Download Brendan McEnery`s Grammar Course

A GRAMMAR COURSE
Developed by Brendan McEnery, UCC Language Centre
1. Active or passive verb forms
Page: 2
2. Adjectives
Page: 5
3. Adverbs
Page: 6
2. Articles (a/an/the/0)
Page: 8
3. Commas
Page: 11
4. Comparatives and superlatives
Page: 13
5. Conditional sentences
Page 15
6. Countable and uncountable nouns Page: 19
7. Gerund or infinitive?
Page: 23
8. Linking words and expressions
Page: 25
9. Noun + noun
Page: 28
10. Participle clauses
Page: 31
11 Present perfect tenses
Page: 33
12. Relative clauses
Page: 34
13. Reported speech
Page: 38
14. Sentence structure
Page: 41
15. State verbs
Page: 47
16: Tenses in English: A quick review Page: 49
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
ACTIVE OR PASSIVE?
A: Shakespeare wrote Hamlet.
P: Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
Identify the subject and object in the active sentence. Shakespeare = subject; Hamlet = object
Identify the ‘agent’ and ‘victim’ in the active sentence. Shakespeare = agent; Hamlet = ‘victim’
Identify the ‘agent’ and ‘victim’ in the passive sentence. Shakespeare = agent; Hamlet = ‘victim’
Identify the subject of the passive sentence. Hamlet. (The object of the active sentence becomes
the subject of the passive version)
A: Plants produce oxygen. ‘Plants’ may be ‘old/known/previously mentioned’ information; ‘oxygen’
may be ‘new to the reader’ information.
P: Oxygen is produced by plants. ‘Oxygen’ may be ‘old/known’ information/previously mentioned’
information; ‘plants’ may be ‘new’ information.
A: The police have arrested the criminal.
P: The criminal has been arrested by the police. If you want to name the agent.
P: The criminal has been arrested. More common, as the agent is obvious, and this passive
sentence is shorter!
A: Someone has stolen my mobile phone.
P: My mobile phone has been stolen. The agent is unknown. Focus on the ‘victim’ rather than the
agent.
A: You/Users store the information on the hard disk.
P: The information is stored in the hard disk. More common, especially in written English, as it’s
more formal, less personal, and avoids the problem of naming the agent.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
A: Our hair grows every day
P: (NOT POSSIBLE) There is no ‘agent-victim’ relationship. The active sentence has no direct object.
A: My grandfather died last night.
P: (NOT POSSIBLE) There is no ‘agent-victim’ relationship. The active sentence has no direct object.
Exercise: Choose active or passive:
Cheese makes / is made from milk.
They make / are made cheese from milk.
Terrorists attacked / were attacked the building.
The building attacked / was attacked by terrorists.
The information stores / is stored on the hard disk.
Oxygen releases / is released by plants.
Plants release / are released oxygen.
Our hair grows / is grown every day.
The population will increase / will be increased in the next few years.
The pyramids at Giza built / were built by the ancient Egyptians.
The weather in Cork changes / is changed very often.
ACTIVE
The
sun
PASSIVE
heats
is heating
heated
has heated
is going to
heat
will heat
B. McEnery
the
earth
PRESENT SIMPLE
The
earth
PRESENT
CONTINUOUS
PAST SIMPLE
PRESENT PERFECT
FUTURE
FUTURE
UCC Language Centre
is
heated (by the
sun)
is being
was
has been
is going
to be
will be
2012
Complete the table:
ACTIVE
The
school
PASSIVE
is buying
bought
a new
computer
A new
computer
is bought
(by the
school)
has been
bought
is going to
buy
every year
this week
last month
recently
next week
will be
bought
next week
Answer keys:
Cheese is made from milk.
They make cheese from milk.
Terrorists attacked the building.
The building was attacked by terrorists.
The information is stored on the hard disk.
Oxygen is released by plants.
Plants release oxygen.
Our hair grows every day.
The population will increase in the next few years.
The pyramids at Giza were built by the ancient Egyptians.
The weather in Cork changes very often.
ACTIVE
The
school
PASSIVE
buys
is buying
bought
has bought
is going to
buy
will buy
B. McEnery
a new
computer
A new
computer
is bought
is being
bought
was bought
has been
bought
is going to
be bought
will be
bought
UCC Language Centre
(by the
school)
every year
this week
last month
recently
next week
next week
2012
ADJECTIVES (some problem areas)
She is absolutely nice.
The movie was rather perfect.
When modifying ‘gradable’ adjectives (e.g. nice, cold, expensive etc) you can
use a range of adverbs (a bit, a little, rather, fairly, quite (=fairly), very, really,
extremely) but not absolutely, totally or completely.
When modifying ‘ungradable’ adjectives (e.g. perfect, freezing, impossible etc)
you can use absolutely, totally, really, completely or quite (=completely), but
not a bit, a little, rather, fairly, quite (=fairly), very, extremely.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It’s a big nice house.
a sunny beautiful day
political Irish history
When we use more that one adjective to describe something, the most
important rule is that ‘opinion’ adjectives come before ‘fact’ adjectives:
It’s a nice big house.
a beautiful sunny day
Other useful rules include: size before age before colour (a big old white
house), and origin/nationality before type (Irish political history).
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
ADVERBS
Adverbs can come at the start, in the middle, or at the end of a sentence.
Adverbs of frequency (always, usually, normally, sometimes, often, sometimes, rarely, hardy ever,
never) generally go immediately before the main verb, but after be (one word):
Peter usually arrives late.
Peter has always arrived late.
Does Peter sometimes arrive late?
Peter is never late.
Peter has always been punctual.
Other adverbs which generally follow these rules include just, already, even and also.
The have just arrived.
She also works part-time as a fitness coach.
She is also a part-time fitness coach.
It is unusual to put never, hardly ever, and rarely at the start of a sentence. If you do so, you must
invert the subject and verb:
Rarely have I seen him arrive late.
Never has there been such a cold winter
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
We generally don’t put an adverb between verb and its direct object:
Peter ate quickly his dinner.
They bought yesterday a new car.
He loves very much his wife.
Peter ate his dinner quickly.
They bought a new car yesterday.
He loves his wife very much.
Other adverbs which generally come at the end of a sentence include yet, too and as well:
They haven’t arrived yet.
She works as a fitness coach as well.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
ARTICLES (a/an/the/0)
1. In English there are two articles: the definite article (the) and the indefinite article (a/an)
What is the difference in meaning between these two articles? What is the difference between a
house and the house?
When you say (or write) a house, the listener (or reader) generally doesn’t know which house you
have in mind because you haven’t mentioned any house before.
e.g. Peter bought a new house last month
When you say (or write) the house, the listener (or reader) generally knows which house you have
in mind – either because you have mentioned the house before or because it is obvious which house
you are referring to (or there is only one!)
e.g. He paid too much for the house.
We do not let the pet rabbits into the house.
When you say (or write) the houses, you are referring to a particular group of houses which the
listener (reader) knows about (or which you describe later in the same sentence).
e.g. I took a photo of the houses beside the cathedral.
2. We generally put an article before a singular countable noun (e.g. a coin / the coin )
We do not put the indefinite article before an uncountable noun ( e.g. a money )
3. What is the difference between a car and one car?
When we want to be ‘mathematical’, we say (or write) one car
e.g. Last month they sold the Ferrari and now they only have one car .
When we don’t need to be ‘mathematical’, we use a/an
e.g. Next year, I hope to buy a car
4. We use the definite article in superlative phrases,
e.g. Dublin is the largest city in Ireland
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
5. We do not normally put any article before proper nouns (e.g. names of people, book titles, movie
titles, song titles, company names, the names of countries, cities, famous buildings, street names
and so on) . Proper nouns start with a capital letter.
e.g. Harry Potter, Microsoft, Spain, Buckingham Palace, Washington St.
Exceptions:
Plural countries (e.g. the U. S., the Netherlands, the Philippines),
buildings/places with “the X of Y” structure: (e.g. the Leaning Tower of Pisa,
the Great Wall of China, the Houses of Parliament)
rivers (the Nile), oceans (the Pacific) and mountain ranges (the Alps)
6. We do not normally put any article before plural nouns, or before an uncountable noun, when
talking in general.
e.g. That’s life!; Health is more important than wealth; Money can’t buy you love; Capitalism
works better than communism; Boys run faster than girls.
EXERCISE:
Correct any mistakes in the following paragraph. Not all the sentences contain
mistakes. The answers are on the next page.
Last night I rented one fantastic DVD. It is called ‘Eastern Promise’. It
was a best romantic comedy I’ve ever seen. Brad Pitt played main
role. He falls in love with the beautiful poor woman who works in
large hotel where he is staying in the China. The movie shows how
the love is possible between the people from the different cultures.
Music in the movie was superb but the ending was a bit predictable. I
brought DVD back this morning
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
CORRECT VERSION
Last night I rented a fantastic DVD. (Section 3 above) It is called ‘Eastern
Promise’. It was the best romantic comedy I’ve ever seen. (Section 4) Brad
Pitt played the main role. (Sections 1&2) He falls in love with a beautiful
poor woman (Section 1) who works in the/a large hotel (Sections 1&2)
where he is staying in the China. (Section 5) The movie shows how the love
is possible between the people from the different cultures. (Section 6) The
music in the movie was superb but the ending was a bit predictable.(Section
1) I brought the DVD back this morning. (Sections 1&2)
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
COMMAS
In general, commas help the reader to see the ‘big picture’ in a sentence, by separating the main
SVO or SVC from other (slightly less important) parts of the sentence.
USE A COMMA:

