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Xia Dynasty
Shang Dynasty
Xia Dynasty:
archeological evidence and
radiocarbon dating (1959)
show this “myth” as the
FIRST Dynasty. They
used bronze weapons and
created pottery. They
were agrarian.
Shang Dynasty: used
oracle bones/dragon
bones. Bronze vessels for
worship. Bronze fittings
for chariots & horses.
Grew millet and wheat.
When kings died - slaves &
prisoners sacrificed and
buried with them. 30
kings and 7 different
capitals.
Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty: nomadic ways,
they learned how to work with
people of different cultures.
Credited with the idea of the
Mandate of Heaven. The
Mandate of Heaven says that
Heaven, or tian, places the
mandate, tianming, to rule on
any family that is morally
worthy of the responsibility.
Also, the only way to know if
the Mandate of Heaven had
been removed from the ruling
family was if they were
overthrown. If the ruler is
overthrown, then the victors
had the Mandate of Heaven.
Established feudalism.
Western Zhou, which occurs from
the time of their victory over the
Shang until about 771 B.C. when
The king was killed and the son was saved. He
they were forced east by
moved east where a new capital was formed in Loyang.
barbarians from the north.
This began the period known as the Eastern Zhou. The
Eastern Zhou is further divided into two time periods:
the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States
Period.
The Spring and Autumn Period occurred from
about 770-476 B.C. During this time, the Zhou emperor
steadily lost power due to the realization by the feudal
lords that he was not powerful and could be beaten,
which had been proven by the defeat in the west.
The second half, the Warring States Period, is
so named because of the power struggle between the
large states of China that were trying to gain control
over the entire area. It lasted from about 475 - 221
B.C.
Warring States is considered the classical age, it
was a time of great philosophers. This cultural
flowering is sometimes called the One Hundred
Schools Period. Confucianism, Taoism, and Legalism
developed during this time.
Qin Dynasty
The Qin are credited with
unifying China for the first
time. The Qin are sometimes
called the Ch'in, which is
probably where the name China
originated. They
standardized the language,
writing, currency,
measurements, and axle
length. A Great Wall was
built in the north, to protect
against invasions. Roads and
irrigation canals were built
throughout the country. But
they burned philosophers’
books: One Hundred Schools
of Thought.
The Qin is
famous for the
terra cotta
army that was
found at the
burial site for
Shi huangdi.
Each statue has
different facial
features!
Han Dynasty
The Han implemented immediate changes in government. Evidence shows the Han continued
to rule in the tradition of the Qin, and only gradually incorporated Confucian ideals into their
Legalist form of government. Economic expansion, changing relationships with the people of the
steppes, strengthening of the palace at the expense of the civil service, weakening of the
state's hold on the peasantry, and the rise of the families of the rich and the gentry were all
factors that led to the adoption of Confucian ideals.
This goal led to the eventual breakup of the fiefs and the downfall of the imperial
nobility. This process was finally complete during Wu Ti's reign (141-87 B.C.) His reign was a
period of great military expansion. He expanded the borders into Vietnam and Korea and pushed
the Hsiung nu south of the Gobi. Wu Ti transplanted an estimated 2 million people to the
northwestern region in order to colonize these areas.
The Silk Road was established. Other advances were in education, iron tools and ploughs,
irrigation systems, crop rotation, silk weaving and copper work, as well as a monopoly of the
production of iron and salt.
The whole of Turkestan was quickly conquered which would have ensured a trading
monopoly. China did not return to a united state. Rather, three kingdoms emerged and the Han
dynasty came to an end.
The Three Kingdoms
A long period of disunity and civil war the end of the Han Dynasty. Three Kingdoms were
the three chief economic areas of the Han. Buddhism began to spread throughout China during
this period. It was introduced in the first century CE, but did not really begin to spread until
after the Han empire collapsed. Tea, although not as popular as it would be in later times, was
discovered in the south during this period. Porcelain was also developed during this time. The
members of the king’s army who provided the best troops were the former nomadic herdsmen of
the steppes. They were the most skilled mounted bowmen. The use of people from different
groups resulted in an assimilation among the people which had not occurred in the past. In the
future, these assimilated nomads would form independent kingdoms in North China.
