kregloh 1989). This
can be emphasized by the example of women’s adoption of trousers, which is stated above.
Nowadays, high heels are considered to be the ultimately feminine (Shawcross, 2005). This can be
perceived as a naturalised concept (Butler, 1994), a man in heels is perceived as a ‘freak’, or might be
ridiculed because he does not conform to social norms. Cultural and social norms, which play a part in
the creation of gender change, include the gendered appearance (Kaiser, 1990). As fashion history tells
us, what is perceived as masculine or feminine, changes over time? And in addition to that, and what
we could perhaps conclude from the above analysis, due to the expressive character of fashion, it can
be used for breaking significant gender roles (Cremers, 2015).
In the next chapter we will discuss the cultural changes concerning gender as well as gender blurring
fashion trends during the 21st century.
24
III: What movements are influencing
gender in dress and fashion?
‘Degenderizing’
From the 1970s on, there has been tremendous attention for the concept of gender. Today, some of
most influential celebrities of 2015 and 2016 are speaking out on gender issues. It was Caitlyn Jenner8
on the cover of Vanity Fair, who just went through a transition from male to female (Bissinger, 2015),
and with that brought huge attention to the trans community. Pop icon Miley Cyrus speaks out on
gender and sexuality, stating to be gender-fluid and therefore not to identify with being men or women
(Nicholson, 2015). Actress and model Ruby Rose states to be gender fluid as well. She states to be
‘the best of the two sexes’ (Gray, 2015). Dutch singer songwriter Jett Rebels shows up on stage
wearing extravagant looks, wearing accessories and make-up (3DOC, 2014) and Jaden Smith
provokes with his choice for shopping at the girls department and wearing skirts (Sanchez, 2015).
Women are working as male models, and men are working as female models (Ferrier, 2014; Driscoll,
2013). During this chapter we will discuss a selection of these findings, and discuss the effects of this
attention on gender on western society. But first, in what way does gender-neutrality differ from
unisex?
8
Olympian and media personality.
25
Gender neutrality and unisex
Gender neutrality and unisex might seem to be similar, but there are some significant differences that
are important to discuss. First, gender neutrality is about breaking gender stereotypes (Merle, 2015;
InfoNu, 2015). If someone’s sex is that of a woman, she might fit into the box of ‘feminine’, or she
might not (What's a gender, 2015). And the same goes for men. Gender neutrality is about more
diversity in people than ‘men are masculine’ and ‘women are feminine’. It aims that gender identity is
not black or white and boy or girl. It is about grey spaces in between (What's a gender, 2015; Paoletti,
2015). The term unisex (van Dale: same for both sexes) used in relation to a product is, for example a
perfume or clothing item, created for both sexes. This means, there is one product created, for example
a sweater that is designed to be worn by as well a man ass a woman. A gender-neutral clothing item
can be created for one particular sex, but the style does not fit into the gender stereotype that aligns
with the sex. For example anno 2016 this could be lace and velvet for men. Gender-neutral is about
breaking gender stereotypes. In this chapter we will discuss a variety of gender-neutrality trends and
movements to gain a better understanding of the trend.
Blurred lines in fashion
Luxury segment brands and designers including Prada, Gucci, Raf Simons, JW Anderson, Hedi
Slimane, Givenchy and 1.61 collections are blurring gender lines in fashion (Fox, 2015; Ryan, 2015).
Instead of producing specific men’s and women’s collections, designers are rather focusing on style
(Del Vecho, 2015). Men’s collections include ‘feminine’ characteristics, and woman’s collections
have ‘masculine’ features (Del Vecho, 2015). It is not the first time gender blurring trends occur on
the catwalk and in haute couture collections (Mauritzen, 2015), however today they are accepted by
more commercial brands as well.
For example Selfridges9 opened a three floor gender-neutral shopping experience, with the motto: “a
fashion exploration of the masculine, the feminine and the interplay—or the blur—found in between”
(Ryan, 2015). According to Humberto Leon10 the world was not ready for this five years ago and the
trend has gained the acceptance of mass audience (La Ferla, 2015). Gender neutrality is showing in
retail and commercial brands as well. For example entertainment giant Disney stopped dividing kid’s
Halloween costumes by gender (Tempesta, 2015). Where in the previous years children’s costumes
9
Selfridges is a department store in the United Kingdom.