to separate ‘extra’ (non-essential) information from main information:
The internet, which has been around since the 1990’s, has revolutionised the way we live.

to separate an introductory word/phrase from the rest of the sentence:
Fortunately, the government have found a solution to this problem.
On the other hand, the new IT system has several disadvantages.
In my opinion, keeping animals in zoos is cruel.

to signal the end of a subordinate clause and the start of the main clause:
Because they needed to increase sales, the company launched two new products.

between items in a list:
Accessing information on the internet is fast, cheap, convenient and easy.
The comma before ‘and’ is optional, but put it in if you feel it will help the reader:
The internet is incredibly fast, very easy to use, and costs relatively little.
DO NOT PUT/USE A COMMA:

between a reporting verb (or a verb of thinking etc) from what is reported/thought. Do not
break the SVO sequence with a comma:
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
He said, that he would arrive at 5pm.
I think, that keeping animals in zoos is cruel.
He said that he would arrive at 5pm.
I think that keeping animals in zoos is cruel.

between the subject of the main verb of a sentence and the main verb:
The main reason why the price of oil is rising is that demand is increasing.
The main reason why the price of oil is rising, is that demand is increasing.

between the main verb in a sentence and its the complement:
What we can see from this chart is that the price of oil has doubled in the last 10 years.
What we can see from this chart is, that the price of oil has doubled in the last 10 years.

to separate essential information from the rest of the sentence:
We need to do more to help children, who are living in poverty.
We need to do more to help children who are living in poverty.

