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44 a ARRANGEMENT: Modern arrangement ad Herennium that includes the Latin text with an to classical English translation, an introduction rhetoric, a dated but valuable bibliography, and an excellent analysis of the text. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy. New York, 1991. A very readable translation of Aristotle's Rhetoric with instructive notes and appendices. Aristotle. Problems. Books 22-38. Translated by W. S. Hett. Rhetorica ad Alexandrum. Translated by H. Rackham. Cambridge, Mass., 1937. The Loeb series places Anaximenes's Rhetorica ad Alexandrum in the corpus of Aristotle's works. An introduction and helpful outline of the treatise is provided with the Greek text and an English translation. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. De inventione-De optimo Senere oratorum-topicc. Translated by H. M. Hubbell. Cambridge, Mass., 1949. Contains the Latin texts with English translations, along with helpful introductions. Cicero, Marcus Tullius. De oratore. Books L-2. Translated by E. W Sutton and H. Rackham. Revised edition. Cambridge, Mass., 1948. First published 1942. De oratore. Book 3. De Fato-Paradoxa stoicorum-De partitione oratoria. Translated by H. Rackham, 1942. These volumes contain the Latin texts with English translations. These two volumes provide the reader with Cicero's philosophy of rhetoric in the as De ordfore well as more technical comments on topics such as arrangement. Enos, Richard Leo. Greek Rhetoric Before Aristotle. Prospect Heights, Ill., 1993. An introduction to the emergence of Greek rhetoric with some helpful com- ments on early notions of arrangement. Enos, Richard Leo. The Literate Mode of Cicero's Legal Rhetoic. Carbondale, Ill., 1988. A study of Cicero's application of his own rhetorical theory in his legal arguments with a detailed treatment of his views on, and practice of, arrangement. Murphy, James J. Rhetoric 'n the M'cldle Ages: A History of Rhetoical Theory from Saint Augustine to the Renais- Berkele, 1974. An excellent explanation of the transformation of classical canons of rhetoric s4nce. into the medieval arts of rhetoric. The detailed treatment of drs dictaminis is especially helpful in understanding its evolution from classical systems of arrangement. Plato. Phaedrus. Translated with an Introduction and Commentary by R. Hackforth. Cambridge, Mass., 1972. Offerc detailed biographical information on Plato and an explanation of the issues behind his critique of rhetoric. Quintilian, Marcus Fabius. The institutio orato ria of Quin tilian. Translated by H. E. Butler. 4 vols. Cambridge, Mass., 1920-1922. Offers the Latin text with an En- glish translation. A synopsis of each of the twelve books is an aid to the reader, as well as important background material on Quintilian, including a letter to his publisher, Trypho. Schiappa. Edward. The Beginnings ofRhetoricalTlrcory in Classical Greece. New Haven, 1999. A strong argument that challenges conventional claims about the origins of rhetoric. Rhetoric's origin as a discipline in Greece is viewed not by performance but by the articulation of theory. Vickers, Brian. In Defence of Rhetoric. Oxford, f988. A good overview of the history of rhetoric with a discussion ol dispositio throughout the volume. LEo ENos -RrcnnRo Modern arrangement Arrangement concerns how parts of a text (whether spoken, written, or visual) can be defined, how they can be related to each other in a hierarchy, and how they can be ordered so that an audience experiences them in a certain sequence or configuration. From a rhetorical perspective, emphasizing the role of discourse in a situation, arrangement is considered a controllable variable that influences an audience's response to a text. In other words, the same material might be more or less understandable or persuasive depending on how it is placed on a page or computer screen or sequenced in its delivery to an audience. Though arrangement was one of the five maior divisions of classical rhetoric, it has not received the attention given to invention or style in the twentieth-century revival of rhetoric. Even the term arrangemettt (or the Latin dispositio or Greek taxis) is rarely used. Instead the terms form, struchue, ot organizcttion usually appear when issues of arrangement are discussed. Attention to arrangement requires deciding, first of all, what is being arranged. What "parts" can or should be identified, and how can the boundaries between different parts of texts in different media be constructed or perceived? Once the parts or units of analysis have been defined, discussions of their ordet their relative size, and their relation to each other can follow. What options are available to describe the parts of texts and their arrangement? In the following discussion, the term feaf can stand not only for spoken ARRANGEMENT: Modern or written (including printed) discourse but also for nonverbal visual and video texts, and for texts that mix modes of presentation. Rationales by Content. The arrangement of a text can be thought of in terms of how its subiect matter is divided into topics, how these are sequenced, what relative amounts of space (for visual and verbal texts) or time (for aural texts) they receive, and what relations of hierarchy (subor- dination) or equality (coordination) are estab- lished among them. Schemes for arranging the content of a text are usually based on some rationale, conventional or presumably natural, for dealing with a subject. I:or example, verbal descriptions of a physical location often adopt some strategic ordering of details in a visual field, such as left to right or foreground to background, presumably recreating the order in which the observer would take in the scene. Biographies also follow the "natural order" of the chronological sequence of events in the subiect's life (though they may open with a dramatic or famous mclment in a person's career). The heaclings and subheadings in a text represent its arrangement as a sequence hierarchically ordered; some parts are presented as tnore general and inclusive than others. In the past, the concern of sixteenth-century rhetoricians like llamus lvith "Methcd," with the successively branching divisions of a subject, was also a concern to find the optimal way to arrange nraterial based on inherent clivisions in it. Such divisions ancl subdivisions, evcn when they are presented in hypertext formats on a Web site, can be highly conventional. For example, an encyclopedia article on a country will routinely include sections on its geography, history, economy, and culture; within a single encyclopedia, these sections will usually he sequenced in rne satne way, irnposing the same order on evc.ry similar entry. How an item is Derceived as distinct from another topic, so l:hat it can be labeled as a separate section and in some scheme of arrangement, obvi . ously depends on decisions by the producers of a text (authors, editors, book or Web-site desigr.rers), but these decisions are also constrained by cultural or social conventions. Hence the way a content area is defined and partitioned, and its parts then sequenced, can suggest the knowledgeforming routines of a culture. placed Rationales by Acts arrangement a or Effects. The 45 arrange- ment of a text can be described as the sequence of acts its author performs, intentionally or not, or as the sequence of effects the text has, or might have, on its audience. (ln terms of speech-act theort these correspond to the illocutionary and perlo- cutionary acts accomplished by the text.) [See Speech acts, utterances as.l A "negative news,,let- ter in business, for example, has the overall goal of maintaining a good relationship with an addressee while denying a request. 'lo achieve that overall goal, the letter attempts a sequence of acts. Such letters may start out with an attempt to placate the addressee by acknowledging the original complaint or request in a positive way. Then the neg- ative news will be delivered, followed by some positive closing message, such as the offer of a discount coupon for a disgruntled consumer or a wish for success to the disappointed iob candidate. Reciprocally, the arrangement of a piece can be described in terms of the series of effects it presumably has on an audience; for example, first frightening or worrying them, and then reassuring them. When a question-and-answer arrangement strategy is used, an audience is first puzzled or made curious, and then relieved or satisfied with a surprising but plausible answer. (Nature stories are often treated this way, especially when written for children. "How do elephants drink water?" the opening asks, and the text goes on to answer.) Arguments that propose a course of action have a fairly fixed order of effects; they usually begin by creating or increasing anxiety or outrage about a problem in the audience, then offer hope with the proposed solution, and end by arousing a commitment to act. Rationales by Formal Features. The arrangement of a text can also be described in terms of the placement and sequencing of various formal features. Different type fonts and sizes, mixiures of prose and dialogue, pa(agraphs of different lengths, boxed or highlighted text, and unusual margins, all of these are formal features that can be alterecl and secluenced in a printed text. In the case of an aural text, sections can be formally differentiated by pauses and by changes in the speaker's pitch, volume, or speed of articulation. [See Delivery.l The arrangement of formal elements becomes crucial when the text is either entirely visual (a photograph, a diagram, a single 46 a ARRANGEMENT: Modern arrangement video image) or a mixture of the visual and verbal like a magazine advertisement, or of the