Founder of Opening Ceremony, designer at Kenzo and proponent of gender-fluid fashion.
10
26
where divided in ‘girls costumes’ and ‘boys costumes’, there is now one collection: the kid’s costumes
(Disneystore.com, 2015; Tempesta, 2015). The H&M group has been working with blurred gender
lines as well. &Other Stories and Weekday are brands under the H&M group. Two years ago,
Weekday is launched a gender-free collection, named MTWTFSS/HE (Ter Haar, 2013). Philip
Warkander stated: "The collection is more than just another sex added to men’s, women’s and unisex,
it is meant to open the way we think about gender, redefine and deconstruct" (Ter Haar, 2013). Fall
2015 &Other stories launched a transgender fashion campaign, by a full transgender crew, including
trans models Valentijn de High and Hari Nef.
According to Marketing Research NPD (2015) American Apparel is one of the brands that have been
selling gender-neutral clothing for years. American Apparel’s senior vice president of marketing states
they have been selling gender-neutral clothes for a long time, and their costumer have always been
doing this as well (Ryan, 2015). Diesel has launched a ‘gender-neutral’ add campaign and Ellen
DeGeneres designed a gender-neutral women’s collection as well as a gender-neutral line for GAP
Kids, to empower young girls. What is meant with ‘gender-neutral’ is a collection that does not
features ‘typical’ feminine characteristics in the clothing (Schlossberg, 2015). Stereotypes are left
behind; an aim to state ‘being a girl’ does not have to be not equal with dressing typically girly.
As we have discussed before, gender roles in fashion and dress have been shifting over all times and it
is not the first time designers are focussing on unisex clothing either. “Historically, fashion has always
played with the line between genders, but today’s trend is different in that it is more accessible than
previous incarnations. Instead of a stray skirt or a sarong on men’s runways, entire collections are
being devoted to genderless dressing” (Del Vecho, 2015). Miuccia Prada states, “More and more, it
feels instinctively right to translate the same idea for both genders” (La Ferla, 2015).
“This new emphasis on unisex and agender couture is not just the result of the whims of a few
designers. In a way, it reflects a rising public sensitivity to issues of gender and gender identity that
were once considered off-limits. Increased awareness of gender issues caused by the visibility of
atypical gender identities has caused consumers, especially young people, to start to resist traditional
stereotypes associated with one’s assigned sex” (Del Vecho, 2015). Respondent Annabel states:
“There is not one clear definition of what being a woman is to me. Every woman is different. The
same goes for being a man”.
27
Marilyn DeLong argues that fashion theorists11 believe that fashion is a reflection of social, economic,
political, and cultural changes, but also that fashion expresses modernity and symbolizes the spirit of
the times. In ‘Fashion and Modernity’ (2005) Caroline Evans shows how the concepts of fashion and
modernity are intimately linked. She states how technology, the body, nationality are informed and
shaped by modernity, and vice versa. Gender neutrality is a widely discussed topic, and is moving far
beyond fashion (Mauritzen, 2015). In the following paragraph we will discuss a variety of gender
blurring movements outside of fashion.
Gender-blurring movements beyond fashion
Department store Target is renewing their use of gender-labelled goods. A series of children’s goods
will not be referred to as ‘boys’ and ‘girls’ anymore, but as ‘kids’ toys and bedding (Pittman, 2015).
Costumers criticised Target for dividing toys on gender. For example a sign stating ‘Building sets’
followed by ‘Girls building sets’ was not well received by Targets costumers (Contrera, 2015). Target
response was to stop labelling girls and boy’s toys. In addition to that Target posted the following
statement on their website: “[…] we know that shopping preferences and needs change and, as guests
have pointed out, in some departments like Toys, Home or Entertainment, suggesting products by
gender is unnecessary” (Target.com, 2015). All respondents of the interviews feel positive about less
gendered toys and gender-neutral costumes by Disney as well.