Chin Dynasty
Chin Dynasty were not a stable
empire. After defeating the Wu,
there was no longer a serious
danger of being invaded. Therefore,
the emperor declared the armies
should be disbanded, and all the
arms returned. The discharged
soldiers belonged mainly to the
state and didn't give up their
weapons either. Instead, they sold
them, mainly to the Hsiung-nu and
the Hsien-pi. This was a fatal
mistake of the Chin government, as
it made them virtually powerless,
while all their rivals and enemies
gained power.
During this time, the Chinese people surrounding the capital suffered due to the fighting
and began a migration out from the center of the empire to the more peaceful frontier regions.
The Chin were eventually defeated by the Huns, who claimed they were descendants of
the Han Dynasty because of the Han princesses given to them in marriage. However, they never
succeeded in forming a true dynasty and uniting China. Rather, the disunity continued with the
Northern and Southern dynasties.
Northern and Southern Dynasties
This period is another lengthy period of disunity and internal
strife for China. It lasted from 317-589 CE. During this time period,
the north and south were split and two separate successions of
dynasties formed.
In both the north and the south, there were different groups of
rulers. Many of the dynasties overlapped each other in terms of time.
In the north especially,
Buddhism flourished. This was due partly to the fact that the
nobles who had been the main followers of Confucianism moved south.
The tenets of Buddhism appealed to the country people for a number
of reasons, but especially because of Buddhism's promise of an
afterlife, which is nonexistent in Confucianism.
The poor who had suffered under the wealthy were offered
hope in Buddhism's reincarnation to a better life if one lived their
The poor who had suffered under the wealthy were offered
hope in Buddhism's reincarnation to a better life if one lived their
current life well. This meant the nobles who had oppressed them would
come back to a harder life and they would come back to a better life.
Sui Dynasty
Confucianism
The Sui Dynasty lasted from 580-618 A.D. The
Sui once again united China. accomplished much.
The Grand Canal was extended north from Hangzhou
across the Yangzi to Yangzhou and then northwest to
the region of Louyang.
The internal administration also improved during
this time, which is evident by several things; the
building of granaries around the capitals, the
fortification of the Great Wall along the northern
borders, the reconstruction of the two capitals near
the Yellow River, and building of another capital in
Yangchow.
Confucianism also began to regain popularity, as
the nobles gained importance.
The Sui rulers were interested in expanding
their borders and, along with their public works
projects, they began costly military campaigns.
They were largely successful with their efforts at
territorial expansion into the south. However, to the
north, in Korea, they did not achieve much. They
attacked Korea four times, and each time were met
with defeat. These defeats in Korea led to an attack
by the Khan of the eastern Turks who surrounded the
emperor. Independent governments arose and for five
years, China was again split into smaller states.
T’ang Dynasty
The T’ang are closely associated with the Sui, and are often discussed as the same
dynasty. Their dynasty lasted from 618-907 CE
Much of their power was made possible through the canals built by the Sui. These
canals allowed for communications to all parts of the empire. Also, the granaries the Sui
built alongside the canals helped the T’ang to transport goods from the south to the north.
This especially was important in the transfer of rice to the north in times of famine. These
canals were important in the economic development of the T’ang empire.
The T’ang gave life plots to the peasant families which allowed taxation by person
rather than by land. It also implies an incredibly accurate census system.
This dynasty had the only female empress. Poetry became very popular. The
popularity of tea was steadily growing.
As in previous periods, the warfare and internal struggles for power made life for
the peasants very difficult which eventually led to a sequence of peasant uprisings.
Five Dynasties
The time from 907-960 CE is called The Five Dynasties. However, numerous small kingdoms also
existed. The Five Dynasties are the officially recognized dynasties of the north, while the south
had ten kingdoms. The north was continually ravaged by warfare during this time as they were
attacked time and again by the Khitans and the Turks. Conversely, the south enjoyed a time of
peace, economic prosperity, and cultural growth. The leaders of the southern kingdoms were often
the military governors of the T'ang dynasty.
Four important advances occurred. In the south, trade (1) became
increasingly important, especially the tea trade. Efforts at state
monopolization occurred in an attempt to control the revenue of the tea
trade. Salt monopolies were developed and the salt tax was the top budget
item during this period. The second development was translucent
porcelain(2). The next important development was in the field of
printing(3). In about 94 CE, the first printing of the Classics occurred.
