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Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt Author(s): Barbara S. Lesko Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15 Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210327 . Accessed: 04/07/2014 09:46 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. . The American Schools of Oriental Research is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Biblical Archaeologist. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions |_ -P9 usually are nently Even withusually female grace in figures tomb portrayed workers andscenes promi- Womeas Monumental templesandtombs Grand chronologicalchart}offerthe rare on Mark andcolossalstatuesbear opportunityto look at a society ofEgypt's manyreminders aboutits business,not just going Ancient religiousandfuneraryritesbut aIlcientqueensandfebutevencommon agricultural,huntingandeconomic malepharaohs, Egypt mark. pursuitsas well as entertainment womenlefta monumental andsports.The svelte,attractively Thislegacyconsistsoftombchapels porbyBarbaraS.Lesko groomedsnd fetchinglygarbed withextensivewalldecoration, Egyptianwoman traitstatues,funerary cuts a strikingfigure _ andvotivestelae,and _ _ in almostall scenes. offeringtables,all thenamesand bearing titlesoftheirowners _== (even ordedicators g dignity.The wife 1\X thoseoftheirnearest _ of the tombowner _b i,jx Thiscorpus relatives). _a iS notwellpublished a _ andis littlestudied, = buthassurvivedin as herhusband's _ R quanti- E ! unbelievable companionandsupR ! ties,oftenbecause porter.In OldKingEi s theseobjectswere dom sceneschildren |sMi madeof stone.Publiandretainersare 1sX1 typicallyrenderedon al cationandanalysisof a muchsmallerscale. | ! has thesemonuments Whenviewing I _ not unfortunately walls,it is easy tomb keptpacewiththeir by the anset trap usuallyportrayed the were into workers fall to female Even gleaned sotheinformation discoveries, female these as such gzace, and dignity with where perspective, artistic cient to subject be will far thus fromthem decoratingtheFifthDynasty farmworkers shown be to meant are that figures more as orenhancement, correction, tombof Tiat Sakkara.DrawingbyLeonard be sitto appear side by side seated Lesko. H. available. become sourcematerials Because another. one behind ting agreefirm no is there Although the wife is most oftendepictedas onthecivil mentamongEgyptologists the survivorandmourner,she is difof the levels economic and rights oftenportrayedas supportingor Reveals soArt Egyptian Xmb What ancient in classes ferent otherwiseclaspingherhusband.It Woman Average distinguish to the of how ciety-or, indeed, importantforthe Egyptianartist was throughout found are tombs common Ancient that know them-we among the entirehumanfigure, present to cliffs limestone its Valley, elite Nile the the in women as well as women providedconvenientandeasily andthis necessitatedplacingthe androyalclasseswerecommemo- harring I will cut rockthat couldbe usedas build- wife in such a waythat she appears ratedbyphysicalmonuments. on thesemonuments, ingblocksor hollowedinto,depend- to be takinga positionbehindher concentrate husbandwhen in fact,she is meant ing on the preferenceof the age. asa bothartisticandarchitectural, theindependence, Vastexpansesof wall decoration to be seen as sittingor standingbewayofillustrating positionsandself-respect datingfromthe laterOldKingdom sidehim, as in sculpturedgroups responsible that survivefromthe threemajor byvariousclassesofwomen andsubsequentMiddleandNew enjoyed Kingdomperiods{seeaccompanying earlyperiods. society. in ancientEgyptian 4 Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions .@ ze-4Flw -l A; t ThroughoutEgyptianhistory womenprominentin tombscenesare most oftendepictedas companions of the men beingcommemorated. Theirattainments,such as literacy, or theirmost prestigiouspublicactivities areusuallyonly subtly hintedat in theseportraits(through the ornamentstheyhold)andare mentionedverybriefly,if at all, in the accompanyinginscriptions.We canalso wonderwhy moredetailed descriptionsof a man'scareer, whetherin the military,the civil service,or the templehierarchy,are not shown,whereasin OldKingdom tombsandsome tombsdatingto laterperiodsthe supervisingof work on estatesandworkshopsis emphasized.It is likely thatreligiousmotivationwasbehindthe choiceof tombscenes.Perhapsthe perpetual abundanceof foodandwaterin the beyond,eventhe renewalof the life cycle,is beingassuredandnot the continuationof earthlyconcerns andidentities.Thustombscenesare only of limitedvaluein reconstructingpeoples'lives,offeringa partial andbiasedlook at the Egyptian familyandsociety. Neverthelessit is obviousfrom these tombscenesthat ancient Egyptianwomenwererespectedand that theyfully mingledin society, playingmanyroles,whetherin the household,the templecults,or the economicrealm.Peasantwomenare depictedas helpingwith the harvest andtrappingbirds;townswomenare shownas professionalmourners, musiciansanddancers,membersof a templestaffandpartyguests.Rare, thoughextant,arescenesof a woman commandinga boatorbuyingand sellinggoodsin the marketplace ' if_ _ X Thisscenefromthe tombof Nakhtat Thebes, datingto theEighteenthDynasty,shows femalemusiciansentertainingat a banquet. Scenessuchas thisindicatethatancient