on its own between clauses (or sentences) which need to be separated/joined in a more formal
way:
The internet has brought us many benefits, there are also drawbacks.
The internet has brought us many benefits, but there are also drawbacks. (The comma is optional.)
The internet has brought us many benefits; there are also drawbacks.
The internet has brought us many benefits. There are also drawbacks.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES (big - bigger- the
biggest)
The Shannon is a long river
The Shannon is longer than
the Lee
The Shannon is the longest
river in Ireland
NORMAL ADJECTIVE
COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE
Asia is a big continent.
Asia is
Europe.
Asia is the
in the world.
SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVE
than
Is river A as long as the river
B?
River A isn’t as long as river B
Is country A as
River C is as long as river B
Country C is as big as county B.
River A
County A isn’t as
_________
Country A
River B
___________________
Country B
River C
___________________
Country C
Mobile calls
are
?
SHORT ADJECTIVES
dearer than text
messages
Text
cheaper
mobile calls
messages
than
are
International mobile calls are generally the
dearest type of call.
Local landline calls are usually the cheapest
type of call.
LONG ADJECTIVES
more
text
expensive
messages
than
Text
less
mobile calls
messages
expensive
are
than
International mobile calls are the most
expensive type of call.
Local landline calls are usually the least
expensive type of call.
Mobile calls
are
To intensify/soften adjectives:
Paris is a very big city.
Dublin is quite a big city. / Dublin is a fairly big city.
Paris is much/far/considerably bigger than any other French city.
slightly bigger than Manchester.
Paris is by far the biggest city in France.
B. McEnery
Birmingham is a little /
That city is marginally the biggest in the country.
UCC Language Centre
2012
Answer key:
The Shannon is a long river
The Shannon is longer than
the Lee
The Shannon is the longest
river in Ireland
NORMAL ADJECTIVE
COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVE
SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVE
Is river A as long as the river
B?
River A isn’t as long as river B
Asia is a big continent.
Asia is bigger than Europe. (or
a bigger continent)
Asia is the biggest continent in
the world.
Is country A as big as country
B?
County A isn’t as big as the
other two countries.
Country C is as big as county B
River C is as long as river B
Some irregular spellings:
Thin-thinner-the thinnest
large-larger-the largest
easy-easier/ the easiest
friendly-friendlier-the friendliest or more friendly-the most friendly
Some irregular adjective forms:
Good/better/the best bad/worse/the worst
far - further/farther - the furthest/the farthest
Compare:
Laptop computers and desktop computers
Living in the city and living in the countryside
Your country and Ireland
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
In a conditional sentence there are normally two clauses (the ‘condition clause’ and the ‘result
clause’) which are joined by the word if. There are four main types of conditional and variations on
these.
THE ‘ZERO’ CONDITIONAL
If you boil water, it evaporates
If you love someone, you want to share everything with them
FORM: if + present simple (in the condition clause)
present simple (in the result clause)
FUNCTION:
To express the normal consequences of an action, event or situation in the past,
present or future
THE FIRST CONDITIONAL
If it rains this afternoon, we’ll go to the cinema
If it’s raining this afternoon, we’ll go to the cinema
FORM: if + present simple or continuous
will + infinitive
FUNCTION: To describe the consequences of an action, event or situation which is entirely possible
in the future
THE SECOND CONDITIONAL
If I had enough money, I would buy a nice big house in the country
If I was/were rich, I’d buy a nice big house in the country
If I was running this company, I’d change many things
FORM: if + past simple / continuous
would + infinitive
FUNCTION: To describe the consequences of an action, event or situation which is unlikely or
imaginary.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
THE THIRD CONDITIONAL
If I had known you were in hospital, I would have visited you
If I’d studied harder at university, I’d have got better grades
FORM: if + past perfect
would have + past participle
FUNCTION: To describe the imaginary consequences of an action, event or situation which did not
happen in the past.
EXERCISE A
What is the difference between (a) and (b)?
(a) If I find his wallet, I’ll phone him immediately
(b) If I found a wallet in the street, I would bring it to the nearest police station
What is the difference between (c) and (d)?
(c) If I knew his number, I’d phone him.
(d) If I had known his number, I would have phoned him.
VARIATIONS:
If I had enough money, I would buy a nice big house in the country
I would buy a nice big house in the country if I had enough money
The two sentences above have the same meaning. The result clause can come first or second. When
the result clause is first, no comma is needed.
................................................................................................................................................................
If you see them, tell them I’ll be late
In this first conditional, the result is an order / instruction (in the imperative verb form)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
She will come if she has time
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
She won’t come if she hasn’t got time
She won’t come unless she has time
if + negative verb can often be replaced by unless + positive verb
................................................................................................................................................................
If he has time, he will come to the meeting (First conditional)
If he has time, he may come to the meeting
If he has time, he might come to the meeting
If you took more exercise, you would feel better (Second conditional)
If you took more exercise, you may/might feel better
If she had run faster, she would have won the race (Third conditional)
If she had run faster, she may/might have won the race
The use of may or might in the result clause makes the result sound uncertain.
................................................................................................................................................................
If I had gone to the party, I would be tired now
This is a ‘mixed’ conditional. It starts like a third conditional but finishes like a second conditional.
This is because the condition clause refers to the past but the result clause refers to the present.
EXERCISE B
Complete the following sentences using appropriate forms of the verbs from
the list in italics at the end.
1. He would be a good footballer if he _______________ some weight
2. If you freeze water, it _______________ ice.
3. If she _______________ he was a criminal, she would not have married
him.
4. If I were you, I _______________ to a doctor immediately.
5. Unless they ask me to pay, I _______________
6. If I had worked harder, I _________________ a promotion last month.
7. If I ________________ not there at 3 o’clock, start without me.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
8. If you argue with complaining customers, it _______________ them
even angrier.
9. I might go on holidays to South America next year if I _______________
enough money.
10.What _______________ if you found a burglar in your house?
be, become, do, get, go, have, know, lose, make, pay
ANSWERS
EXERCISE A:
In sentence (a), his wallet is a real wallet which has been lost and it is entirely possible that the
speaker will find this wallet. That’s why a first conditional is used.
In sentence (b), the wallet is an imaginary wallet. The speaker is fantasising about what he would do
in an unlikely or imaginary situation. That’s why a second conditional is used.
In sentence (c), the speaker is talking about the present and the future but she feels that getting the
phone number is unlikely. That’s why a second conditional is used
In sentence (d), the speaker is fantasising about the past. In reality, she didn’t know the telephone
number and so she didn’t phone him
EXERCISE B:
1. lost 2. becomes / will become (ZERO OR FIRST CONDITIONAL)
4. would go / get
5. won’t (pay) 6. would have got
3. had known
7. am / ‘m / don’t get
8. makes / will make (ZERO OR FIRST CONDITIONAL)
9. have/get/make (THE FIRST CONDITIONAL BECAUSE OF THE TIME EXPRESSION ‘next year’)
10. would you do
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Every English noun is either countable or uncountable:
A countable noun (C)* can be counted! It can be singular or plural.
e.g. a car, my car, the car, one car, every car,
three cars, car, few cars
an artist, one artist, that artist, each artist
two artists, many artists
A singular countable noun cannot be used alone – i.e. you normally put an article (a/an/the) before
it (or another word like my, his, our, this, that, each, every)
Uncountable nouns (U)* cannot be counted. They are always singular.
e.g. information, the information, this information, that information, our information, a lot of
information, too much information, very little information
You can use the (the definite article) before an uncountable noun but you cannot use a/an (the
indefinite article)
If you want to count an uncountable noun, there are two possibilities:
1. Put a countable noun + of before the uncountable noun:
e.g. a slice of bread, one piece of information, two bits of advice, three items of clothing
2. Make a compound noun with the uncountable noun first and a countable noun second:
e.g. a news story, a research paper
Some nouns can be countable in one context and uncountable in another context:
I had a coffee a few minutes ago.
I drink too much coffee.
A new law about drink driving was introduced last month.
She’s studying law at the moment.
Common mistakes:
Correct versions:
I want to be singer
I want to be a singer
There were three equipments in the room
There are three pieces of equipment in the room
* A good dictionary will have the abbreviations C or U after each noun (or each use of the noun)
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
EXERCISE
Correct any mistakes in the following sentences. Not all the sentences contain mistakes.
1. She has apartment.
2. He has nice new apartment.
3. I bought a bread in the supermarket.
4. We will need two breads
5. Let me give you some advice
6. My father gave me two good pieces of advice
7. She is excellent teacher
8. She is my teacher
9. We went to the pub and had a few beers
10. Beer is my favourite drink
11. There are too many informations in the document
12. I heard a terrible news this morning
13. He wants to find a work in the city centre
14. She brought two luggages with her on holiday
15. Do you think he will make a good impression at the interview?
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS
1. She has an apartment. An article before a singular countable noun
2. He has a nice apartment. Even with an adjective before a singular countable noun, you still need
an article (or equivalent).
3. I bought bread / some bread / a loaf of bread / a roll in the supermarket. Bread in an
uncountable noun
4. We will need two loaves of bread / two slices of bread / two rolls.
5. Let me give you some advice. Correct. Advice is an uncountable noun and so it cannot have a/an
before it. It is never plural.
6. My father gave me two good pieces of advice. Correct. If you want to ‘count’ advice, you need to
use a countable noun with it.
7. She is an excellent teacher. A singular countable cannot be used alone.
8. She is my teacher. Correct. The possessive pronoun my replaces the article.
9. We went to the pub and had a few beers. Correct. Beer is a countable noun in this context
10. Beer is my favourite drink. Correct. Beer is an uncountable noun in this context
11. There are too many pieces of information / There is too much information in the document.
Information is uncountable.
12. I heard a terrible piece of news this morning. News is an uncountable noun. You cannot put
a/an directly before it.
13. He wants to find work / a job in the city centre. Job is countable; work is uncountable.
14. She brought two suitcases/ two bags/ two items of luggage with her on holiday. Suitcases and
bags are countable; luggage is uncountable.
15. Do you think he will make a good impression at the interview? Correct. Impression is a countable
noun.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
COUNTABLE NOUNS
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
How many?
How much?
One, two etc
a/an
the
few / a few
the (or no article)
little / a little
several / a number of
some
some
a lot (of) / lots (of) *
a lot (of) / lots (of) *
a good deal of ***
plenty of *
plenty of *
many
much ****
a large number of
a great deal of ***
a large amount of
* = informal
B. McEnery
*** = formal
**** = very formal
UCC Language Centre
2012
GERUND OR INFINITIVE?
A gerund (‘ing’ form) is normally used:
 after a preposition ( e.g. He’s interested in improving his English) *
 as the subject, object or complement of the main verb in a sentence (e.g.
Learning a language takes a long time. I hate driving. Seeing is believing)
An infinitive is more common:
 after an adjective (e.g. It’s difficult to pronounce that word) A full infinitive
 to express purpose (e.g. I came to Ireland to learn English) A Full infinitive
 after modal verbs (e.g. I should read more) A bare infinitive
In a V1 + V2 structure, the second verb can be a gerund or an infinitive. **
There are three possibilities:
1. It doesn’t matter if you use a gerund or an infinitive (e.g. She started speaking
English when she was five = She started to speak English when he was five)
2. You have no choice; V1 dictates whether V2 is a gerund or infinitive (e.g. I enjoy
learning new words; I need to improve my vocabulary)
3. You can use either a gerund or infinitive, but the meaning is different in each case.