verbal, visual, and audio like a hypermedia Web site. Formally distinct sections in a text can also be identified by changes in the language used. Clas' sical rhetorical theory recommended that the different parts of the six-part oration use different levels of style and different densities of figuration and changes in delivery-middle style for the naftatio and grand style for the peroratio. lSee Style.l Contemporary stylistics would describe such differences as changes in register (e.g., colIoquial language versus legalese) or, in the char- acterization of Russian critic M. M. Bakhtin (1895-1975), as changes in primary speech genres, the language patterns characteristic of distinct verbal activities like military commands or friendly letters (Speech Genres and Other Late Es' sals, Austin, 1986). Changes in register or speech genre may reflect the rhetor's awareness of different segments of the audience addressed. So, for example, a scientific popularization may repeat the same material in different registers, not changing the content but changing the level of accessibility. What constitutes a significant shift in register, where these shifts occur, and how they are sequenced are arrangement issues. The formal linguistic markers of arrangement may also involve metadiscourse, language about language that includes the devices writers and speakers use to signal how their texts are organized. The phrase "in conclusion" is an example of metadiscourse that signals to an audience where a speaker is in a text. Other examples include initiation cues ("Let us first consider") and transitional devices ("Now I want to turn to"). These verbal devices have visual analogs (e.g., the border around an image, the fadeout)' Even in the absence of a strong preexistinS pattern for a text shared by its author and audience, a sense of its arrangement can be communicated with such devices. While arrangement strategies based on ordering the content, the acts or effects, and the formal features can be described independently, theories of arrangement, whether developed for analysis or pedagogy or both, usually concern the overlay or compatibility of divisions based on these three rationales. Thus the sequencing or configuration of formal features can reflect or reinforce the se- quencing or configuration of the content or the acts/effects. Acts of interpretation often depend on deciphering one arrangement strategy in terms of another. In the case of a sonnet, for example, formal divisions created by patterns of rhyming within the fourteen lines are used to make and mark movements in the content (e.9., stages of thought or thematic development) or in the effects. Formal divisions marked by subheadings or hypertext links are taken to represent different aspects or parts of the content. Sections de' fined by the acts they perform can also be marked by content shifts and layout differences; so, for example, the "negative news" letter, which per' forms at least three speech acts, might segregate each in a separate paragraph. Then, too, a text representing a sequence of voices might give each a formally distinct section in a text by manipulating indentation, spacing, type font, and so on' Among twentieth-century rhetoricians, Kenneth Burke (1897-1993) paid special attention to the interconnections between form, content, and ef' fect. He pointed out that when audiences expect a text to conform to a certain formal pattern (whether they derive that expectation from the text itself or from elsewhere), and then have that expectation fulfllled, they are more likely to be persuaded by the content that completes the form. Updating Traditional Schemes of Arrangement. In classical rhetoric, the arrangement of a typical couruoom speech was described as a se' quence of six parts: an introduction, statement of facts, partition, confirmation of the case, refuta- tion of opponents, and conclusion (see above). These parts were distinguished on the basis of what effects they were supposed to have on the audience. This traditional arrangement scheme is still current in the common advice that a speech, and many kinds of written texts, should have an introduction, some kind of body that delivers the author's arguments in an effective sequence, and a conclusion. According to classical and early modern rhetorical manuals, the options for se- quencing one's arguments depend on their "strength," their persuasiveness with the intended audience. Rhetors were advised to order arguments according to their increasing or decreasing strength, or to place their weakest arguments in the middle, and open and close with ARRANGEMENT: Modern arrangement stronger ones. While the notion of the "strength" of an argument depends on an assessment of its force for a particular audience, the Belgian rhetoricians Chaim Perelman and Lucie OlbrechtsTyteca questioned whether the "strength" of an argument can be independently