Attempts at movable type began in about 1045 CE. Printing had far
reaching effects on the Chinese people. As would occur later in Europe,
printing allowed more people to become educated as books became more
readily available. The availability of books also allowed for private
libraries. Finally, in northern China, paper money (4) was introduced. This
introduction was due in part to the fact that metal is scarce in China.
Also, the existing copper money was very heavy and difficult to
transport. The beginnings of paper money were deposit certificates that
merchants used in provinces that prohibited the export of copper coins.
Eventually, the government would accept copper and then issue
certificates, thus creating a banking system. This money system greatly
increased trade. (see #1)
Foot Binding
The practice of binding women's feet
also began during this time. The first
evidence of this practice shows up in
about 950 CE. Scholars are not sure
evidence of this practice shows up in
about 950 CE. Scholars are not sure
why this practice began, however, it was
widely practiced among both the rich
and poor of China. Only a few groups
did not participate in this custom. They
were the boat women of Kuang-tung and
the aboriginal people of the southwest.
Southern Song Dynasty
Girl with three inch
Lotus Shoes
Great advances were made in the
areas of technological invention,
material production, political
philosophy, government, and elite
culture. The Song used gunpowder
as a weapon in siege warfare,
foreign trade expanded greatly, and
the Chinese had the best ships in
the world. Their ships contained as
many as four decks, six masts, and a
dozen sails. The ships were guided
by a stern post rudder, while
navigation was done through the use
of charts and compasses. These
ships could carry 500 men.
Advances were also made in medicine, as the first autopsy was performed in about 1145 CE on
the body of a Southern Chinese captive. Education, and the examination system became central to
the upper class. This rise in the popularity of education was due in part to advances made in printing
and the greater availability of books. Examinations grew steadily in popularity to fill the
administrative positions. This resulted in the education itself, and the attempted examination,
gaining more importance socially than it had in the past.
Neo-Confucianism was developed during this time, especially during the Southern Song
dynasty. Zhu Xi combined others works with his and best organized the beliefs. This was important
because it encouraged the nobles to live up to the Confucian ideals by being less selfish.
While poetry and painting gained importance, some poets began using the vernacular in their
writings. In the past it had been very unusual to use phrases from everyday life. Painting reached
new heights during this time. There were two main schools of painters. The first created
decorative, yet realistic, paintings that show a great attention to detail. The second tried to paint
inner realities, as they viewed painting to be an intimate personal expression. Near the end of the
Song dynasty, the famous blue and white porcelain was created. The most common porcelain was the
type known as Celadon.
Diplomacy was the favored form of dealing with enemies. This prolonged period of paying
tribute to enemies, rather than being militarily strong enough to defeat them, left the Song
susceptible to attack from others.
The Southern Song experienced a temporary return to peace, and culturally they too
flourished. However, the power was mainly held by the nobles, and many emperors were forced, by the
nobles, to abdicate. This period did not last long, as in 1210 A.D. the Mongols began to assault the
flourished. However, the power was mainly held by the nobles, and many emperors were forced, by the
nobles, to abdicate. This period did not last long, as in 1210 A.D. the Mongols began to assault the
Song, and in 1279, the Yuan, or Mongol empire began.
Yuan Dynasty
The first of only two
times that the entire area
of China was ruled by
foreigners, in this case,
the Mongols. During the
Yuan Dynasty, China was
part of the Mongol Empire.
Genghis Khan led the
Mongols in their defeat of
much of China, however, it
was his grandson, Kublai
Khan who became the
emperor and founder of the
Yuan dynasty. The Mongols
were able to conquer China
due to their superior
military capabilities.
The Mongols were culturally very different from the Chinese. The cultural gap resulted in
lighter government than that of previous empires, punishments were much less severe. As the
Chinese nobility were not allowed to be involved in government, they were free to pursue art and
literature. Poetry, while being vastly popular, was not greatly improved upon.
The Mongols were one of the strongest military forces in the world. However, the duties
that came with governing their newly won lands led to them becoming lax in military training. In a
short time they became so weak that popular uprisings broke out and Chu, the leader of one of these
popular uprisings, succeeded in uniting several other groups and the nobility and overthrew the
Yuan. Another factor that led to the downfall of the Yuan Dynasty was the exclusive use of nonChinese in governmental positions.