He stopped smoking. ≠ He stopped to smoke.
I remember taking my medicine. ≠ I remember to take my medicine.
I forget taking my medicine. ≠ I forget to take my medicine.
I regret telling you that he left. ≠ I regret to tell you that he left.
Try opening the window. ≠ Try to open the window.
She went on learning the piano. ≠ She went on to learn the piano.
I didn’t mean waking the baby. ≠ I didn’t mean to wake the baby.
It doesn’t mean waking the baby
* When ‘to’ is a preposition (i.e. not part of the full infinitive), use a gerund (e.g. I’m
looking forward to meeting you; She’s used to driving on the left)
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
** V2 can sometimes take other forms (e.g. I recommend (that) you visit Dublin)
*** Gerunds and infinitive can be negative (e.g. not knowing, not to know) and
passive (being studied, (to) be studied)
Complete the following sentences. Choose a gerund or an infinitive.
Sometimes both are possible.
1. I hate _______________ a dictionary. (use)
2. It’s easy _______________ grammar mistakes. (make)
3. _______________ cigarettes is bad for your health. (smoke)
4. We like _______________ by the teacher. (correct)
5. She’s against ______________ animals in laboratory experiments.
(use)
6. I will never forget _______________ him for the first time last
year. (meet)
7. They object to _______________ overtime without pay. (work)
8. He suggested (me) _______________ to the doctor. (go)
9. It’s crazy _______________ around you when walking across a
busy street with lots of traffic. (look)
10. I regret _______________ you that you have just failed the exam.
(tell)
1. using
2. to make
3. smoking
6. meeting
7. working
8. suggested going / suggested (that) I went/go /should go
9. not to look
10. to tell
B. McEnery
4. being corrected / to be corrected
UCC Language Centre
5. using
2012
LINKING WORDS AND EXPRESSIONS
Text:
Analysis:
Different forms of intercity travel in Ireland
Types of linkers used and examples of alternatives
People travel between cities for many reasons: to
commute to and from work; for business reasons; in
order to visit friends or family or because they are
tourists. It is possible to travel within Ireland by car,
bus, train and even by plane.
EXPRESSING PURPOSE
Firstly, let us examine the option of air travel.
Whereas flying was expensive in the past, air fares
are much lower now due to more competition and
the advent of low-cost, no-frills airlines. However,
flying is still a bit more expensive than other forms of
travel and there are only a few airports in Ireland. For
these reasons, most travellers prefer land based
travel, by which I mean, by road or by rail.
INDICATING SEQUENCE OF IDEAS
to + INFINITIVE / in order to + INF
so as to + INF / for + NOUN (OR ing VERB FORM)
Firstly, .. / First of all, .. / To start with, ..
INDICATING CONTRAST / DIFFERENCE
Whereas….. / While ……. However,
GIVING REASONS
Due to + NOUN, / as a result of + NOUN / because of +
NOUN
PRESENTING RESULTS / CONSEQUENCES
For this / these reason(s), … Because of this, ….
As a result, …. Consequently, …..
Therefore, …... (and) so …
CLARIFYING
.., by which I mean …. / in other words …. / i.e.
Secondly, let us look at travelling by bus (or coach).
Although it may be cheaper to travel by coach
between Cork and Dublin, it usually takes longer than
B. McEnery
INDICATING SEQUENCE OF IDEAS
Secondly,…. next, ….
UCC Language Centre
2012
flying and is not very comfortable. As a result, it is
generally only popular among younger travellers, in
particular, students.
CONCEDING COUNTER ARGUMENTS
Although + VERB / Even though + VERB,
While…….. whereas ……..
HIGHLIGHTING
in particular, particularly, especially
Train travel in Ireland is usually more expensive than
coach travel. In spite of this, it is a very popular form
of inter-city travel. This is because it is normally faster
than travelling by coach or car. In addition, you can
relax, study or work more easily on a train than with
any other form of transport, in my opinion. It is also
more comfortable in that you can walk up and down
the train.
CONCEDING COUNTER ARGUMENTS
In spite of + NOUN / PRONOUN / ing FORM, ….
Despite + NOUN / PRONOUN / ing FORM.
MOVING FROM COUNTER TO MAIN ARGUMENT
Nevertheless, .. / Nonetheless, .. However, I still …
GIVING REASONS
Because + VERB / due to the fact that + VERB
…. as + VERB / …..since + VERB
ADDING INFORMATION OR ARGUMENTS
In addition,… / Moreover, ….
Furthermore, ….. / Besides this, …..
….. also …. / …. and …. / Finally, …
Coach travel and train travel are similar in many
ways. In general, you can travel from city centre to
city centre, unlike with air travel. With both coach
and train travel, you can view the country side as you
travel without having to worry about stopping for
petrol or asking for directions etc.
GENERALISING
In general, … / usually / generally / in most cases /
normally
EXPRESSING DIFFERENCES AND SIMILARITIES
unlike ….
Both …. / … both …….
AVOIDING GIVING MORE DETAILS
….etc. / and so on.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
Travelling by car is often the least expensive option,
particularly for a group of 3 to 5 people. It is also
more flexible. For example, you can travel when and
where you want and stop as often as you like.
Consequently, many people prefer to travel by car.
However, there are also difficulties with car travel
such as traffic jams, parking problems and the fatigue
of driving.
GIVING EXAMPLES
For example, … / For instance, …….
..such as ….. / ….like …… e.g. ….
…for example … / …for instance …….
Let me give an example.
PRESENTING A COUNTER ARGUMENT
However, …. On the other hand, ….
To sum up, we can see that each form of inter-city
travel has its own advantages and disadvantages. The
form you choose depends on many variables like the
destination, the purpose of your trip, your budget,
the time available, and the number of people
travelling.
B. McEnery
SUMMARISING
To sum up, … / In summary, ….
UCC Language Centre
2012
NOUN + NOUN (N+N)
In English it is common to put two nouns side by side to make a compound
noun (N+N) e.g. a football club, a computer screen, the music teacher, money
problems, health education, a television programme, and climate change.
A plural compound noun has an ‘s’ at the end of the second noun (not at the
end of the first) e.g. three computer screens (three computers screen/s)
Often, the first noun operates like an adjective in front of the second noun, i.e.
the first noun describes the second noun or gives more information about the
second noun.
When an adjectival form of the first noun exists, we normally use the adjective
form (A+N) rather than the noun form, e.g. financial problems (finance
problems), technological developments (technology developments)
Sometimes using the adjective doesn’t express your meaning (e.g. healthy
education, the musical teacher) so you use a compound noun instead (health
education, the music teacher)
Sometimes a triple compound noun is possible (e.g. oil production costs), or
even a quadruple compound noun (e.g. a wind energy research centre)
When pronouncing compound nouns, the stress usually falls on the first noun
(e.g. ‘money problems). When writing compound nous, sometimes there is
more than one possibility (e.g. ski boots, ski-boots, and skiboots). The hyphen
option is becoming less common. Where both nouns are very short, we usually
make one word (e.g. bathroom) while for longer nouns we usually separate the
nouns (e.g. airport terminal). If in doubt, write two separate words.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
We often put an apostrophe after the first noun and a space between the two
nouns (N’s N) when the second noun belongs to, or is part of, or is used by or
produced by, the first noun, e.g. Peter’s house, Peter’s brother, Ireland’s
history, a woman’s face, a dog’s tail, women’s magazines, the government’s
decision, cow’s milk and the train’s arrival. This pattern is common when the
first noun is a person, an animal or an organisation, and it always used when
the first noun is the name of a person. Often, the idea could be reformulated
as an SVO sentence with the first noun as the subject and the second noun as
the object (e.g. women read these magazines or the government made the
decision)
Sometimes we put the preposition ‘of’ between the two nouns (N of N) (a map
of Cork, the centre of the room, the history of Ireland). This pattern is not as
common in English as in some other European languages.
Sometimes both N’s N and N of N are possible (Cork’s history, the history of
Cork), sometimes not (Cork’s map). If you are not sure, choose N of N (e.g. the
centre of Cork), except when one of the nouns is the name of a person.
Other prepositions are sometimes used between two nouns e.g. developments
in technology, education about health, the solution to the problem. (N P N)
When describing containers, both N of N and N+N are possible but the
meaning of each is different. A coffee cup is just a cup while a cup of coffee
means the cup and the drink inside.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
Correct any mistakes in the following N+N examples. Not every example is
incorrect.
1. a heart attack
2. the house of Stephen
3. North Ireland
4. hair growth
5. the tourist industry
6. a medicine problem
7. animal behaviour
8. a Physics teacher
9. the lesson’s end
10. a historical degree
1. a heart attack
CORRECT
2. the house of Stephen
3. North Ireland
Stephen’s house
Northern Ireland / the North of Ireland
4. hair growth CORRECT (‘the growth of hair’ IS POSSIBLE BUT LESS COMMON)
5. the tourist industry
CORRECT (‘the tourism industry’ IS ALSO COMMON)
6. a medicine problem
a medical problem
7. animal behaviour CORRECT
8. a Physics teacher
CORRECT (BOTH WORDS ARE SINGULAR)
9. the lesson’s end
the end of the lesson
10. a historical degreea history degree / a degree in history
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
PARTICIPLE CLAUSES
What do the underlined participle clauses mean? Rephrase them.
Coached effectively, children can quickly learn how to play tennis well.
Parking his car near the main entrance, he walked into the shop.
A group of tourists exploring the island discovered the ruins of an ancient church.
A famine has hit parts of Sudan, killing thousands of people.
Not having any money, I was unable to take a taxi home.
Having finished her degree, my sister decided to take a year off.
ANSWER KEY
‘Coached’ = ‘If they are coached’. Here the past participle replaces a full passive (conditional) clause.
‘Parking’ = ‘After he (had) parked’. Here the present participle shows that the action in the participle
clause happened immediately before the main action
‘exploring’ = ‘when they were exploring’ or ‘’who were exploring’. In the former case, the present
participle shows that the main action happened during the action in the participle clause. In the
latter case, it replaces a relative clause.
‘killing’ = ‘and it killed’. Here the present participle expresses consequence/result, as well as the
sequence of actions.
‘Not having’ = ‘because I didn’t have’. Here the (negative) present participle expresses cause/reason.
‘Having finished’ = ‘After he had finished’. Here the action in the participle clause happened before
the main action, but not necessarily immediately before it.
Normally, the subject of the participle clause is also the subject of the main clause, as
in the examples above. However, sometimes this not true:
I saw a man standing outside the building.
Put the participle clause as close as possible to the person/thing which it refers to.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
PRESENT PERFECT (SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS)
Match the examples of the present perfect (a-d) with the five uses/meanings (1-4)
Example
Describes….
a
I’ve visited New York.
1 an action which started in the past
and is still in progress. The emphasis
in on the duration of the action.
b
My hair’s wet because I’ve been
walking in the rain.
2 a recent action which has an impact
on the present. The result is
important.
c
I’ve lost my keys.
3 a recent continuous action with an
impact on the present
d
I’ve been waiting here for one
hour.
4 a life experience. The date/time is
not important
Correct any mistakes in the following sentences. Explain why the incorrect form is not
acceptable.
I’ve seen him yesterday.
We’re here since 8 o’clock this morning.
She’s lived here since 2 years.
I’ve been knowing him since we were in primary school.
They haven’t never been to New York.
Have you still finished the book?
He has finished his assignment yet.
I have read the book before I saw the movie.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
ANSWER KEY:
I’ve seen him yesterday.
I saw him yesterday.
We’re here since 8 o’clock this morning.
We’ve been here since 8 o’clock this morning.
She’s lived here since 2 years.
She’s lived here for 2 years.
She’s been living here for 2 years.
I’ve been knowing him since we were in primary school.
I’ve known him since we were in primary school.
They haven’t never been to New York.
They’ve never been to New York.
They haven’t ever been to New York.
Have you still finished the book?
Have you finished the book (yet)?
Are you still reading the book?
He has finished his assignment yet.
He has (already) finished his assignment (already).
He hasn’t finished his assignment yet.
I have read the book before I saw the movie.
I had read the book before I saw the movie.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
RELATIVE CLAUSES
You can join two short sentences together to make one longer sentence using a relative clause.
e.g. This is the car. It hit me. → This is the car which hit me
Sometimes you have to use a relative clause because there is no better way to express the idea.
e.g. I don’t like people who make mobile calls on the bus.
A relative clause usually begins with a relative pronoun. In the sentences below the relative clauses
are underlined and the relative pronouns are highlighted.
This is the car which hit me
This is the car that hit me
There is no difference in meaning between the two sentences above but the relative pronoun which
is a bit more formal than the relative pronoun that.
This is the car which I want to buy
This is the car that I want to buy
This is the car I want to buy
There is no difference in meaning between the three sentences above but the first is the most
formal and the third is the least formal. If the noun before the relative pronoun (i.e. car) is the object
of the verb in the relative clause (i.e. buy), the relative pronoun is optional – as in the last sentence
above.
He is the man who spoke to me
He is the man that spoke to me
There is no difference in meaning between the two sentences above but the relative pronoun who is
a bit more formal than the relative pronoun that.
He is the man whom I phoned
He is the man who I phoned
He is the man that I phoned
He is the man I phoned
There is no difference in meaning between the four sentences above but the first is the most formal
and the last is the least formal. If the noun before the relative pronoun (i.e. man) is the object of the
verb in the relative clause (i.e. phoned), the relative pronoun is optional – as in the last sentence
above.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
He is the man whose brother was injured in the crash
I don’t know the name of the company whose office was destroyed by fire.
We usually use whose to indicate ownership or some other close connection between the subject of
the main clause and the subject of the relative clause.