assessed (Tlre New Rhetoric, Notre Dame, Ind., 1969), They pointed out that an argument's strength for an audience may in fact be created by its position. Researchers in psychology and speech communication have attempted to find empirical bases fbr various strategies of arrangement, devising ex- periments to test such issues as whether "primacy" (coming flrst) or "recency" (coming last) were more effective strategies for competing arguments. But the large number of variables involved in human communicative situationsmakes it difficult to generalize from such studies. Modern mass media (print iournalism, radio, TV the Internet) present special complications for the study of arrangement because the sequencing of information and arguments, the order in which certain appeals reach an audience, is very difficult to predict, particularly because of the "boundary" problem mentioned above. Marshall Mcluhan (1911-1980), a communication theorist, stressed the differences imposed by newer communication media, arguing that newspapers and television broke with the linear arrangenrent of written and spoken discourse by presenting messages all at once or in mosaic fashion. 'lhough McLuhan's more extreme characterizations are not followed today, it is true that the contemporary media consumer may glimpse headlines in a newspaper, catch soundbites on television news, read banners on a Web site, or hear part of a radio talk show and subsequently form opinions from a chaos of fragmented impressions and bits of information. Hence saturation and sheer quantity of exposure to a "message" given in single bursts may count for more than the interrelationship of parts of a single mesby its carefully crafted arrangement. Among newer media, the Intenret and webbed sage achieved environments in particular have brought about speculation on new modes of arrangement. Ijirst, the mixing of aural, verbal, visual, and video elements on the same screen presents arrangement options unique to this medium. Second, hypertext links create "multidimensional" hierarchical a 47 or branching schemes of arrangement. Third, the possibility of wandering from option to option, tbrward and backward, presumably gives the user of a webbed environment more control of the sequence of inputs. Theories of arrangement with these new technologies are the subject of recent scholarly attention, with disagreements over how much is really new in these new media. Arrangement and Genre. Observations on ar- rangement-on the length, sequence, and relation among parts of a text-can often be found in critical analyses of individual works. Stanley Fish's analysis of Freud's case study of "The Wolf Man," for example, points out the rhetorical effectiveness of Freud's delayed disclosure of the meaning of the dream (Doing What Comes Nafir rally, f)urham, N.C., 1989). However, more systematic observations about arrangement can be found in discussions of genres, recurring types of texts (e.9., the inaugural address, the TV news broadcast, the comedy of manners). Indeed, a typical arrangement strategy can be one of the distinguishing features of a genre, whether the parts being arranged are defined in terms of content, act/effect, formal feature, or some combination of the three. Once the typical arrangement strategy of a genre is defined, it then becomes possible to discuss how individual examples add to, delete from, or alter the typical configuration of elements. 'l'he metagenre "narrative" illustrates how variations on a standard arrangement strategy can reflect the rhetorical situation of a text. In the most general sense, a text is a narrative when its parts are episodes or events (whether externaI or psychological). Histories, biographies, news stories, movies, and novels all fall under this broad classification. The default arrangement strategy for a narrative is chronological sequence, but the events constituting a narrative, real or fictional, do not necessarily have to be arranged in the order in which they presumably occurred.'fhe possibility of rearranging the same basic narrative in different ways is aptly illustrated in the first of the progymnasmatic exercises in classical rhetoric, the fable, where students were directed to take a simple narrative and retell it in different ways, first starting at the beginning, then in the middle, then at the end. The typical newspaper story reflects yet another narrative arrangement strategy: 48 a ARRANGEMENT: Modern arrangement highly condensed version of events is followed by a retelling in greater detail. The fact that the same basic sequence of events can nevertheless be arranged in different representations illusa trates how narratives can be strategically shaped for different rhetorical effects. While literary genres (e.g., Bildungsroman, fl.lm noir, haiku) are described by their content and/ or formal devices, rhetorical genres (e.g., funeral