The general impoverishment of the country also had dual effects on the removal of the
Mongols. First, the peasants and nobility both were impoverished which led to the popular uprisings.
Second, China was so impoverished that the Mongols did not have a very strong interest in
maintaining their hold on China.
Ming Dynasty
block-printing
Its founder was a peasant, the third of only three peasants ever to become an emperor in
China. He is known as Hongwu Emperor, and led the revolt against the Mongols. He was constantly
worried about conspiracies against himself, and despite the many moral homilies he gave, favored
violence in dealing with any one suspected of plotting against him or associated with the
conspirators.
As a result of his peasant origins, Hongwu created laws that improved the peasant life.
He kept the land tax low, and kept the granaries stocked to guard against famine. He also
maintained the dikes on the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers. However, economically he lacked the vision
to push trade. He supported the creation of self-supporting communities.
He developed a militant class that ranked higher than any civil servant. Maintaining and
having a strong military was important because, even though the Mongols had been defeated, they
were still a threat to China. The name Hongwu means Vast Military and reflects the increased
prestige of the military.
A great cultural development was that of the novel. These novels developed from story
tellers and are in everyday language, not the language of the nobility. Also, they were divided into
chapters at the points where the storyteller would have stopped to collect money. Some of the
best known novels of the Ming Dynasty are still read today.
Wood-cut and block-printing of art also became more popular at this time. Porcelain
production and diversification occurred. Blue and white porcelain became the normal form, but
experimentation in two color and even three color porcelain began. Encyclopedias were written
production and diversification occurred. Blue and white porcelain became the normal form, but
experimentation in two color and even three color porcelain began. Encyclopedias were written
containing important information from a variety of fields, such as geography, music and medicine.
Dictionaries were also written; the one that had the most influence on the future was written in
1615 CE and reduced the number of signs for Chinese characters to 214, as opposed to the 540
plus signs of previous dictionaries.
Another accomplishment of the Ming was the building of the Great Wall. While Great Walls
had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today was either built or repaired by the Ming.
The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned and cannons were
placed along the wall.
Hongwu wanted to control all aspects of government so that no other group could gain enough
power to overthrow him, leaving himself incredible amounts of work. As a result of this, the
emperors were forced to rely on eunuchs for more administration purposes. This led to the eunuchs,
for the first time, being educated. Families that weren't as wealthy or influential as they would
have liked, often gained power when one of the males voluntarily became a eunuch.
From the very beginning of the Ming Dynasty, money was a problem. At first, paper currency
was used. However, Hongwu did not understand inflation and gave out so much paper money as
rewards that by 1425 CE the currency was worth 1/70 of its original value. This led to a return to
the use of copper coins. The government did not make enough coins and counterfeiting became a
problem. At this point, the provinces were required to mint their own coins. Unfortunately, some of
them added lead to the coins, which depleted their value. Due to the abundance of counterfeit
coins, their value again declined. This coin problem was amplified by an increasing need for money
due to the growth of trade.
Although merchants and trade in general were looked down upon, China had established sea
routes that were used for trade with Japan and south Asia. Starting in 1405 CE, Zheng He began a
series of seven naval expeditions that went as far as the east coast of Africa. These trips
followed established routes and were mainly diplomatic. The last of these voyages was completed in
1433 CE. At this point, China was far ahead of the rest of the world in naval capabilities. Their
followed established routes and were mainly diplomatic. The last of these voyages was completed in
1433 CE. At this point, China was far ahead of the rest of the world in naval capabilities. Their
ships could carry as many as 500 men. However, after the last voyage was completed none were ever
again attempted. In fact, records of the trips were destroyed and shipbuilding was restricted to
small-size vessels. As a result, China's coast was frequently attacked by pirates.
As in previous dynasties, internal power struggles eventually led to the downfall of the Ming
Dynasty. Groups formed among the eunuchs and the nobility that worked to gain sole power and
place one of their leaders as emperor. Weak leaders were overpowered and children were often
placed on the throne who had no control over their empire. At this time, the Manchu were also
beginning to attack Chinese cities that existed in Manchuria, eventually gaining control first of
the whole of Manchuria and then in 1644 over China, thus beginning the Qing Dynasty.