The relative pronouns for things are which, that and whose.

The relative pronouns for people are who, whom, that and whose.

If the noun before the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative
clause, the relative pronoun is optional (except whose)
Sometimes it is possible to put a preposition before a relative pronoun:
She is the friend who/whom I depend on more than any other
She is the friend on whom I depend more than any other.
Other relative pronouns are where (for place), when (for time) and why (for reason)
This is a photo of the village where I was born.
(= in which)
This was the period when Ireland was ruled by the English
(= during which)
That was the reason (why) I left the company
Defining and non-defining relative clauses
This is a photo of the boat which/that I bought last week.
This is a photo of the Titanic, which sank in 1912 on its first voyage.
The first sentence above contains a defining relative clause which gives us essential information
which we need to ‘define’ (or ‘identify’) which boat the speaker/writer has in mind. Do not put a
comma before a defining relative clause.
The second sentence above contains a non-defining relative clause because what comes after the
comma (i.e. which sank in 1912 on its first voyage) is non-essential information which the
listener/reader does not need to identify which boat is being described.
This a photo of the woman that/who/whom I met in Barcelona last month
This is a photo of my wife, who is Australian
The first sentence above contains a defining relative clause which gives us essential information
which we need to define (or identify) which woman the speaker/writer has in mind. Notice that
there is no comma before a defining relative clause.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
The second sentence above contains a non-defining relative clause because what comes after the
comma (i.e. who is Australian) is non-essential information which the listener/reader does not need
to identify which boat is being described.