Egyptianwomenfullymingledin society. PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko. Egyptian Throughout history women promillent in scenes often are most depicted companions men tomb as of the commemorated. bearingthetitleMistressof theHouse Iyt-hotep, andChantressofAmon,is picturedin thiswall decorationfromtombnumber96 at Thebes. Noticesheis carryingan ankhandothercult implements.Photoby LeonardH. Lesko. (Fischer1989:21).This givesus a strongindicationthatwomenwielded the family'spurchasingpower,a prestigiousanddefinitelynot universalposition.Also significantis evidencethat in the earliesthistorical periodsweavingworkshopswere filledexclusivelybywomen,whereas men didnot moveinto this importantindustryforseveralcenturies. In the OldKingdom,titles denotingpositionsof responsibility andauthoritybelongedto womenof the elite class,who generallywere closelytied bybloodor marriageto the royalfamily.Tombinscriptions of some womenprovidestartling evidenceof theirprofessionalinvolvements.Onewomantells of being an overseerof femalephysicians (Ghalioungui1975).Anotherused the importanttitles of judgeand vizier,althoughtheymayhavebeen purelyhonorific(Fischer1976:7475).Thereis, however,an abundance of titles forwomenin positionsof authority,such as Directorof the DiningHall,Overseerof Funerary PriestsandOverseerof the Weavers' House,to namea few (Fischer1976: 70-71).It wouldseem thatfewrestrictionswereplacedon womenof abilityandhighsocialstatusin the OldKingdom.It is interestingto note thatreligiouspositionswere not limitedto noblewomen,forwe havefoundpriestessesof majorgoddesseswho bearhumbletitles such as tenantfarmer. honorific Manyadministrative, andpriestlytitles forwomenhave beenrecoveredfromOldKingdom monuments;fewerhavebeenfound fromthe MiddleKingdom,which followedthe FirstIntermediate Period,a time of socialandeconomic BiblicalArchaeologistsMarch1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 5 Throughout Egyptianhistoryprominent womenin tombscenesaremostoftendepicted as companionsof themen beingcommemorated.HereareRenutet,priestessof EIathor, andherhusband,Yuny.ThisNew Kingdom portraitdatesto theNineteenthDynasty. Photocourtesyof theMetropolitan Museum of Art,New York(15.2.1,RogersFund). piece as beingunmistakablyfrom the OldKingdom. A moreattractivefemaleportrait is the MiddleKingdomstatueof LadySentluwy,wife of the Nomarch Hapdjefi.OriginallyfromAsslutand now in the Museumof FineArtsin Boston,this statueis a supremeexampleof lifesized Egyptianportraiturecarvedin granite.The graceof the femalefigureis enhancedbythe unknownsculptor'sdisperlsirlg with the backpillar,which too oftenmars Egyptiansculpturein the round.A veryfull coiffurelendsnecessary supportforthe head,resultingin a instability.MiddleKingdomtitles forwomenseldomreflectpositions of authority(Ward1989:34-391, which suggestspoliticalandeconomic changes.Instead,they reveal a rangeof jobsin the serviceindustries,fromscribeto hairdresser, gardenerto miller (Ward1986:8-171. Duringthe prosperousempireof the New Kingdom,the civil service andtemplehierarchiesbecameeven moreprofessionalizedt yet thereis evidencethatwomenagainservedin the cults of majoras well as minor templesandthat theyfilled some administrativepositions,such as controllingaccessto templestores (Lesko1987a:211.Numeroustexts havesurvivedfromthis period,includingcourtdocumentsandprivate lettersrevealingthatwomenhad theirown independentlegalidentity on a parwith men andthatthey couldinheritorpurchaseproperty anddisposeof it without a malecosignatoryor legalguardian.Indeedt womenwereheadsof households, testifiedin court,witnesseddocuments,actedas executorsof their familyestatesandassumedthe obligationsof a citizenvis-a-visthe State. 6 Numerousrecordsshowthis was trueof freewomenin generaltnot justthose of the gentry(Allam1985: 14-221.On a personalleveltit is clearthat womenenjoyedfreedom of movementandassociation,that they couldmarryanddivorceat will, that they engagedin commerceand that theywereableto exercise authorityoverothersin the workplaceor temple. Statuaryof women.In additionto wall scenes,tombsandtemplescontainedprivatestatuaryofbothwomen andmen. Privatemonumentsfrom ancientEgypttendto be diminutivet especiallyif carvedout of stone. Formuch of its history,the pair statueshowinga husbandandwife (sometimesa son andmother)seated side by sidewaspopular.A woman wasnot only portrayedin the companyof herhusbandor son, however, as individualportraitsof womenare foundfromthroughoutthe centuries. Oneexampleis the Mitr.t-priestess fromGizadiscoveredearlierthis centuryby an excavationteamfrom the Universityof California.The simpledress,stockybuildandbold planesof the statuecharacterizethis Thepairstatuewas verypopular, but women werenot onlyportrayed in the companyof theirhusbandsorsons.Individualfemale portraitshavebeenfoundfromthroughout the centuries.Oneexampleis thisMitr.tpriestessfromGiza,discoveredearlierthis centurybyan excavationteamfromthe Universityof Californiaat Berkeley.The simpledress,stockybuildand boldplanesof thestatuecharacterize it as belongingto the OldKingdom.Photocourtesyof theLowie MuseumofAnthropology, the Universityof Californiaat Berkeley(619802). Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Artin New York,wasfoundat Adana in AsiaMinor. Egypt'sempirecontinuedto expandin the New Kingdom,resulting in greatercosmopolitansophistzcation.Duringthis periodportraits of womerlwerecreatedin all media andsizes,with the womarSssocial statusor wealthgenerallyreflected in the size of the statue.The wife of a high officialmightbe commemoratedin a life-sizedsculpture,while womenof morehumblestations hadto be contentwith statuettes measuringonly a foot ortwo in height.Althougha womanwas believed Egyptians when that their it tombs perpetuate into put were depictions in eternal thanstatues,presumablybecause theywereeasierto produceandcost less,arestelaededicatedto preserving the memoryof individuals.These stelaedepictthe deceased,and sometimesfamilymembers,seated at a tableloadedwith foodanddrinl<. Theyareinscribedwith the names andtitles of the ownerlandusually familymembersJtogetherwith an invocationthat wasmeanteither magicallyto perpetuatethe offerings of "athousandeachof bread,beer, would them life. usuallypairedwith a male relative, thereareseveralstatuesin which a womanis pairedwith a femalerelative (usuallya motheranddaughter), andthereareindividualportrait sculpturesas well. Typicallyin this morevoluptuousagethe artisttook This Middle Kingdomportraitof Lady Sennuwy of Assiut, wife of the Nomarch greatcareto delineatethe curls Hapdjefisis a supremeexample of life-sized of the wigs andthe textureof the Egyptianportraiturecarvedin granite.Note that the unknown sculptorused a full coiffure dresses.Someof the most enchantinstead of the usual back pillar to support ing individualportraitsof women the head, resulting in a graceful,more lifelike are donein woodandcomefromthe portrayal.Photo courtesy of the Museum of Ramessideage.The lines of their Fine Arts) Boston (14.720). slim andalwaysyouthfulbodiesare shownthroughdiaphanouslinen morelifelikeportrayal.Still, one wishes formoreautobiographical robeswith foldsandpleatsthat are informationfromthese monuments. especiallyeasyto portrayin this this statuewasfound softermedium.Idealisticportrayals Mysteriously, wereverycommonapparentlybefarfromherhome in the Dongola causethe Egyptiansbelievedthat regionof the UpperNile, partof a when such depictionswereplacedin barbaricburial.Determininghow, when andwhy it got thereis prob- tombstheywouldperpetuatethem lematic.Similarly,a much smaller into eternallife.Afterall, who would statueof an Egyptianfemalenurse, not lilneto remainyoungforever? nowin the MetropolitanMuseumof Privatestelae.Evenmorecommon As Egypt'sempirecontinued to expand during the New Kingdom,a greatercosmopolitan sophistication resulted. Typicallyin this more voluptuousage sculptorstook great care to delineate the curls of women's wigs and the texture of their dresses, as exemplified by this wooden statuette of Lady Teyedating to the EighteenthDynasty. Photo courtesy of the MetropolitanMuseum of Art, New York (41.2.10,RogersPund). BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 7 oxen,andfowl"or at least-provide a text for l l passersbyto reciteand | I thus ensuresustenance | ! to the deceasedland | | family). l | The majorityof stel lae depicthusbandsand | wives,but some women l hadstelaeexclusivelyof l! theirown or shared l them with femalerelal tives.Stelaedonatedby l daughtersto commemoratetheirmothershave | beenfound.In anycase, | the namesof the women | areoftenaccompanied by theirtitles, whether | secularor religious. | Manyfemalemembers X of the OldKingdomelite borethe title of King's Acquaintance,also knownfrommonuments | of men. Later,the most | commontitle, regardless 1] of socialstatus,was 11 Mistressof the House.A womanwho couldclaim a clericaltitle wassure i to mentionit on her tomb,statue,or stela. Suchmonumentstell of the roleswomenplayedin ancient Egyptiansociety,which,when comparedwith datesof the source materials,changedovertime. For instance,morewomenheldhighrankingpriestesspositionsin the OldKingdomthanin the centuries immediatelyfollowingit (Galvin 1989:26) Up until the TwelfthDynasty (MiddleKingdom),stelaeweremade forfunerarypurposesonly,but abouthalfthe piecesdatingto the MiddleKingdomseemto havebeen dedicatedduringa persoWs life as votivesforgods.Similarly,small stoneofferingtablesbearingthe namesandtitles of the dedicators werea favoriteformof commemoration as well as an expressionof a persontspiety.A groupof 14offering Iconographic changes in scenesdepictedon stelaehavebeenstudied, andit is interestingto note that as the Twelfth Dynastyprogressedthe motherseemsincreasingly to displacethe wife in . prommence | 8 Evenmorecommonthanstatuesarestelae dedicatedtopreservingthememoryof individuals.Thesestelaedepictthe deceased, andsometimesfamilymembers,sittingat a tableloadedwith foodanddrink.Theyare inscribedwith thenamesand titlesof the ownertogetherwith an invocationdesigned to ensuresustenanceto the deceasedand family.Themajorityofstelaedepicthusbands andwives,butsomewomenhadstelaeof theirownorsharedthemwithfemalerelatives.Thispaintedlimestonestelafromthe MiddleKingdomis dedicatedto two women, InyotefanAh andMeswet-NetretteXh, byfour otherwomen,presumablyof modestmeans. Photocourtesyof theMetropolitan Museum ofArtJNew York(36.3.270). tablesdedicatedby womenwere foundtogetherat Lisht.Theywere apparentlydedicatedby womenof modestmeans,with titles ranging fromhall keeperto housemaidand, possibly,cleaninglady(Ward1989: 