orations, documentaries, summations before a jury) are more typically described in terms of the presumed acts performed or accomplished. Work on rhetorical genres flowered in the 1970s, stimulated by the criticism of Kathleen Jamieson (1975) who expanded the notion ofrhetorical situation defined by Lloyd Bitzer (1968) to include among the constraints facing a rhEt1r the available "antecedent genres." Even in novel situations, a rhetor is nevertheless likely to adopt and adapt forms of communication (genres) already used in similar situations. (Cases made for such precursors do not, however, always involve a discussion of the arrangement strategies typical in the borrowed genre.) [See Hybrid genres.] Genre has also proved to be a useful concept in studies of the psychology of reading, or text consumption in general. Theorists often distinguish "bottom up" strategies of comprehension (where an understanding of a text's overall structure is built up from its parts) from "top down" strategies (where understanding is based on a prior model in the reader's mind). Psycholinguists have established that decisions about genre facilitate comprehension. A reader's (or viewer's or user's) familiarity with a genre, and with its typical arrangement strategy, is a kind of background knowledge; such background knowledge is often characterized in terms of its organization into chronological or hierarchical configurations known as "scripts" or "schemata." Highly conventional genres (e.g., recipes, weather reports, introductions of keynote speakers) are in effect formal schEmafa, familiar pattems of arrangement, that assist readers in assimilating new content. Arrangement and Functional Genres: Heu- ristic Approaches to Arrangement. Interesting work on genre and formal schemes of arrangement has been done by scholars who focus on professional and technical communication. This work aims to teach students and workplace pro- fessionals how to produce texts of a certain kind, especially in business and institutional settings where documents are valued for their efficiency and effectiveness. Advice on how to write functional genres (like resumes, business plans, or progress reports) is often given in the form of an ideal scheme of organization that is then frlled in with content appropriate to the writer's immediate circumstances. Among the most orderly of genres in terms of its arrangement is the scientific research report with, typically, the following fixed sequence of sections: Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion (IMRD). Scholars in the history and rhetoric of science have investigated the evolution and epistemology of this form, which presurnably reflects the ideal order of experimental design, but which has also been criticized for misrepresenting the often chaotic nature of research procedures. Much work has also been done on the optimal internal arrangement of the individual sections of the research article, especially its introduction, which, according to John Swales (1990) and others, tends to follow a fixed series of moves to achieve the rhetorical goal of creating and occupying a research space. Arrangement Below the Level of the Whole Text. While classical rhetoric concerned itself with the arrangement of a whole speech, it also paid attention to smaller textual units and their internal ordering. So, for example, a single line of argument in a speech could take the form of an epicheireme, a five-part argument with claim, reason, proof of reason, embellishment, and resume. Some modern rhetoricians and composition theorists have also tried to define formal units smaller than a whole text that might appear in any genre or concern any subject matter. The traditional "modes of development," once a staple of writing textbooks and now much criticized, can be described as arrangement strategies that involve smaller segments of a text and that are not bound to a particular genre or subiect matter. The all-purpose modes include patterns such as narration (arrangement by sequence), classification (enumeration of the subgroups in a large group), analysis (presenting the hierarchical divisions in a subject), description (rendering a scene or object according to a principle of spatial ordering), cause and effect (linking antecedents ARRANGEMENT: Modern and consequents), and comparison-contrast (deploying likenesses and differences between two entities either feature by feattrre or whole by whole). 