With the thought of unnecessary gender labelling, the first gender-neutral pre-school has opened its
doors in Sweden (Sekseneutrale opvoeding, 2013). The schools principal notes gender-neutral
education aims to give everybody the same opportunities, the same rights and the same obligations to
everybody. “We don’t have any expectations based on someone’s sex” (Sekseneutrale opvoeding,
2013). She states that children do, what we [i.e. society, teachers, parents] expect from them. The
primary pronouns ‘he’ or ‘she’ are not used, instead the Swedish gender-neutral term ‘hen’. Several
Swedish political parties use the term as well (Sekseneutrale opvoeding, 2013). Not everybody is fond
of parenting and educating children gender-neutral. Critics state raising children gender-neutral does
not prepare them for society because, society does make clear difference made between men’s and
women’s behaviour (Sekseneutrale opvoeding, 2013). Critics state it is unnatural to raise children
gender-neutral, because children are born as a man or as a woman.
11
DeLongreferstoLehmann, 2000; Blumer, 1969; Laver, 1937
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However, not only in the most ‘gender equal’ country gender-neutral language is making its entry.
Harvard University and University of Vermont students will be giving the options for a wider variety
of pronouns. By giving students the opportunity to use a wider variety of pronouns, not just ‘he’ or
‘she’, but also the gender-neutral options like ‘ze’ of ‘xe’, universities acknowledge the gender
diversity of their students (Herndon, 2015; Scelfo, 2015). About three years ago Always launched the
commercial #likeagirl, trying to give a new connotation to the insult ‘Throwing a ball like a girl’, by
stating throwing like a girl is an awesome thing (Always.com, 2015). Now, the British government
will ban ‘sexist’ or gender stereotyping language from schools, by giving out a list of words and
sayings not to be said anymore. This includes language directly encouraging stereotypes including
‘man up’ or ‘throw like a girl’. According to the BBC (Richardson, 2015) the report stated gender
stereotyping can be harmful for as well boys as for girls. It can create a lack of confidence for girls
who want to choose rather science subject and boys can be amortized as not working hard enough
(Richardson, 2015). Gender-neutral bathrooms are making their way into society as well. One could
argue, these changes in society influence, and perhaps change, the connotation of femininity,
masculinity and therefore the sociologic notion of gender.
A wide variety of gender-neutral products are making their way into western society. The products
vary from skincare and make-up products to gender-neutral lingerie. Products that were ought to be
feminine only are starting to gain a place in a male’s world. Make-up brand Sephora has launched its
first ‘male’-make-up collection including foundations and concealers (Newman, 2010). Among the
big-name brands that make products for men are Jean Paul Gaultier, Yves Saint Laurent and Clinique.
The New York Times even stated: “Men’s cosmetics becoming a bull market” (Newman, 2010). Artist
duo Ava Nirui and Alex Lee state we (i.e. western society) are beyond pink hyper feminine looks, and
therefore designed a ‘post-gender generation Barbie’, to break the gender stereotype (Antonissen,
2015; Lee and Nirui, 2015). By the use of boundary-pushing brands including Hood By Air and
Vetements they emphasized: “to make this Barbie more gender-neutral to reflect how the general
public is transitioning toward more progressive and open-minded values” (Lee and Nirui, 2015). Some
weeks after Nirui and Lee launched this project, Barbie released its first commercial featuring a boy,
playing with two girls and their Barbies (Wang, 2015). One could argue this to be ground breaking,
hence this commercial breaks the strong stereotype ‘girls and Barbies’ and creates the meaning of
‘kids and Barbies’.
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Pantone has released two colors of the year for 2016: A soft pink called Rose Quartz (Pantone 131520) and a muted blue called Serenity (Pantone 15-3919). Leatrice Eiseman, Executive Director of
Pantone’s Color Institute statement on the Patone website: “In many parts of the world we are
experiencing a gender blur as it relates to fashion, which has in turn impacted color trends throughout
all other areas of design. This more unilateral approach to color is coinciding with societal movements
toward gender equality and fluidity, the consumer's increased comfort with using color as a form of
expression, a generation that has less concern about being typecast or judged and an open exchange of
digital information that has opened our eyes to different approaches to color usage.” Pantone aims to
challenge gender stereotypes by use of these two colours. Besides Pantone more companies state these
generations perceive gender different. In the following paragraph we will discuss Generation Y and
Generation Z more in depth.