33-34). . m . taml. .. .y sceneson stelaeowned by men. Evenwhen the fatheris depicted,he is neverportrayed asprominentlyas the mother (Pfluger1947:128-29). The importanceof the motherin the Egyptian familyis reflectedin the literatureof all periods as well as in the factthat Egyptianmen,eventhose of the highestsocialclass andin highestranlQs of the civil serviceor the military,oftenplaced only theirmothers' nameson theirmonuments andotherdocuments.Familygroups predominateon stelae fromall periods.As with stelaedepictingonlymen, the numberof stelae designedexclusivelyfor womenseems to be small. Sceneson funerarystelaeusuallyshowa male figure,probablya son, performing ritesbeforehis parents,but occasionallya femalefigureofficiates. Femalevotivestelae,on which only the womendedicatoris depicted worshipingherfavoritedeities,have beenfoundin numeroustownand cemeterycontexts,such as at Deir el-MedinehandAbydos. Nineteenth-centuryarchaeologistAugusteMariettefound23 LatePeriodstelaeof womenbearing the religioustitle chantresstogether in one partof the greatnational shrineandnecropolisof Abydos, which wassacredto Osiris,a godof the dead(Mariette1880:numbers 1173-94).Ofthe 23 stelae,only five includeda husband's figureandname, BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions whereas18belongedto womenalone. Mostof these werechantressesof Osiris,but threeservedIsis andtwo servedAmon.This groupof stelae suggeststhat womencouldexercise freedomof choicewhen it cameto theirfunerarymonuments;it also furthersthe possibilitythatwives depictedin limitedrolesin what appearsto havebeentheirhusbands' tombchapelartmaynot alwayshave beenburiedwith theirhusbands. Theycouldhavemaintainedtheir ownreligiousfunerarymonuments at cemeteriesandholy shrinesof theirchoosing.Becausefunerary andotherreligiousmonumentscontainlittle biographicalinformation -anddo not focuson the concernsof everydaylife, it is fortunatethat Egyptiantextsin the formof personal documents lettersandadministrative abound.Fromthese documentsa muchclearerpictureof the lives led by ordinaryEgyptianscanbe reconstructed(compareJames1962,1984; Cerny1973;Bierbrier1982;Romer 1984;Lesko1987a,1987b). Monumentsof EgyptianQueens Tombsbelongingexclusivelyto womenhavesurvivedfromthe beginningof Egyptianhistory.Some queensof the earlydynastieswere commemoratedwith tombsas large as those of kings,testimonyto their all-importantheiresspositionandto theirreligioussignificanceas daughtersandwives of god-kings.However, the best preservedevidenceforthe statusof noblewomenin the initial stagesof pharaonicEgyptsurvives fromthe FourthDynasty(OldKingdom)necropolisat Giza.The wives builder andmotherof Khufu(Cheops), of the GreatPyramid,sharedwith him the royalpyramidstyle tomb, its magicalqualitiesandthe royal funeraryreligiousliteraturelEdwards 1986:189-96,296-302),a privilege not grantedevento the maleheir apparent.Laterin the dynastyother royalwomenhadtheirlarge,flattopped(mastaba)tombsintermingledwith those of theirbrothers in the royalEasternCemetery.For instance,QueenMersyankhIII,who diedbeforeherhusbandKingKhafre andhermotherQueenHetepheresII, waslaidto restin a largemastaba chapelsinside with above-ground as andoutsidethe superstructure set well as an elaboratesubterranean evidenceforthestatusof of roomshewn in the rockandbeauThebestpreserved noblewomenin theinitialstagesofpharaonic tifully decoratedwith wall reliefs EgyptsurvivesfromtheFourthDynasty necropolisat Giza.Above:Thequeens' andsculpturehewnfromthe living picpyramidsat thepyramidof Menkaure, rock(DunhamandSimpson19741. turedhere,show thatwomensharedthe royalpyramidstyle tomb.Photoby pharaoh's LeonardH. Lesko.Below:Laterin theFourth Dynastyotherroyalwomenhad theirflattombsintermixedwith topped(mastaba) thoseof theirbrothersin theroyalEastern III,who died Cemetery.QueenMersyanAh beforeherhusbandKingKhafreandher II,waslaid to rest motherQueenHetepheres chapels in a largemastabawith above-ground as well insideandoutsidethesuperstructure as an elaborate,beautifullydecoratedsubset of roomshewnin therock. terranean in areportrayed andMersyanAh Hetepheres thispairstatue.Photocourtesyof the Museumof FineArts,Boston(30.1456). Thisimpressivetombbuiltby QueenKhentkaweslies betweenthecausewaysof thesecondandthirdpyramidsat Giza.Livingat the is endof theFourthDynasty,KhentRawes believedto havebeenthedynasticlink to the FifthDynastybecausehermostsignificant title translatesas Motherof TwoKingsof UpperandLowerEgypt.Oneof thesons who built musthavebeenKingNeferirkare, on thesouthside of his pyramidtombat Abu Sira smallerpyramidtombforKhentkawes. PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko. Betweenthe causewaysof the secondandthirdpyramidsat Giza lies an impressivetombbuilt by QueenKhentkawes.Livingat the endof the FourthDynasty,she is believedto havebeenthe dynastic link to the FifthDynastybecause her most significanttitle translates as Motherof TwoKingsof Upper andLowerEgypt.One of the sons musthavebeenKingNeferirkare, who built his pyramidtombat nearbyAbuSir;therehe provided,on the south side,a smallerpyramidtomb forKhentkawes,thus restoringto herthe benefitsof sucha tombstyle. Heroriginallargetombmaynot haveseemedso inferiorto the queen mother,however,becauseKing Shepseskhaf,who ruledat the end of March1991 BiblicalArchaeologisto