Non-defining relative clauses are separated from the main clause by a comma (or sometimes
two commas!).
Do not use the relative pronoun ‘that’ in non-defining relative clauses.
EXERCISE:
Choose an appropriate relative pronoun for each of the following sentences. Sometimes no
relative pronoun is necessary. Put in commas where the relative clauses are non-defining.
The answers are given at the end of the page.
1. He’s the player __________ scored the goal.
2. I’ve lost the bag __________ I bought in Cyprus.
3. She’s the woman __________ son won the prize.
4. I like people __________ say what they think.
5. The Irishman I admire the most was Michael Collins __________ was born in Cork.
6. They are the people __________ bought our house.
7. That’s the type of music __________ I like.
8. He’s the neighbour _________ wife died.
9. That is the painting __________ is worth $1,000,000.
10. Next week we’re going camping __________ we’ve never done before.
11. That was the day ___________ we decided to get married.
12. This is the house __________ I spent much of my childhood.
13. Tomorrow is the deadline __________ applications will not be accepted.
14. I really loved her paella __________ she cooked amazingly quickly.
15. Poorer families cannot afford to buy fresh healthy food __________ can lead to medical
problems.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
ANSWER KEY:
1. who / that
2. which / that / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN
4. who / that
5. ,who
6. who / that
7. which / that / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN
8. whose
9. which / that
10. ,which
11. when / on which / NO RELATIVE PRONOUN
12. where / in which
B. McEnery
13. after which
3. whose
14. , which
UCC Language Centre
15. , which
2012
REPORTED SPEECH
If the reporting verb (say, tell, ask etc) is in the present tense, there is no change of tense in the
reported statement.
David tells me that he had a great time in
Portugal
“I had a great time in Portugal”
If the reporting verb is in the past tense there are usually tense changes in the reported sentence –
especially in formal English.
“I always go to Portugal for my holidays.”
David said that he always went to Portugal for
his holidays.
David said that he always goes to Portugal for
his holidays.
David said that he was going to Portugal the
following day / the next day / the day after.
“I’m going to Portugal tomorrow.”
David said that he was going to Portugal
tomorrow.
David said that he is going to Portugal
tomorrow.
David said that he had visited Portugal seven
times.
“I’ve visited Portugal seven times.”
David said that he has visited Portugal seven
times.
“I flew back from Portugal two days ago”.
David said that he had flown back from
Portugal 2 days before/previously.
David said that he had flown back from
Portugal 2 days ago.
David said that he flew back from Portugal 2
days ago.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
David said that he would be in Portugal for ten
days.
“I will be in Portugal for ten days.”
David said that he will be in Portugal for ten
days.
“Could you go to Portugal?”
David asked me to go to Portugal.
David asked me if I could go to Portugal.
“Phone the office in Portugal immediately.”
David told me to phone the office in Portugal
immediately.
“Did you phone the office?”
David asked me if/whether I had phoned the
office.
“When did you phone them?”
David asked me when I had phoned them.
Tell/say/ask variations:
I told Martha. / I told Martha the price. / I told Martha (that) I would meet her at 8pm. / I told the
truth/a lie. / I told Martha to finish the work.
I said that I needed more time./ I said to him that I needed more time.
I asked Pablo to help me. / I asked Pablo for a few euro. / I asked Mary what she wanted. / I asked
Mary if/whether she wanted to go.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
EXERCISE:
“I always go to Portugal for my holidays.”
David told me that he ……
“I’m going to Portugal tomorrow.”
“I’ve visited Portugal seven times.”
“I flew back from Portugal two days ago.”
“I will be in Portugal for ten days.”
“Could you go to Portugal?”
“Phone the office in Portugal immediately.”
“Did you phone the office?”
“When did you phone them?”
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Are the following sentences? Why? / Why not?
The children played. Yes. Subject + Verb (an intransitive verb)
The children played games. Yes. S + V (a transitive verb) + Object (direct object)
The children laughed Yes. S + V (intransitive verb)
The children sent. No. S + V (transitive verb) + no direct object
The children sent text messages. Yes. S + V + O
The children sent me text messages. Yes. S + V + O (indirect) + O (direct)
The children sent text messages to each other. Yes. S + V + O (direct) +O (indirect)
The children talked to each other. Yes. S + V (intransitive) + O (indirect)
The children were bored. Yes. S + be + Complement
The children were. No. S + be + no complement. But it could be an acceptable
sentence in response to the question: ‘Who was bored?’
The basic and normal structure of a clause or a sentence is SVO, SVC or SV,
depending on whether the verb takes an object, a complement, or neither (a verb
used intransitively). Some sentences/clauses have an SVOO structure i.e. the verb
takes an indirect object as well as a direct object.
Correct any mistakes in the following sentences and explain why the corrections are
needed. Not all the sentences contain mistakes.
1. This book I have never read.
2. Why she married him is something I cannot understand!
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
3. Parents are too worried about working to earn lots of money, which is bad for
family life.
4. Casablanca is my favourite movie.
5. We should clean our teeth twice a day.
6. It exists a cheap and easy solution.
ANSWER KEY
1. I have never read this book. SVO (SUBJECT - VERB - OBJECT)
This is a book which I have never read. (SVC FOLLOWED BY A RELATIVE CLAUSE)
2. CORRECT. (SUBJECT – VERB - COMPLEMENT).
YOU CAN ALSO SAY/WRITE I cannot understand why she married him WHICH HAS AN SVO
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
3. Parents are too worried about working to earn lots of money and this/it is bad for family life. (THE
VERB ‘is’ IN THE SECOND CLAUSE NEEDS A SEPARATE SUBJECT)
4. Casablanca is my favourite movie. OR My favourite movie is Casablanca. (SVC)
(IN FORMAL WRITTEN ENGLISH, DON’T HAVE A NOUN AND A RELATED PRONOUN
IN THE SAME CLAUSE. IN OTHER WORDS, DON’T DUPLICATE THE SUBJECT)
5. We should clean our teeth twice a day.(SVO) (PUT THE DIRECT OBJECT IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE
VERB. DON’T SEPARATE THEM)
6. A cheap and easy solution exists. (SUBJECT BEFORE VERB) (SV)
There is a cheap and easy solution. (SVC) (FIRST MENTION)
It is a cheap and easy solution. (SVC) (SECOND MENTION)
How many clauses are in the following sentence?
I met Peter in a café and he told me about his new job.
What is a clause?
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
A clause is a group of words which contains (at least) a subject and a verb.
What is a sentence?
A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. It contains one or
more clauses.
When we want to join clauses (C+C), we use co-ordinators and subordinators.