Generation Y / Generation Z
American corporation NPD Marketing Research has a futuristic view on how the western world will
perceive gender, and notes how this is caused by a new way of perceiving gender by Generations Y.
Lucie Greene, the worldwide director of JWT Intelligence12 states: “The whole perception of sexual
orientation is being challenged by the millennials. Also among the cohort of 12-to-19-year-olds
defining Generation Z, the lines between male and female are becoming increasing blurred” (La Ferla,
2015). NPD marketing cooperation (2015) conducted a research on the specific effects on retail and
states in its report there is a shift in the perception of gender across the country. NPD emphasises how
not all Americans are as open-minded concerning sexual and gender choices. Rather, Americans are
talking about it more. According to NPD half of the age group referred to as Millennials13, believe
gender exist on a spectrum and should not be limited to male and female; they are the most tolerant
generation to date (NPD, 2015).
An interview by Vice i-D magazines emphasizes this. They asked ten young creative people, who can
be categorized in generation Y or generation Z, from all over the world on their opinion of gender. On
the question “What is the biggest gender stereotype we need to overcome and why?” some of their
answers were: “That things like gender and sexuality are black and white, one thing or the other.
Instead we exist on a spectrum of varying shades of grey” and “That certain genders have certain
genitals and that it is not a fluid thing” (i-D, 2015). All of the interviewed perspective was towards a
12
13
The trend-forecasting arm of J. Walter Thompson.
Roughly said the people who are born between 1980 - 2000.
30
future wherein gender plays a less important and less fixed role (i-D, 2015). All respondents of the by
myself conducted interviews have a rather open-minded vision on gender. Most of them see gender as
rather fluid, less fixed. And all of the respondents state everyone should be able to wear what they
like, even if it does not conform to the norm. They also all agree on the fact that gender stereotypes
should be less reinforced. A study by the Intelligence Group14 noted over two-third of people aged 14
to 34 gender does not define destiny or behaviour as it used to do (Jayson, 2014). Greene states that
millennials are challenging sexual orientation, and this will move on the next generation (La Ferla,
2015; Weinstock, 2015). Aynouk Tan15 (2015) states the discussion of gender is partly fed by the
democratisation of the Internet. Millennials are raised with the Internet, and along with that, they have
gained individual voices. “It is those customers—young, trend-conscious but not trend-controlled, and
liberated by the Internet—who are demanding a less rigid fashion future” (Ryan, 2015).
Millennials are redefining the very meaning of gender (Jayson, 2014). They are gaining more
spending power and are the future; an opportunity opens for retailers to perceive their costumers in
this new way. If Generation Y and Generation Z perceive gender differently, retailers and
manufactures must respond to this. Not just male or female, but start perceiving them as more
complex and varied (NPD, 2015). As millennials - now the largest generation in America - gain more
spending power, retailers may respond with additional agender options, aiming to appeal to their fluid
view of gender, NPD Marketing Research predicted.
14
A consumer insights company.
15AynoukTanisa(fashion)journalist,curatorandart-director.Shespeaksoutongenderissues
infashion.
31
IV: Is there a future in gender-neutral
clothing?
Loosening up
In her article ‘Theories of fashion’ (2005) DeLong refers to how the last two centuries women have
been submitted to the role of subordinated gender as well as being fashionable. Therefore she argues:
“fashionable dress and the beautification of the self could be perceived as expressions of
subordination”. She argues that masculine dress is perceived as powerful clothing, for example suits,
and states a men’s interest in fashion would be seen as unmanliness. As discussed before, a clothing
item does not have any ‘masculinity’ of ‘femininity’ in it; accept for the meaning we give to it (The
perfect suit, 2011). And as stated before, with the blurring of the gender lines, the notions of
masculinity and femininity are becoming more blurred, and this effect is seen in fashion. Most stores
are traditionally categorised in a men’s section and a women’s section (Ryan, 2015). However today,
women can buy and wear trousers, but men risks ridicule when he would wear a skirt (Victoria and
Albert Museum, n.d.); “A man in a skirt is not only perceived as looking feminine but being feminine”.