This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 9 Thiscolossalfigureof QueenNefertari, flankedby thoseof herhusband}Ramesses theGreat,arecutintothefacadeof Nefertari's templeat AbuSimbel,locatedseveralhundred yardsto thenorthof themaintemple Largerthan-lifestatuesof queensappearedin the OldKingdomandcontinuedinto theMiddle Kingdom} butit wasduringtheNewKingdom thatthemost dazzlingarrayof monuments commemoratinggreat womenwasproduced. PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko. becomewell-knownfromanother portraitthat recentlytraveledthe worldas partof the Rarnessesthe Greatexhibition. If the wife andfamilyof Ramesses IIarelilliputiansnext to his four colossi at AbuSimbel'sgreater temple,so too is the supremegod Re,depictedon his perchabovethe entrancedoor.The factthatthe king'sfamilywereoftendepictedat the levelof the legs of his colossal figureshouldnot blindus to the importanceof the greatroyalwife in Egyptianhistory.Thequeenwasoften of purerroyalbloodthanherhusband,whose claimto the throneshe legitimized.In religiousterms,the queenwasthe embodimentof the goddessesHathor(wifeof Re)and Dualityof rulershipseemsto be expressedby thispowerfulFourthDynastyportraitgroup of KingMenkaure andQueenKhamerernebty, as thefiguresareof equalsizeandstance. Photoby LeonardH. Lesko,courtesyof the Museumof FineArtsJBoston. the FourthDynasty,hadalso elected lDuell 1938).Suchwerethe biasesof to havethis samestyle of tomb, male researchersin the 1930s. Themonumentsof ancientEgypwhichloolredlilrea giantsarcophagus tian queensor greatroyalwives las mountedon a highpodium.However,the practiceof providinga pyra- they werecalled)aretoo numerous mid tombforqueenscontinuedinto to recounthere.Manyarefamiliar the SixthDynastyandthe Twelfth to everyone,however,such as the paintedportraitbustof QueenNeferDynasty,afterwhich time royal pyramidswereabandonedin favorof titi, wife of the controversial pharaoh morehidden,rock-hewnsepulchres. Alrhenaten,or the colossalfigureof Duringthe OldKingdom,prin- Nefertari,wifeof Ramessesthe Great, cesses andwives of powerfulmen sculptedintothe facadeof the smaller wereoftenprovidedwith stelaeand templeof AbuSimbel.Larger-thanlife statuesof queensappearedin the statuaryfortheirtombsfromthe royalworkshops.In time their OldKingdomandcontinuedinto mastabatombchapels,like those of the MiddleKingdom,but it wasduring the EighteenthandNineteenth theirhusbands,becamemoreand moreelaborate.Wholesuites of Dynastiesthat the most dazzling roomsinvadedthe massof the arrayof monumentscommemoratmastaba,theirwallscoveredentire- ing greatwomenwasproduced.The ly with depictionsof the owners, colossalpairstatueof AmenhotepIII theirretinues,andactivitieson their andhis common-bornwife Queen estates.It is unfortunatethat the Tiy dominatesthe maincourtof the publlcationof one of the most sigCairoMuseum,anda colossus131 nificanttombsof the SixthDynasty, feet tall)of the daughterof Ramesses thatofPrinceMereruka, neglectedthe the Greatoncestoodbesidehis colosroomsdevotedto his wife, Princess sus that still standsat a templein Watetkhet-Hor, andconcentratedon Akhmim.The attractivefeaturesof only the husband'spartof the tomb this princess,Meryetamun,have 10 BiblicalArchaeologistJ March1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Mut (wifeof Amon);in earlierages she was closelyassociatedwith the goddessNeit. The famouspairstatue in the Museumof FineArts in BostondepictingKingMenkauref builderof the thirdGizapyramid, is andhis queenfKhamerernebtyf the epitomeof equalityin size and strength.The two figuressharethe traditionalmasculinestanceof left footforward.The queensfeaturesare repeatedon statuesof the goddess Hathorfoundnearbyin this temple. Somedaughtersof the godJas full-bloodedroyalprincesseswere calledfnot only legitimizeda halfbrotheror an unrelatedcandidateJs claimto rulefthey actuallytook the reinsof government.Thebestknown exampleof this wasHatshepsutin the EighteenthDynasty.Hermagnificentmortuarytempleat Deir elBahriis the greatestmonumentto a womansurvivingfromantiquity. Numerousstatuesof her havebeen uncoveredby excavations,most of which areon displayat the MetropolitanMuseumof Artin New York. Theyincludeleoninesphinxesand all bearing toweringOsiridestatuesZ the queenfsdelicatelyfeminineface. SomesculpturesshowHatshepsut in garbtraditionallywornbymale pharaohs;othersshowherin a dress. NewKingdompharaohswereapt to providechapelsfortheirpredecessorswithin theirownmortuary but Hatshepsut,instead templesZ of dedicatinga chapelforher late husband,turnedit overto services forherfather.Inscriptionsin the templepurportto quoteThutmoseI as pronouncinghis daughterhis heir andaskingthe chiefmenof the realm to supporther (Naville1898:plates Not contentwith this paLXI-LXII). ternalpoliticalsupportfHatshepsut also clarifiedherdivinerightto rule byrecordingthe miracleof herbirth on the wallsof the secondterrace, northendfwith vastanddetailed scenes-ofherdivineconceptionand birth(Naville1896:platesXLVIIXLIX; LIII-LIV).Also illustratedare howAmonfking of the gods}desigmotherto be his natedHatshepsutJs bride;howshe conceivedHatshepsut; how all the greatancestralgoddesses aidedherbirthandsuckledher;andJ laterfhow the greatgodarrangedand presidedoverhercoronation.To celebrate15yearson the thronef Hatshepsuthelda