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the second time when the whole of China was ruled by foreigners, the
Manchu. The Qing Dynasty lasted from 1644-1911 CE. The reigns of the first three emperors of
this dynasty were a time of peace and prosperity for China. These three rulers provided strong
leadership for 133 years; they were the Kangxi Emperor who reigned from 1662-1722 CE, the
Yongzheng Emperor who reigned from 1722-1736 CE. and the Qianglong Emperor who reigned from
1736-1796 CE.
In terms of government, the Qing Dynasty adopted the form of government used by the Ming,
with only minor adjustments. For example the positions were all dual positions, one Manchu and
one Chinese were in the same position, with the Manchu having more power. The form of
military organization that the Qing used was one of the best in the world. They organized their
troops under banners, each of which was a separate unit. These fighting men were personally
attached to the emperor, in fact he owned them. They were incredibly loyal to the emperor. The
bannermen also functioned as a talent pool from which civil bureaucrats could be chosen.
The Qing were very successful as foreign rulers in China. They maintained their domination
of the Chinese by preserving their own identity. They banned intermarriage among the Chinese,
continued to speak their own language and did not make their documents available to the Chinese.
of the Chinese by preserving their own identity. They banned intermarriage among the Chinese,
continued to speak their own language and did not make their documents available to the Chinese.
They retained military strength over the Chinese by separating the duties of the Chinese troops
and of the Manchu troops.
The Qing instituted changes in the dress of the Chinese. They required the Chinese men to
shave their heads and wear queues. They also required them to wear Manchu clothes. The Qing did
not require the Chinese women to change their dress, yet they did forbid them to bind their feet.
This proved impossible to enforce and in 1668 CE. the ruling was withdrawn. A custom the Qing did
not attempt to change, was the preference for agriculture over trade. The Qing favored an
isolationist policy, which proved fatal. The lack of trade hurt China economically.
The period of peace that followed the ascension of the Qing Dynasty allowed for growth in
all areas. Public works were repaired and maintained. Taxes were very light as compared to previous
dynasties, and in famine struck areas, taxes were reduced even further. Commerce and
international trade grew. This peace allowed for a revival of arts and learning. The areas of the
novel, short story and drama contain the most famous literary works. However, poetry, which was a
more accepted form of writing, also flourished. The poems show no real innovation, they followed
examples set forth by previous dynasties. Encyclopedic works were commissioned by the emperors.
Porcelain production continued to be important and innovations were made in the use of new colors.
Colors that developed were shades of green, and compositions of black and yellow. A dark blue and
brilliant red were also used. Painting was also important, and for the first time European
influences are seen. European missionaries were allowed into China and influenced Chinese ideas
about science. However, Christianity was later outlawed when European ships with Christian sailors
began looting the Chinese coast. Another reason for the outlawing of Christianity was disputes
among the missionaries and a papal ecclesiastical policy that was contrary to Chinese policy.
During the reign of Qianglong, the borders of China were expanded to their greatest
extent ever. His reign was the time of the greatest prosperity during the Qing Dynasty. However,
there are also signs of internal problems. Popular uprisings occurred during this time, but they were
all put down. The first uprising was in 1774 CE in Shantung, then in 1775 CE another uprising
occurred, this time it was led by the secret society known as the Society of the White Lotus. In
1813 CE, during the reign of Qianglong's successor, another uprising occurred which was led by the
secret society known as the Society of Heaven's Law. The government, while they succeeded in
suppressing the uprisings, did not succeed in alleviating the impoverishment that had led to these
uprisings.
The impact of the west was also felt for the first time in China. Great Britain especially
suppressing the uprisings, did not succeed in alleviating the impoverishment that had led to these
uprisings.
The impact of the west was also felt for the first time in China. Great Britain especially
was interested in trading with China for silk and tea. However, the British did not have anything
that was easy to import to China until they began importing opium. This was devastating to China.