Venturini Fendi states that classifications and boundaries are becoming more loose, people have the
freedom to do anything, by referring to how historically ‘men did one thing and women another’.
Biological differences
To join the gender-neutral trend, Selfridges choose to offer clothing without dividing the items in
women’s and men’s collections. However, other brands experience biological differences between the
32
sexes to be crucial to maintain gendered collections. Brands as Clarks and Stutterheim, who both sell
the same item for male and female, both experienced the differences between male and female body.
A spokes person from Clarks (2015) stated a woman’s foot to (most of the time) be smaller than a
man’s foot, and Clarks therefore choose to produce a males and females version of ‘Deserts boots’. In
addition to that, from time to time, they offer variations of the desert boot in only women’s sizes or
only men’s sizes. Stutterheim, known for its iconic classic raincoat, started off as a brand for men.
Respondent marketing director Sophia Jansson states soon they realized many women saw potential in
wearing the jacket as well they became a unisex brand. However, due to biological differences
between males and females, some women were unable to find a fitting jacket. Due to these findings
Stutterheim will, from the AW16 collection on, categorize the collection in men’s and women’s wear.
Jansson stated the women’s and the men’s collection will vary a bit when it comes to design. She
emphasizes how Stutterheim “has a feminist approach, but we are also very aware of what market we
are active on. We need to create something that gets the attention of ‘female’ press such as magazines
like Elle, Vogue etc. and opens the eye of the female consumer”. This shows commercial fashion
magazines to target the stereotype feminine woman. However, even though men and women have
different bodies, not all men have the same bodies and nor do all women. Two of my respondents state
to buy clothing from the section that does not align to their sex, because it fits better. Respondent Ben
Aerts states 99% of the clothing he owns, he bought at the women’s department. Besides the fact that
he finds the clothing more beautiful, due to his small posture they fit better as well. Respondent Eva
van der Panne states Americans Apparel men’s jeans fit her better than the women’s version. Fashion
brand ‘Older brother’ for example, that features gender-neutral clothing, chooses to approach sizing
different. They focus on a certain body; their clothing fits best on people with large hips and big chests
and those with broad shoulders and long legs (Marum, 2015). They have one gender-neutral sizechart. Another brand, TillyandWilliam, their core value is unisex and transformable, made to fit on
different body parts in different ways. “There are different ways to accentuate the curves of a woman,
or the shape of a man, and we are trying to discover that middle ground” (TILLYandWILLIAM,
2015). Andreas Bauer16 states gender-neutral clothing is an expanding market.
Erland, an American Apparel executive, agrees that editability is key for this market. With most items,
she says, “it’s more about how our costumer styles it than about any amount of masculinity or
femininity inherent in the piece” (Ryan, 2015). Selfridges started Agender because they noticed men
16
Employee at consulting company Roland Berger.
33
were buying at the women’s department and vice versa. Here is to argue if categorizing clothing in
gendered sections is out dated. As Selfridges and American Apparel found, this generation is willing
to choose and style for themselves.
Is it more than just a trend?
“Although gender blurring might just be a passing trend in fashion”, phrases Del Vecho (2015), “the
movement causing it certainly is not. Gender non-conforming pieces on haute couture runways
represent a movement away from the oppressive confines of what is traditionally considered
masculine and feminine—a movement into the oft-misunderstood shades of grey in between”.
Kimberly Chrisman-Campbell (La Ferla, 2015), a fashion historian17 states: “every time genderblurring trends come up they push the boundaries a bit more”. This aligns with how Paoletti uses the
‘punctuated equilibrium’ theory to explain how gendered and non-gendered fashions alternated and
stretch standards. Fabio Costs phrases “Fashion is a reflection of what’s going on in society. Times are
different, and therefore, fashion needs to be as well.”
As stated before a growing number of people feel there should be more than two options to classify
gender (Scelfo, 2015; NPD, 2015). Facebook offers over fifty options to which with what gender you
identify including: “agender,” “androgyne,” “pangender” and “trans person” (Scelfo, 2015).