jubileeanderected obeliskssheathedin goldalloy;they weretallerthanherfatherfsand loomedabovethe roofline of the Rarnaktemple. Above: The terracedmortuarytemple of Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahrion the west bank at Luxoris the greatest monument to a woman survivingfrom antiquity. Left: Thereare numerous statues of this Eighteenth Dynasty queenJwho reignedd7uringan age of prosperity,sophistication and relative peace. This sphinx emphasizes Hatshepsutts kingly role by presentingher as a lion, an ageold motif regardedas the prerogativeof kings. Photo courtesy of the MetropolitanM7useum of 24rtJNew York(31.3.94). This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Ael Hatshepsutreignedin an ageof prosperityZ sophisticationandrelative peaceZ which she claimedto havekeptherselfbyjoiningher troopsacrossEgyptZs southernboundaryill displaysof militaryforce. Hatshepsutwasfollowedon the thronebyhernephewZ the highly capablerulerThutmoseIIIIwho has been calledthe Napoleonof Egypt forhis empirebuilding(althoughhe wasreallyrepeatingexploitsof HatshepsutZs father).ThlltmoseIIIis believedto havebeenresponsiblefor the eventualdestructionof HatshepsutZsmonumexlts.If so, we must suspect that the memoryof this strong femalepharaohlingeredin the mindsof herpeopleandwasviewed as a threatbyher male successors. Hatshepsutcamefroma longline of dynamicwomen.Amongthese was QueenAhmose-Nefertaril wife ofAhmoseZ founderof theEighteenth Dynasty.Ahmose-Nefextari was givenconsiderableauthorityixlthe cult of the Kingof the Godswhexl she wasmadeGodJsWifeof AmonZ a positionthatheld a chief roleas a priestessin the nationalcult center andwasprovidedwith goodsand propertylegallydocumexlted and publishedforall to see on a monumentalstela set up in the templeof Amonat Karnak(Robins1983:7073).Thereis no questionthat Ahmose-Nefertari functionedactively as a priestessin the Amoncult andthat she wieldedconsiderable economicpowerandcontrolledbuildingprojectsat severalcult sites throughoutthe country.Evenbeyond thistherroyaltitles includedthe exceptionalFemaleChieftainof Upper andLowerEgypt,which malnesit lilrelythat afterherhusbanddied she ruledas regentforher sont AmenhotepI. New Kingdomqueens generallyhadto be contentwith havingtheirfunerarycult place within the mortuarytempleof their husbandstbut Amerlhoteperecteda mortuarytempleforher.AhmoseNefertarioutlivedAmenhotepand washonoredas well byhis picked 12 fth Dynasty 1991 1786 successorlThutmoseIZwhen he set up a colossalstatueof the old quee.n in the courthe built at Karnak.It wasThutmose'sdaughterZ HatshepsutSwho latersucceededto the GodlsWifeposition. Wallpaintixlgsin manyprivate tombsmemorializethe greatqueen. Majormonumentsof another EighteenthDynastyqueencameunexpectedlyto lightwhena University of Torontoexcavationteamled by DonaldB.Redfordset out to recover templesthat the heretickingAmenDuring the last hotepIV(Akhexlaten) built at Karnak anddedicatedto his new god,the 10 dynasties solardiscJAten. Suchstructures were knownto exist becauseof the private statuary thousandsof looseZsmall stone blocks(ta1atat) thathadlain unmarkedly decreased. assembledformanyyears,like misplacedpiecesof a jigsawpussleZin AfterherdeathJAhmosethe shadowsof the Karnaktemple. Nefertariwas deifiedZ andhername WhenCanadianandEgyptianarchaewasevokedin prayersalongside ologistsbeganto studythe blocks those of the Thebanholy triad.Her anduncovermoxefromthe interior cult waspopularin Egyptformany of the secondandtenthpylons(where centuriesZ particularlyamongthe the blockshadbeenreusedafter Akhenaten/stempleshadbeentorn down)the excavators wereastonished Ancient EgyptianChronology to find that the predominant royal 3100-30B.C.E. figure in the cult of the god was FirstDynasty 3100-2890 Second Dynasty 2890-2686 QueenNefertiti. The largestof the two Aten OldKtngdom temples at Karnak(theGemPaAten) Third Dynasty 26862613 PourthDynasty 2613-2494 hadmanyrowsof piexsdecorated Fifth Dynasty 2494-2345 with largescenesof Nefertitiandher Sixth DyIlasty 2345-2181 eldestdaughter,MeretatenZ sacrific1stIntermediatePeriod2181-2050 ing to the sun disk at the highaltar. Axlothertemple,the Maxlsionof the MiddleKingdom BenbenStone(theage-oldsacred EleventhDynasty 2134-1991 totemof the sun goditwasawholly given overto the use of the queenZ' 2ndIntermediatePeriod1786-1567 (Redford1984:138).ItspylonedgateNew Kingdom waysalso hadlargescenes showing EighteenthDynasty 1567-1320 the queenandhereldestdaughters Nineteenth Dynasty 1320-1200 TwentiethDynasty 1200-1085 as celebrantsin the cult. The queen appearstwice as oftenasherhusband 3rdIntexmediate Period1085-747 in the talatat scenesandsometimes in otherpharaonicroles,such as in LatePeriod Rushite (Twenty-fifih}Dynasty 747-664 the guiseof a warriorbrandishinga Saite (Twenty-sisth}Dynasty 664-52S scimitarZ readyto smite a captive PersianConquest 525 (Redford1984:78). AlexanderJsConquest 332 Egyptologistshaveyet to resolve Ptolemaic Rule 305-30 the questionof why Nefertitiis so muchmoreprominentthanAkhenatombworkersof the pharaohswho ten in scenesat Thebes.Wasshe asthoughtof herandher son as their signedto the sacredcity as a represpecialpatronsbecauseunderthem sentativeof the kingrulingfromthe old capltalof Memphisin the north? the workersZ villagein the great Sucha rolelaterfell to the