There are seven co-ordinators, which are often collectively called FANBOYS. (for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so). They come in the middle of the sentence, between the
two clauses. You can put a comma before these co-ordinators, but not all writers do
so. In formal written English, it is not good style to begin a sentence with and, but or
any of the other seven FANBOYS.
for
We went into the house for it was very cold outside.
and
He is works very hard and he earns a lot of money.
nor
We didn’t eat very much nor did we feel very thirsty.
but
He works very hard but he likes his job.
or
You can go on foot or you can drive there.
yet
He works very hard yet he doesn’t earn a lot of money.
so
She wasn’t happy in that job so she left.
You can put a comma before these co-ordinators, especially if one (or both) of the clauses is (are) long.
Subordinators:
We went into the house because it was very cold.
Because it was very cold, we went into the house.
He doesn’t earn a lot of money although he works very hard.
Although he works very hard, he doesn’t earn a lot of money.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
Subordinators can come between the two clauses which they join (usually without a
comma) or before the first clause (with an obligatory comma at the end of the first
clause). The clause introduced by the subordinator is usually considered (slightly) less
important than the other clause, which is called the main clause.
Time conjunctions (e.g. after, as soon as, before, just as, since, until, when, while etc)
can be subordinators if they introduce a clause:
I’ll stay here until they arrive.
Relative pronouns (e.g. who, whose, whom, which, that) are subordinators because
they introduce relative clauses, which are subordinate to the main clause. The
relative clause always comes after the main clause.
She is the athlete who finished second in the race.
Peter arrived late for the lecture, which is not surprising.
Conjunctions in conditional clauses (if, even if, unless) introduce subordinate clauses.
If you leave your mobile phone there, it will be stolen!
There are many other subordinators which can show the connection between
clauses (C+C), e.g. so that, whether, as if.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------If you wish to show the connection between a sentence and the sentence(s) before
it, you can use conjunctive adverbs (e.g. However, … Therefore,…. In addition, ….
After that, … ) These S+S linkers usually come at the start of the sentence and are
followed by a comma.
He works very hard. However, he earns very little.
After a while it started to get rather cold. Therefore, we went inside.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
Correct any mistakes in the following examples of written English:
1. The movie was very interesting. And I really enjoyed it.
2. We all went home before the end of the match. Because the weather was bad.
3. I have visited many European countries. For example, France, Spain and Greece.
4. Spending money is easy earning it is more difficult.
5. Spending money is easy, earning it is more difficult.
6. My wife and I left our home town. Then we stayed with friends in the capital city.
We stayed there for two months. Then we finally got our visas for Australia. We
travelled to Australia. We live there now.
7. My wife and I left our home town, and we stayed with friends in the capital city for
two months, but finally we got our visas for Australia, so we travelled to Australia,
and we live there now.
8. If you have an important job interview you should arrive a little before the time of
the interview, wear smart formal clothes, try to predict the questions you will be
asked, it is also important to prepare relevant questions which you can ask the
interviewer such as about salary or working hours.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
SUGGESTED ANSWERS:
1. The movie was very interesting and I really enjoyed it.
COORDINATORS JOIN TWO CLAUSES TO FORM ONE SENTENCE. USE A CO-ORDINATOR TO AVOID SHORT
CHOPPY SENTENCES.
2. We all went home before the end of the match because the weather was bad.
A SUBORDINATOR IS A C+C LINKER, NOT AN S+S LINKER.
3. I have visited many European countries, for example, France, Spain and Greece.
THE LAST SIX WORDS ARE ONLY A PHRASE. THEY CANNOT BE A SENTENCE AS THERE IS NO SUBJECT+VERB. USE
A COMMA TO SEPARATE A PHRASE FEOM THE REST OF THE SENTENCE.
4&5.
Spending money is easy but earning it is more difficult. (Optional comma before but)
Whereas spending money is easy, earning it is more difficult.
Spending money is easy. Earning it is more difficult.
Spending money is easy; earning it is more difficult.
SENTENCE 4 ON THE PREVIOUS PAGE IS CALLED A ‘RUN ON’ BECAUSE ONE SENTENCE RUNS INTO THE NEXT
WITHOUT ANY LINKING DEVICE.
SENTENCE 5 IS CALLED A ‘COMMA SPLICE’. A COMMA ONLY SEPATATES. IT DOESN’T SHOW CONNECTION
BETWEEN THE TWO THINGS THAT IT SEPARATES. A SEMI-COLON SHOWS A CONNECTION.
6&7. My wife and I left our home town and stayed with friends in the capital city for
two months. When we finally got our visas, we travelled to Australia, where we now
live.
6 IS TOO ‘CHOPPY’. WE MAKE LONGER SENTENCES USING COORDINARTORS AND SUBORDINATORS.
7 IS TOO ‘STRINGY’. THE IMPROVED VERSION HAS TWO SENTENCES, EACH CONTAINING TWO CLAUSES.
8. If you have an important job interview, you should arrive a little before the time of
the interview, wear smart formal clothes, and try to predict the questions you will be
asked. It is also important to prepare relevant questions which you can ask the
interviewer, such as about salary or working hours.
A LIST OF THREE THINGS IS ALWAYS WRITTEN LIKE ‘A, B and C’. THE COMMA AFTER B IS OTIONAL.
START A NEW SENTENCE WITH ‘It is..’ AS THIS IS A NEW TOPIC WITH A NEW SUBJECT+VERB.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
STATE VERBS (non-continuous verbs)
The verbs below are either rarely/never used in the continuous form, or have a different meaning
when used in continuous form. This list is not complete!
believe
agree
love
appear
be
doubt
disagree
prefer
feel (it feels)
belong
feel (=think)
deny
like
hear
consist of
forget
mean
dislike
look (=seem)
contain
imagine (=think)
promise
hate
resemble
depend (on)
know
surprise
see
deserve
realise
seem
exist
remember
smell
fit
see
(=understand)
sound
include
suppose
taste
involve
think
matter
understand
need
want
own
wish
weigh
* I think it’s a good idea. ≠ Please be quiet! I’m thinking.
Do you see the problem? ≠ Are you seeing Peter later today?
John comes from Scotland ≠ John is coming from Scotland.
I believe you
I’m believing you
His actions surprised me
His actions were surprising me
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
You will love their new CD
You will be loving their new CD
This pizza tastes delicious
This pizza is tasting delicious
This house has belonged to us since my
father died.
This house has been belonging to us since
my father died.
When we want to stress that an activity is temporary, we sometimes use a state verb in the
continuous form:
This trip is costing me a lot of money!
You’re being very unhelpful this morning.
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
TENSES IN ENGLISH - A QUICK REVIEW OF THE MAIN