Schlossberg (2015) states: “Gender neutral clothing is becoming a critical niche in the apparel
industry, and the importance is twofold: one, retailers are recognizing that women and men need not
be confined to traditional gender roles, and two, it shows that retailers are responding to a society that
is accepting of those with gender fluidity.”
17
A fashion historian and the author of Fashion Victims: Dress at the Court of Louis XVI and MarieAntoinette
34
Conclusion
To what extent does the gender-blur influence the way we dress? A number of gender-neutral trends
are making its entry in western society. Pantone choose a soft pink called Rose Quartz (Pantone 131520) and a muted blue called Serenity (Pantone 15-3919) to be the colors of 2016 because “In many
parts of the world we are experiencing a gender blur as it relates to fashion, which has in turn impacted
color trends throughout all other areas of design […]”.
According to a variety of research, including the interviews conducted by myself, found Generation Y
and Generation Z to perceive gender different from previous generations; less fixed and rather fluid.
This is an interesting group for brands hence Generation Y alone will be the largest consumer group
ever existed from 2017 on. Here arises the importance for brands to connect with this customer.
The reason these generations perceive gender different is among other things due to the changed
power relations between men and women. The lives of men and women are becoming more and more
alike, women built careers, and men are stay-home-dads. Critics on traditional gender roles state they
limit people, and less fixed gender lines enable people to reach their full potential. A recent study by
Daphne Joel found there is no male or female brain, in fact it are all individual brains. Another study
by Lise Elliot found social factors to influence the brain more then ever expected. Not only gender is
questioned to be binary, so is sex. It has been estimated that 1.7% of the population is intersex –
35
making them about as common as people with red hair. Several countries now offer a third gender
option on passports: ‘X’.
What is the role of gender in dress? The gender-neutral trend in fashion will not cause gender lines to
disappear completely. However, as Paoletti states by the use of the ‘punctuated equilibrium’ theory,
every time a gender-blurring trend rises, gender norms are being stretched. This we see in fashion
history, the meaning we give to clothing is cultural defined. Heels do not have femininity built in to
them, only the femininity we have assigned to them, in the 18th century they were perceived
masculine. And because of the fact that gender stereotypes are broken beyond fashion such as in toys,
education, and the definition of gender in general will become slightly altered. The punctuated
equilibrium theory states that even if the fashion that follows is rather gendered, gender lines are
stretched and gender norms have become more blurred.
The effect of this gender-neutral trend and opportunities for brands vary. Brands can, for example,
choose to focus on the rather niche market of them who do not identify with the traditional gender
lines. Or brands may focus on the design and connecting collections more by making fewer
differences in men’s and women’s wear. It can influence shopping experiences as well. Generation Y
and Generation Z perceive gender rather fluid, so the notions of men’s wear and women’s wear
become more blurred as well. These are some examples but this movement opens up to wide range of
interpretations. The gender neutrality trend focuses on the grey area in between and therefore asks for
more variety. Due to the democratisation of the Internet, individuals are gaining a voice. This and the
voice of pop culture and media figures will contribute more attention for the grey area between
masculinity and femininity as well. Trousers for women were only accepted by the 1960s, so perhaps
Generation Y and Generation Z, with pop culture figures like Jaden Smith, will enable men to wear
more feminine dress as well. The future will bring us feminine women, masculine women, feminine
men, masculine men, and everything in between. These generations, and those to come, dismantle
(gender) stereotypes and focus on the individual. All consumers expect to be perceived the way they
identify.
36
37
I would like to thank all the people who I have
been able to interview for this research report.
Annabel van Rooyen
Willem van Dijk
Benjamin Aerts
Eva van der Panne
Thomas van Luin
Dylan Westerweel
Titus Lotgering
Belinda van Booma
Doron Beus
Bente Langendijk
Sofia Jansson (Stutterheim)
Anita van den Brink (Clarks)
38
39
Graduation project Amsterdam Fashion Institure
Fashion and Management
by Eva-Luna Schulte
AMFI Amsterdam Fashion Institute
40