'I'he arrangement strategy of a single text can be described as the sequence of the different modes of development it uses. In the late nineteenth century, the Scottish psychologist Alexander Bain (1818-1903) nominated the paragraph as the key structural unit below the level of the whole text (Irtglish Composi- tiut ttrtd Rhetoric, enlarged edition, London, 1901), identifying principles of paragraph construction such as the "topic sentence," consecutive arrangement, and marked subordination. Composition theorists in the twentieth century continued this work by identifying types of paragraphs and describing their internal organization. The arrangement of a text could then be described as the sequence of items taken up in the sequence of its paragraphs using different methods. De^sl.grs itr ltrose (London, 1980) by Walter Nash is another attempt to define compositional runits of roughly paragraph length. Behind this work is the notion that similar arrangement strategies can be imposcd on textual units of different length. So one can have an antithesis (the deployment of opposites or contraries) at the sentence level, the paragraph level, and even across several paragraphs. [Sec, Antithesis; anil overvicw art ic Ie ou Composition.l A smaller-scale theory of arrangement concerns "given/new" or "topic/comment" organization in gr()ups of sentences. Building on the observation that sentences in Indo-European languages tend to put old or given information, material alreacly known to the audience, in the beginning of a sentence, and new information, the "news" in the sentence, toward the end, patterns of organization can be investigated across passages of several sentences. So, for example, a passage can maintain the same topic in a series of sentences, or the new information in one sentence can become the given information in the next. Arrangement in Visual Rhetoric. Arrangement in the sense of the disposition of static parts, rather than the sequencing of effects in time, becomes salient in the creation and interpretation of visuals such as illustrations, photographs, diagrams, emblems, drawings, or computer screens. Ihe study of arrangement in visual arrangement a 49 texts has been enriched by the considerable body of knowledge on the physiology and psychology of perception. There are well-established principles on, for example, what the eye can distinguish and how perceivers can fill in a visual lield according to their expectations. At the same time, unique cultural conventions also inform the configuration of parts of a visual; in Western iconography, a circle around a head can stand for holiness and the left to right ascension of a line graph can represent an increasing quantity. Scholars debate the applicability of principles of arrangement derived from verbal texts to visual texts. Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's Reading hnages: tlrc Gramnnr of Visutrl Design (London, 1996) does use analogies drawn from verbal arrangement to identiry the underlying arrangement strategies in visuals. For example, Kress and van Leeuwen apply the principle of given/new organization (see above) to the spatial arrangement of visual elements, arguing that what appears to the left in a visual is offered as the familiar, established, or orginary, and what appears to the right is the new, the created, the outcome. [See also Hypertext.] BIBLIOGRAPHY llecker, Alton. "A 'l'agmemic Approach to Paragraph Analysis. " College Contpositiort ortd Corttttttntictttion 16 (1965), pp. 237-242. An identification of recurring of paragraph arrangement such as l'RI (topic, restriction, illustration). Bitzer, l.loycl, F. "'l'he Rhetorical Situation." Phibsoplty and Rhetoric 1.1 (1968), pp. 1-14. Bolter, Jay David, and Richard Grusin. Rerrediotion: Undcrstanditrg New L4edio. Cambridge Mass., 1998. Makes the case that new media (e.9., webbed environments) "remediate" or extend earlier media but are not radicall)'new. Burke, Kenneth. Counte'r-Stuter??enf. New York, 1931. Burke's first work, contains a discussion of three t)'pes of form (arrangement): conventional, repetipatterns tive, progressive. References to the same concept appear in later works. Campbell, Karlyn Kohrs, and Kathleen llall Jamieson, eds. Form and Genre: Shaping, Rlrctoricttl Acriol, Iralls Church, Va., 1978. Introductory essay by the editors defines rhetorical genres; discussions of genres in subsequent essays occasionally mention arrangement. Clark, Ilerbert F{., and Susan E. Haviland. "Comprehension and the Given-New Contract." ln Discourse I'ro- 50 . ARS DICTAMINIS dnction and Comprehension. Edited by Roy O. Freedle. Norwood, NJ., 1977. An investigation of the assumptions and reasoning processes used to make sense of strings of clauses. Dillon, George. Constructing lexts. Bloomington, Ind., 1981. Chapter 3 contains a discussion of organization in terms of schema; that is, structures of information or presumptions about the normal that readers bring to a text. Hovland, Carl I., IrvingJanis, and Harold H. Kelley. Ifte Order of Presentation in Persuasion. New Haven, 1957. VandeKopple, William. "Some Exploratory Discourseon Metadiscourse." College Composition and Communication 36 (1985), pp. 82-93. Contains a survey of many possible types of metadiscourse, including those devices that signal arrangement. Van Diik, Tevn. Macrostructures. Hillsdale, NJ., 