daughters Thebannecropoliswasfounded. BiblicalArchaeologistJ March 1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions of the monarchsof the ThirdInterpredemediatePeriod.Akhenaterl's cessor,AmenhotepIII,seemsto have favoredThebesas his residence,and he mayhavehada closerrelationshipwith Nefertitithanis usually thought,possiblyas the surrogate fatherof her children.If medical expertsarecorrectandAkhenaten sufferedfromFroehliclissyndrome (amalfunctionof the pituitarythat causes,amongotherconditions, sterilityl,he couldnot havefathered Nefertiti'ssix daughters(Harrisand Hussien 1988:126;Aldred1988: however, 231-321.Herfather-in-law, hadalreadysiredseveraldaughters andwouldhavebeenthe only reasonableanswerto the youngcouple's desireforheirs.Scenesdepicting AmenhotepIIIas a corpulentold manwerefoundat the site of Tell el-Amarna,whereAkhenatenand fighthe controversial Aboveright:Nefertitiwas the wifeofAmenhotepIV(Akhenaten), teenthDynastypharaohwho worshipedthe solardisc,Aten,aboveall othergods.In this Nefertitiandherdaughterareshown scenefromoneAtentempleat Karnak(nowdestroyed), offeringsacrificesat thealtarofAten,whoseraysshinedownuponthem.Courtesyof Donald Above:OnsometalatatscenesfrornKarnak,Nefertitiis shownin pharaonicroles, B.Redford. as in thisimageof herboatthatincludesa kiosk(topblock,farlefi)in whichsheis portrayed as a warriorreadyto strikean enerny.Photocourtesyof theMuseumof FineArts,Boston (63.260,64.521). Nefertitididnot resideuntil yearsis reign.It is possible, of Akhenaterl's as CyrilAldredhas suggested,that these andotherscenesindicate AmenhotepIIIwasstill aliveat the time (Aldred1988:176-821.Thushe couldhavefatheredNefertiti'schildrenas well as beena strongbaclrer of herleadershiproleto the disadvantageof his sickly anddeformed son. It is alsopossiblethat Nefertiti, beingmoreobviouslyphysicallyfit thanherhusband,maysimplyhave to herselfpoliticaland arrogated religiouspower.OnceAmenhotepIII died,however,Nefertitiseems to havegraduallylost out to hereldest daughter,whosepresencein inscriptions beganto increaseandwho apparentlybecameherfather'snew favorite(Redford1984:187-88). Somescholarshavearguedfora namechangeandevengreaterpoliticalpowerforNefertitiin the guiseof KingSmenkhkare(Sampson1985: 83-99),but recentresearchon the royalmummyfoundin tomb55 in the Valleyof the Kings(Harris1989) seemsto confirmthatanotheryoung royalman,verylikely a brotherof precededTuton the Tutankhamun, throneof the pharaohs.Possibly Nefertitihadbecomeill orblindby middleage-blindness is a distinct possibilityforanyonewho stares directlyinto the sunfsrays,especially on numerousoccasions-but, in any case,herdaysof gloryseem to have beenin heryouth Duringthe last 10dynastiesprivatestatuarynoticeablydecreased, perhapsas a resultof economicuncertainties,but numerousmonuments of varioustypes-statues, tombs,templeshrinesandmonumentalinscriptions-belongto womenof rankin Egypt'spostempire dynasties,the ThirdIntermediate Periodandthe LatePeriod.Pharaohs to Twenty-third of the Twenty-first Dynastiesruledfromthe northbut felt the needto havea familyrepresentativebasedin the south,a position which, afterthe New Kingdom, becamepoliticallyindependent underthe highpriestsof Amon. Duringthis periodpharaohsturned to theirdaughtersandnot theirsons to representtheirinterestsin the south.Thus a royalprincesswascustomarilymarriedto a Thebanhigh priestandbecamea chiefconcubine of Amon-Re.The daughterof such a unionwouldassumethe old sacerdotaltitle of God'sWifeof Amon.As previouslydiscussed,numerousbenthis title. Decrees eficesaccompanied in the nameof the R;ingof the Gods werecarvedon the walls of Karnak's seventhandtenthpylons,confirming rightsof these royal the proprietary womenandextendingdeificationto them posthumously.Withestates andofficialsto servethem,the God's Wiveslivedlike monarchsandcarriedout the officialreligiousfunctions hithertoreservedforthe king. BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 13 Indeed,laterpharaohsinstalledtheir daughtersin this importantpost. andinsecurity Impoverishment markedthe postempireperiod,and Dynastywas the Twenty-second markedby nearcivil warbetween UpperandLowerEgypt,leavingthe dooropento invasionfromthe south. A Kushite(Nubian)invasionin the Dynastybroughtpeace Twenty-fifth pontiffmaintainedherpresenceas the chiefsacerdotalauthorityin Thebes.Indeed,most scholarswho havewrittenaboutthis phenomenon believethat the God'sWifewas a veritablesovereignof the Theban areaandareasto the south.Certainly the royalwomenwho functionedin this officedominatedthe officialart of the period. ShepenupetI, daughterof the last nativeruler,wasforcedto adopt AmenirdisI, the daughterof the KushiterulerKashta,an ardentfollowerof Amon.AmenirdisI ruled joirltlywith ShepenupetI forat least 13years.As the God'sWife,Amenirdis I left manymonuments,including some finely sculpturedportraits of herself.Oneportrait,now in the JoslynArtMuseumin Omaha,Nebraska,is not the most flatteringof Amenirdis(althoughit playsdown herforeignfeatureslandharlnens backto much olderartistictraditions.Moreinnovativeandaliveis the faiencestatuettein Cairoof the sameGod'sWifeshownin the lapof the godAmon;theyarein a closeembrace,with theirarmsflungaround eachother.No productof Egyptian artistshas everbetterdisplayedsuch passionbetweenlovers. In additionto monumentalinAmenirdisI, daughterof the Kushiteruler scriptionsandindividualportraits, I, Kashta,ruledjointlywith Shepenupet royalwomenbearingthe title of daughterof thelast nativeruler,forat least God'sWifeleft funerarymonuments Dynasty. 