TENSES
NAME OF TENSE
EXAMPLES OF
DIFFERENT USES
MEANINGS OF THOSE
USES
NOTES ON GRAMMATICAL
FORMS
PAST SIMPLE
I booked my
holiday yesterday.
ONE SHORT
COMPLETED ACTION
IN THE PAST. THE
DATE/TIME IS
USUALLY GIVEN OR
KNOWN
Regular verbs:
ONE LONGER
COMPLETED ACTION
IN THE PAST. THE
DATE/TIME IS
USUALLY GIVEN OR
KNOWN
(arrive = INFINITIVE)
We went to the
cinema every week
when we were
students.
A SERIES OF
COMPLETED PAST
ACTIONS. THE TIME
PERIOD IS USUALLY
GIVEN OR KNOWN
She went, she didn’t go
I had read the book
before I saw the
movie.
A PAST ACTION WHICH They had left / they’d left
WAS COMPLETED
They had not left / they
BEFORE ANOTHER
hadn’t left
PAST ACTION
They lived in Paris
for 2 years.
PAST PERFECT
(SIMPLE)
The robbers had
left by the time the
police arrived.
PAST CONTINUOUS
B. McEnery
He was hit by a car
as he was crossing
Positive: he arrived
Negative: he did not arrive /
he didn’t arrive
Question: Did he arrive?
Irregular verbs:
Did she go? (=INFINITIVE)
Had they left?
A CONTINUOUS
ACTION WHICH
HAPPENED AROUND
UCC Language Centre
I /he/she/it was crossing
2012
Patrick Street.
We were watching
a movie when she
phoned.
PRESENT PERFECT
SIMPLE
SETTING THE SCENE AT
THE START OF A STORY
I have been to
Canada but I’ve
never been to the
U.S.
AN EXPERIENCE IN
YOUR LIFE.
She has lived here
since 2002.
AN ACTION WHICH
STARTED IN THE PAST
AND IS STILL IN
PROGRESS NOW
I’ve lost my keys.
She has been living
here since 2001.
I’ve been waiting
here for the last
half an hour!
B. McEnery
We/you were crossing
I was not watching / I wasn’t
watching
Yesterday I was
cycling to work. The
sun was shining
brightly and
……………
The President has
died.
PRESENT PERFECT
CONTINUOUS
THE SAME TIME AS
THE MAIN PAST
ACTION
Were you watching?
THE DATE AND TIME
ARE NOT IMPORTANT
HOT NEWS. THE
TIME/DATE IS NOT
GIVEN
A RECENT PAST
ACTION WITH AN
IMPACT ON THE
PRESENT. THE
DATE/TIME ARE NOT
GIVEN
AN ACTION WHICH
STARTED IN THE PAST
AND IS STILL IN
PROGRESS
(THE EMPHASIS IS
OFTEN ON THE
ACTIVITY RATHER
THAN THE PRESENT
IMPACT)
UCC Language Centre
Regular verbs:
I/we/you have started
He/she/it has started
I have not started / I haven’t
started
Have you started?
Irregular verbs:
He has gone (gone = PAST
PARTICIPLE)
He hasn’t gone
Has he gone?
I have been waiting / I’ve
been waiting
He has not been playing /
he hasn’t been playing /
he’s not been playing
How long have you been
working here?
2012
PRESENT SIMPLE
She often walks to
work.
I never smoke.
The match starts at
3pm tomorrow.
REPEATED ACTIONS.
I/you/we/they walk
THE TIME PERIOD
INCLUDES THE PAST,
THE PRESENT AND
PROBABLY THE
FUTURE
He/she/it walks
A FUTURE
TIMETABLED EVENT
I/you/we/they do not /
don’t walk
He/she/it does not / doesn’t
walk
Do I /you we/they walk?
Does he/she/it walk?
PRESENT
CONTINUOUS
He’s staying in Cork
for a month.
AN ACTION IN
PROGRESS AT THE
MOMENT
I’m reading an
interesting book at
the moment.
AN ACTION
HAPPENING AROUND
NOW
We’re meeting at 7
this evening.
A FIXED FUTURE
ARRANGEMENT
I am staying / I’m staying
You/we/they are/’re staying
He/she/it is/’s staying
I am not going / I’m not
going
Are you going? Is she going?
FUTURE –
GOING TO +
INFINITIVE
We’re going to buy
a new car.
A PLAN OR DECISION
MADE PREVIOUSLY
Look at the clouds.
It’s going to rain.
A FORECAST (USUALLY
BASED ON PRESENT
EVIDENCE)
She’s going to be 21 A FUTURE FACT
tomorrow.
I am going to sell it / I’m
going to / I’m gonna sell it
(US/INFORMAL)
You/we/they are going to
leave
He/she/it is going to fall
It’s not / It isn’t going to fall
Is it going to fall?
FUTURE SIMPLE
B. McEnery
I see we don’t have
any milk. I’ll buy
some later.
A DECISION MADE
WHILE SPEAKING OR
JUST BEFORE
I think the price of
oil will rise next
A FORECAST
UCC Language Centre
I/you/he/she/it/we/they
will go
I/you/he/she/it/we/they ‘ll
go
2012
month.
She’ll be 21 next
month.
A FUTURE FACT
I will not buy it / I won’t buy
it
Will you buy it?
FUTURE
CONTINUOUS
FUTURE PERFECT
B. McEnery
This time next
week, we’ll be lying
on a beach in Spain.
A CONTINUOUS
ACTION IN PROGRESS
AT A FIXED TIME IN
THE FUTURE
I’ll be meeting him
tomorrow.
A FUTURE
ARRANGEMENT OR
FACT
By next March, they
will have
completed the
motorway from
here to the capital
city.
AN ACTION WHICH
WILL BE COMPLETED
BEFORE (OR AT) A
GIVEN TIME IN THE
FUTURE
UCC Language Centre
She will be lying on a beach.
He will not / won’t be
coming
When will they be arriving?
They will have completed it
They will not / won’t have
completed it by then.
Will they have completed
it?
2012
Complete the following sentences using the correct tense of the verbs in
brackets. More than one tense may be possible. The answers are given on the
next page.
1. I _______________ in Italy in 1978. (be born=PASSIVE)
2. I _______________ the first ten years of my life in Naples and then my
family _______________ to Rome. (spend, move)
3. Now I _______________ in Florence, the home town of my boyfriend. (live)
4. I first met him while I _______________ in Rome University. (study)
5. Last year we _______________ a small apartment in Florence. (buy)
6. I work in an IT company called Technosoft and my boyfriend
_______________ in a legal firm. (work)
7. I started as a secretary in Technosoft but I _______________ Assistant
Marketing Manager for the last two years. (be)
8. In my free time I _______________ tennis and squash. (play)
9. When I was a teenager I _______________ 20 cigarettes a day but last year I
_______________ smoking completely. (smoke, give up)
10. At the moment, I _______________ a Masters in Marketing at Florence
University. (do)
11. I _______________ never _______________ USA but I hope to go there
next summer. (visit)
12. My boss _______________ at the end of next month and I
_______________ him. (retire, replace)
13. The next few months __________________ extremely busy! (be)
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012
ANSWERS:
1. I was born in Italy in 1978.
2. I spent the first ten years of my life in Naples and then my family moved to Rome.
3. Now I live / am living in Florence, the home town of my boyfriend. (THE PRESENT
CONTINUOUS MAKES THE ACTION SOUND MORE TEMPORARY / SHORT TERM)
4. I first met him while I was studying in Rome University.
5. Last year we bought a small apartment in Florence.
6. I work in an IT company called Technosoft and my boyfriend works / is working in a legal
firm. (THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS MAKES THE ACTION SOUND MORE TEMPORARY / SHORT
TERM)
7. I started as a secretary in Technosoft but I have been Assistant Marketing Manager for the
last two years. (= I am still Assistant Marketing manager)
I was Assistant Marketing Manager for the last two years. (= I recently finished working as
Assistant Marketing manager)
8. In my free time I play tennis and squash.
9. When I was a teenager I smoked / used to smoke (A PAST HABIT) 20 cigarettes a day but
last year I gave up smoking completely.
10. At the moment, I am doing a Masters in Marketing at Florence University.
11. I have never visited USA but I hope to go there next summer.
12. My boss is retiring / is going to retire / will retire at the end of next month and I am
going to replace / will replace him.
13. The next few months will be / are going to be extremely busy!
B. McEnery
UCC Language Centre
2012