1979. From the perspective of text linguistics, a discussion of how passages entail propositions at higher levels of generality. -J EANNE FrnNr,srocr The classical account of empirical studies by psychologists on the position of arguments and their ARS DICTAMINIS. The comparative persuasiveness. variety of medieval rhetoric that provided in- Jamieson, Kathleen. "Antecedent Genre as Rhetorical Constraint." Quarteily Joumal ofSpeech 6l (1975), pp. 406-415. Makes the case that in novel rhetorical situations, rhetors draw on earlier genres used in similar situations. Jamieson, Kathleen. Eloquence in an Electonic Age. New York, 1988. Claims that informal conversational structure has replaced formal argument in televised political exchanges. Landow, GeorgeP. Hypertext 2.0: The Convergence ofContempotary Citical Theory and Technology.2d ed. Bal- timorc, 1977 . Argues that the linear arrangement of individual literary texts will be replaced by continuous webs of text. Larsen, Richard. "Toward a Linear Rhetoric of the Essay." College Composition and Communication 22 (1971), pp. 140-146. An application of speech act theory to arrangement, seeing a text as a sequence of acts to achieve a goal. Mcluhan, Marshall. The Gutenbug Galaxy: The Making ofTypographic Mar. Toronto, 1962. Argues for differences between linear and nonlinear media. Meyer, Bonnie J .F. The Organization of Prose and lts Effects on Memory. Amsterdam, 1975. A psycholinguistic ap- proach to the hierarchical organization of informa- tion in a text. Pitkin, Willis. "Discourse Blocs." CoIIege Composition and Communication 20 (1969), pp. 138- 148. An attempt to define units of arrangement according to theirdis- course function (coordination, complementation, subordination, superordination). Snyder, Ilana. Hypertoi: The Electronic Labyrinth. New York, 1997. A discussion of how reading and writing practices are changed in hypertext environments. Swales, John M. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. Cambridge, U.K., 1990. Includes a useful summary of approaches to genre and a detailed discussion of the typical arrangement of sections in the academic/scientific research report, with special attention to introductions. ars dictaminis is the struction in the composition of letters and other epistolary documents. Between 1077 and 1085, Alberic of Monte Cassino produced the first textbooks of medieval rhetoric that incorporated explicit instruction on Ietter writing. Within a generation, Adalbert of Samaria and Hugh of Bologna had taken Alberic's innovation a step farther by developing textbooks that focused exclusively on letter writing, drawing their theory from the technical rhetorics of Cicero (De inventione) and pseudo-Cicero (Rhetorica ad Herennium) and the commentaries on them. [See Classical rhetoric.] Adalbert's and Hugh's textbooks and those of their contemporaries at Bologna in the first half of the twelfth century established a genre that eventually spread throughout Europe and is represented by hundreds of treatises in thousands of manuscripts. In longevily and influence, the crs dictaminis was the most successful of the medieval adaptations of classical rhetoric. The typical treatise, called an a6 dictandi or summa dictancli, combined a fairly standard range of precepts, concerned chiefly with arrangement and style, and illustrative examples or models for imitation. [See Arrangement: Traditional arrangement; Imitation; and Style.] Dictaminal teaching clearly reflects a fundamental conception of letters as official, public, and spoken texts. That letters are understood as quasi-orations can be seen from the treatment of their component parts, which is modeled on Cicero's analysis of forensic speeches. By the mid-twelfth century, most teachers ofthe ars dictaminis recognized fivebasicparts of a letter: (1) the salutatio or "greeting"; (2) the captatio benevolentiae or "securing of goodwill," which alternatively was called the exordium, the arenga (" harangue"), or even the proverbium (since ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RHE,TORIC Thomas O. 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Rhetoric-Encyclopedias' I' Sloane' Thomas O' 00-0s2870 PNi72 .E52 2001 808'.003 -dc?r Enos' ed" portions of ,,Feminist rhetodc" by Karlyn Kohrs Campbell previously appeared in Theresa Age Encyclopedia Information Co,iposiion: Communicition ftom Ancient fiyu t1 the Routledge' of permission (Garland 1996); tLey are included here by of Rhetoric a-ii EDITORIAL AND PRODUCTION STAFF Execative Editor: Christopher Collins DeveloPment Edifor: Mark Mones Assistant Proiect Editor: Merilee Johnson Copyeditors: Patricia Connolly, Alexa Firat, Conitantina Rhodes Bailly, Martha Goldstein Manufacturing Controller : Donna Ng Book Designen Joan Greenfi eld Monaging Editor: Matthew Giarratano Publisher: Karen CaseY 579864 Printed in the United States of America on acid'free PaPer