13yearsduringthe Twenty-fifth As the God'sWife,Amenirdisleft many andtombs.Alongthe southeastern monuments,includingsomefinelysculpcornerof the greatouterwall of the turedportraits,suchas thispiecenowin the mortuarytempleof RamessesIIIat JoslynArtMuseumin Omaha,Nebraska (1953.80).Thestyleof the wigharkensback MedinetHabu,locatedon the southto MiddleKingdomandevenOldKingdom ernendof the west bankat Luxor,is butthe crownis moresuggestive coiffures7 a seriesof elegantfuneralchapels of theNew Kingdom.Photocourtesyof the JoslynArtMuseum. (Hoelscher1954:17-29).Amongthe bestpreservedis thesandstonechapel of AmenirdisI with its fine,raised only at the cost of manylives,and decorationandfiguresdrawn relief this peacewas once againbrokenby proportionsandpurityof in "classic attacksfromthe east.Not only did 1980:222).Amenirdis's (Aldred line" mightyAssyriainvadeEgypttwice, like those of others inscriptions, but Assyriantroopsextendedtheir of God'sWife,detitle held the who rampageas farup the riveras Thebes, of Upperand Mistress her as scribe wherethey desecratedthe great she was at death and Egypt, Lower much templesandstrippedthem of deified. treasure.Throughit all, in unbroken Lessthana centuryafterthe successionby adoption,the female 14 reignof Amenirdis,a northernEgyptian leaderwhosepowerbasewas the city-ofSaisin the Nile Delta cameto the forewith Assyrianhelp andfoundedthe Twenty-sixthDynasty.This ruler,Psamtik,hadhis youngdaughter,Nitocris,adopted intotheCollegeofDivineAdoratrices at Thebes,althoughshe hadto wait herturnduringthe reignsof ShepenupetIIandher adopteddaughter (andactualniece)AmenirdisEI.A hugegranitestelaset up at Karnak's westenddocumentsPsamtik'sformal entranceinto Thebesandthe endowment to be givento Nitocrisafter the deathof those holdingthe title of God'sWife(Caminos1964:74 76). Nitocrislivedfor70 yearsbeyond the dateof her adoptioninto the priestlyhierarchy.Sheadoptedher owngreatniece,AnkhesNeferibres In additionto monumentalinscriptionsand royalwomenbearing individualportraits, the title of God'sWifeleft funerarymonumentsandtombs.Alongthesoutheastern cornerof thegreatouterwall of themortuary templeof RamessesIIIat MedinetHabuis a pictured seriesof elegantfuneralchapelsJ is thesandhere.Amongthe bestpreserved stonechapelofAmenirdisI. Photocourtesy of TheOrientalInstituteof TheUniversityof Chicago. who becamethe last God'sWifebut lost herpowerin 525 B.C.E. as a result of the Persianconquestof Egypt. Spacedoesnot allowfora review of the manymonumentsdatingto the PtolemaicPeriodandits famous queens(mostnotedlyArsinoeIIand CleopatraVII).Sufficeit to saythat althoughEgypt'slast independent rulerswereforeignborntheyfound Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions woulduse (Pomeroy 1984: 119 20). muchto emulatefromearlierEgyptianculture,the politicalimportance of the royalwomenas well as the grandtemples.Theserulersalso rspectedthe age-oldlegaltraditions of independenceandgreaterrights forwomenbyallowingtwo lawcodes to coexistso that women-Egyptian orHellene-would not haveto suffer the constraintsof Greeklawsbut wouldhavea choiceas to which they Duringthe classicalage,wellreadauthorswerethe best publicists forthe independenceof the Egyptian woman,whichtheyfoundquiteshocking.The GreekhistorianHerodotus, forexample,commented: As the Egyptianshavea climate peculiarto themselves. . . so havetheymadeall theircustoms andlawsof a kindcontraryfor the mostpartto thoseof all other men.Amongthem,the women buy andsell, the men abideat homeandweave;andwhereas in weavingall otherspushthe woofupwards,the Egyptians pushit downwards. Mencarry burdenson theirheads,women on theirshoulders{Histozy, book2, chapter35; see Godley 1966:315-16). Conclusion As these monumentsshow,modern archaeologyhas uncoveredconcrete evidencethat ancientEgyptian womenled full lives.Although monumentsleft by commonersare not as largein scaleor as fine as those of royalwomentthey aremost eloquent,forthey speakof independenceandself-respecton the partof manywomenwho livedin Egypt morethan3,000yearsago. Bibliography Aldred,C. 1980 EgyptianArt in the Days of the Pharaohs.New York:OxfordUniversity Press. 1988 Akhenatent Kingof Egypt.New York:Thames & Hudson. Allam, S. 1985 Some Pagesfrom EverydayLife in Ancient Egypt.Giza: Prism Publications. Bierbrier,M. 1982 TombBuildersof the Pharaohs. London:The British Museum. Caminos, R. 1964 The Nitocris AdoptionStela. Iournal of EgyptianArchaeology 50: 71-101. Cerny,J. 1973 A Community of WorAmenat Thebesin the Ramesside Period. Cairo:Institut Francaisd'Archeologie Orientale. 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Ward,W.A. 1986 Essays on Feminine Titles. Beirut: American University of Beirut. 1989 Non-royalWomenand Their Occupations in the MiddleKingdom.Pp. 33-43 in Women'sEarliest Records: FromAncient Egyptand Western Asia, edited by B. S. Lesko.Atlanta: ScholarsPress. Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991 This content downloaded from 146.96.24.14 on Fri, 4 Jul 2014 09:46:51 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 15