Many became addicted to opium, and land that had previously been used for food began to be
used to produce opium. Also, a large amount of Chinese money left the country in payment for the
opium. Finally, in 1839 CE the opium trade was abolished. This set off a war with Great Britain that
came to be known as the Opium Wars, and in 1842 CE, China was forced to sign a treaty in which
Great Britain received Hong Kong, and ports were opened to European trade. The terms of this
treaty were not fully carried out by either side, and in 1857 CE, fighting again broke out. The
British again won and the Chinese were forced to grant more privileges to the British, that
virtually turned China into a British colony.
Internal rebellions further weakened China. The is one of the most famous. Its leader also
instituted religious changes among his followers. He mixed elements of Christianity and traditional
Chinese religion, along with ideas of his own. He believed in communal property, and the equality of
men and women among other things. Other uprisings which greatly affected China were known as the c
which were more separate events than uprisings connected to each other. The problems caused by
internal rebellion were further intensified by Japan's Westernization and goal of conquering the
surrounding countries to provide both a buffer against attacks against Japan itself and to provide
trading networks. Russia too began to come into contact with China and treaties were signed which
defined the China/Russia border and allowed for types of trade.
While these struggles were occurring, the emperors became younger and younger, so that they
had no control and power was in the hands of empresses and other advisors. The empress who held
the most power was Tzu Hsi. She was uneducated and opposed to any type of reform or
modernization that might have helped China economically and politically. Reformers who felt that
China had to change were executed, despite the validity of their arguments that people whom they
had previously regarded as inferior and barbarians were easily defeating China. Tzu Hsi had the
former emperor executed, and the next day, she too died, albeit of natural causes. However, before
Neolithic ca. 12000 - 2000 BCE
her death she placed a two year old on the throne. This further weakened the government and
Xia ca. 2100-1800 BCE
strengthened the revolutionaries. His reign lasted from 1909-1911 CE, at which point the
Shang 1700-1027 BCE
revolutionaries won and the Republic of China arose.
Western Zhou 1027-771 BCE
Eastern Zhou 770-221 BCE
770-476 BCE -- Spring and Autumn period
475-221 BCE -- Warring States period
Qin 221-207 BCE
Western Han 206 BCE -9 CE
Hsing (Wang Mang interregnum) 9-25 CE
Eastern Han 25-220 CE
Three Kingdoms 220-265 CE (Wei, Shu, Wu)
Western Chin 265-316 CE
Eastern Chin 317-420 CE
Southern and Northern Dynasties 420-588 CE
Southern Dynasties
420-478 -- Song
Tzu Hsi
479-501 -- Qi
502-556 -- Liang
557-588 -- Chen
Northern Dynasties
386-533 -- Northern Wei
534-549 -- Eastern Wei
535-557 -- Western Wei
550-577 -- Northern Qi
557-588 -- Northern Zhou
Sui 580-618 CE
T'ang 618-907 CE
Five Dynasties 907-960 CE
907-923 -- Later Liang
923-936 -- Later Tang
936-946 -- Later Jin
947-950 -- Later Han
951-960 -- Later Zhou
Ten Kingdoms 907-979 CE
Song 960-1279 CE
960-1125 -- Northern Song
1127-1279 -- Southern Song
Liao 916-1125 CE
Western Xia CE 1038-1227
Jin 1115-1234 CE
Yuan 1279-1368 CE
Ming 1368-1644 CE
Qing 1644-1911 CE
Western Powers Arrive
Opium War 1839-42 and Treaty of Nanjing 1842
Taiping Rebellion 1851-64 and Boxers
Self-Strengthening Movement 1861-1894
Hundred Days’ Reform and Aftermath June 11 to September 21, 1898
Republican Revolution of 1911 and Sun Yat-sen
Republic of China 1911-1949 CE
Nationalism (Guomindang) and Communism/Mao Zedong (Opposing the Warlords) Chiang Kai-shek
Anti-Japanese War 1931-1945
Return to Civil War 1941(5)-1949
People’s Republic of China 1949 - CE
Transition to Socialism 1953-57
Great Leap Forward 1958-60
Readjustment and Recovery 1961-65
Cultural Revolution Decade and Red Guards 1966-76
Richard Nixon’s Visit to China February 1972
Post-Mao Period 1976-78
Four Modernizations 1979-82
Reforms 1980-88
Tiananmen Square 1989
Terms/People to Know
Gang of Four
Zhou Enlai
Deng Xiaoping