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UNIT The World Why It Matters The world today in the twenty-first century is a much smaller place than it was at the time of your grandparents. Advances in technology, communications, and transportation have narrowed vast distances and made neighbors of the world’s people. The Internet, for example, now puts you in immediate touch with people in other parts of the world. In the years to come, you and your generation — here and elsewhere — will be challenged to use this and other technology to make the world a better place for everyone. Japanese tourist and Indian vendor, Goa, India Deborah Harse/The Image Work To learn more about the basics of geography visit www.nationalgeographic.com/education. Chapter 1: How Geographers Look at the World 2–27 Chapter 2: The Physical World 28–47 Chapter 3: Climates of the Earth 48–67 Chapter 4: The Human World 68–113 THE WORLD CHAPTER Why It Matters News coverage of local, national, and international events is part of daily life in the twenty-first century. An understanding of geography will help you learn how such events affect your life. Geography Skills How Geographers Look at the World Handbook Geography is used to interpret the past, understand the present, and plan for the future. Geography skills provide the tools for understanding relationships between people, places, and environments. The Geographer’s Craft Geographers study how people, places, and environments are distributed on Earth’s surface. Geographers use six essential elements to organize and describe information about the Earth. Geographers study patterns of human and physical geography using direct observation, mapping, interviewing, statistics, and technology. ONLINE Chapter Overview Visit the World Geography and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 1 to preview information about how geographers look at the world. The Anasazi ruins at Mesa Verde, Colorado, offer a fascinating glimpse of early Native American cultures. Unit 1 Patsy Davidson/The Image Works Organizing Information Make a Top-Tab Book to help you understand how geographers look at the world. Reading and Writing As you read the chapter, write at least five facts, generalizations, or observations for each of the following headings: Elements of Geography, Research Methods, Geography and Other Subjects, and Geography as a Career. THE WORLD Chapter 1 SECTION 1 Contents • From 3-D to 2-D • Great Circle Routes • • • • Planar Projection Cylindrical Projection Conic Projection Common Map Projections • • • • Latitude Longitude The Global Grid Northern and Southern Hemispheres • Eastern and Western Hemispheres • Using Scale • Absolute and Relative Location • Qualitative Maps • Flow Line Maps Geography Skills Handbook Geography skills provide the tools and methods for us to understand the relationships between people, places, and environments. We use geographic skills when we make daily personal decisions — where to buy a home; where to get a job; how to get to the shopping mall; where to go on vacation. Community decisions, such as where to locate a new school or how to solve problems of air and water pollution, also require the skillful use of geographic information. Geographers use a wide array of tools and technologies—from basic globes to high-tech global positioning systems—to understand the Earth. These help us collect and analyze a great deal of information. However, the study of geography is more than knowing a lot of facts about places. Rather, it has more to do with asking questions about the Earth, pursuing their answers, and solving problems. Thus, one of the most important geographic tools is inside your head: the ability to think geographically. — Dr. Richard Boehm, September 2006 World Geography and Cultures author Dr. Richard Boehm Unit 1 courtesy Dr. Richard Boehm Globes and Maps A globe is a scale model of the Earth. Because Earth is round, a globe presents the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as area, distance, and direction. However, globes show little close-up detail. A printed map is a symbolic representation of all or part the planet. Unlike globes, maps can show small areas in great detail. Think about the surface of the Earth as the peel of an orange. To flatten the peel, you have to cut it like the globe shown here. To create maps that are not interrupted, mapmakers, or cartographers, use mathematical formulas to transfer information from the three-dimensional globe to the two-dimensional map. However, when the curves of a globe become straight lines on a map, distortion of size, shape, distance, or area occurs. 1. Explain the significance of: globe, map, cartographer, great circle route. 2. Describe the problems that arise when the curves of a globe become straight lines on a map. 3. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the similarities and differences between globes and maps. Globes Maps Chapter 1 THE WORLD A straight line of true direction—one that runs directly from west to east, for example—is not always the shortest distance between two points on Earth. This is due to the curvature of the Earth. To find the shortest distance between any two places, stretch a piece of string around a globe from one point to the other. The string will form part of a great circle, an imaginary line the follows the curve of the Earth. Traveling along a great circle is called following a great circle route. Ship captains and airline pilots use great circle routes to reduce travel time and conserve fuel. The idea of a great circle route is an important difference between globes and maps. A round globe accurately shows a great circle route, as indicated on the map below. However, as shown on the flat map, the great circle distance (dotted line) between Tokyo and Los Angeles appears to be far longer than the true direction distance (solid line). In fact, the great circle distance is 345 miles (555 km) shorter. Projections To create maps, cartographers project the round Earth onto a flat surface — making a map projection. Distance, shape, direction, or size may be distorted by a projection. As a result, the purpose of the map usually dictates which projection is used. There are many kinds of map projections, some with general names and some named for the cartographers who developed them. Three basic categories of map projections are shown here: planar, cylindrical, and conic. A planar projection shows the Earth centered in such a way that a straight line coming from the center to any other point represents the shortest distance. Also known as an azimuthal projection, it is most accurate at its center. As a result, it is often used for maps of the Poles. A cylindrical projection is based on the projection of the globe onto a cylinder. This projection is most accurate near the Equator, but shapes and distances are distorted near the Poles. A conic projection comes from placing a cone over part of a globe. Conic projections are best suited for showing limited east-west areas that are not too far from the Equator. For these uses, a conic projection can indicate distances and directions fairly accurately. Unit 1 Geography Skills Handbook Each type of map projection has advantages and some degree of inaccuracy. Four of the most common projections are shown here. Robinson Projection Winkel Tripel Projection The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes and shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map are accurate, and outlines of the continents appear much as they do on the globe. However, the polar areas are flattened. Mercator Projection Most general reference world maps are the Winkel Tripel projection. It provides a good balance between the size and shape of land areas as they are shown on the map. Even the polar areas are depicted with little distortion of size and shape. An interrupted projection resembles a globe that has been cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection shows the true size and shape of Earth’s landmasses, but distances are generally distorted. 1. Explain the significance of: map projection, planar, cylindrical, conic, interrupted projection. 2. How does a cartographer determine which map projection to use? 3. How is Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection different from the Mercator projection? THE WORLD Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator projections do accurately show true directions and the shapes of landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel. 5. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the similarities and differences between the Winkel Tripel and Mercator projections. Winkel Tripel projection Mercator projection 4. Which of the four common projections described above is the best one to use when showing the entire world? Why? Chapter 1 Determining Location Geography is often said to begin with the question: Where? The basic tool for answering the question is location. Lines on globes and maps provide information that can help you locate places. These lines cross one another forming a pattern called a grid system, which helps you find exact places on the Earth’s surface. A hemisphere is one of the halves into which the Earth is divided. Geographers divide the Earth into hemispheres to help them classify and describe places on Earth. Most places are located in two of the four hemispheres. Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the Earth parallel to the Equator and measure the distance north or south of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is measured at 0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north) and 90°S (south). Parallels north of the Equator are called north latitude. Parallels south of the Equator are called south latitude. Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the Earth from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distance east or west of the Prime Meridian at 0° longitude. Meridians east of the Prime Meridian are known as east latitude. Meridians west of the Prime Meridian are known as west longitude. The 180° meridian on the opposite side of the Earth is called the International Date Line. Every place has a global address, or absolute location. You can identify the absolute location of a place by naming the latitude and longitude lines that cross exactly at that place. For example, Tokyo, Japan, is located at 36°N latitude and 140°E longitude. For more precise readings, each degree is further divided into 60 units called minutes. Unit 1 Geography Skills Handbook The diagram below shows that the Equator divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Everything north of the Equator is in the Northern Hemisphere. Everything south of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere. Northern Hemisphere The Prime Meridian and the International Date Line divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Everything east of the Prime Meridian for 180° is in the Eastern Hemisphere. Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180° is in the Western Hemisphere. Eastern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere 1. Explain the significance of: location, grid system, hemisphere, Northern Hemisphere, Southern Hemisphere, Eastern Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere. 2. Why do all maps label the Equator 0° latitude and the Prime Meridian 0° longitude? THE WORLD Western Hemisphere 5. Use a chart like the one at the right to identify the continents in each hemisphere. Continent will appear in more than one hemisphere. Hemisphere 3. Which lines of latitude and longitude divide the Earth into hemispheres? Northern 4. Use the Reference Atlas maps to create a chart listing the latitude and longitude of three world cities. Have a partner try to identify the cities. Eastern Continents Southern Western Chapter 1 Reading a Map In addition to latitude and longitude, maps feature other important tools to help you interpret the information they contain. Learning to use these map tools will help you read the symbolic language of maps more easily. The title tells you what kind of information the map is showing. The key lists and explains the symbols, colors, and lines used on the map. The key is sometimes called a legend. Europe: Political The scale bar shows the relationship between map measurements and actual distances on the Earth. By laying a ruler along the scale bar, you can calculate how many miles or kilometers are represented per inch or centimeter. The map projection used to create the map is often listed near the scale bar. The compass rose indicates directions. The four cardinal directions — north, south, east, and west — are usually indicated with arrows or the points of a star. The intermediate directions — northeast, northwest, southeast, and southwest — may also be shown Cities are represented by a dot. Sometimes the relative sizes of cities are shown using dots of different sizes. National capitals are often represented by a star within a circle. Unit 1 On political maps of large areas, boundary lines highlight the borders between different countries, states, or countries. Geography Skills Handbook All maps are drawn to a certain scale. Scale is a consistent, proportional relationship between the measurements shown on the map and the measurement of the Earth’s surface. Small-Scale Maps A small-scale map, like this political map of France, can show a large area but little detail. Note that the scale bar on this map indicates that about 1 inch is equal to 200 miles. Large-Scale Maps A large-scale map, like this map of Paris, can show a small area with a great amount of detail. Study the scale bar. Note that the map measurements correspond to much smaller distances than on the map of France. France: Political The City of Paris THE WORLD As you learned on page 8, absolute location is the exact point where a line of latitude crosses a line of longitude. Another way to indicate location is by relative location, or the location of one place in relation to another. To find relative loca- 1. Explain the significance of: key, compass rose, cardinal directions, intermediate directions, scale bar, scale, relative location. 2. Describe the elements of a map that help you interpret the information displayed on the map. 3. How does the scale bar help you determine distances on the Earth’s surface? tion, find a reference point — a location you already know — on a map. Then look in the appropriate direction for the new location. For example, locate Paris (your reference point) on the map of France above. The relative location of Lyon can be described as southeast of Paris. 4. Describe the relative location of your school in two different ways. 5. Use a Venn diagram to identify the similarities and differences of small-scale maps and large-scale maps. Small-scale maps Large-scale maps Chapter 1 Physical Maps A physical map shows the location and the topography, or shape of the Earth’s physical features. A study of a country’s physical features often helps to explain the historical development of the country. For example, mountains may be barriers to transportation and rivers and streams can provide access into the interior of a country. Texas: Physical Physical maps show rivers, streams, lakes, and other water features. Physical maps may show landforms such as mountains, plains, plateaus, and valleys. Physical maps use shading and texture to show general relief — the differences in elevation, or height, of landforms. An elevation key uses colors to indicate specific measured differences in elevation above sea level. Some physical maps also show political features such as boundary lines, countries, and states. 1. Explain the significance of: physical map, topography, relief, elevation. 2. What is the approximate elevation of central Texas? Of western Texas? 3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain what you can learn from the map about each of the physical features listed. Unit 1 Physical Feature Davis Mountains Red River Gulf Coastal Plains What You Can Learn from the Map Geography Skills Handbook Political Maps A political map shows the boundaries and locations of political units such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns. Many features depicted on a political map are human-made, or determined by humans rather than by nature. Political maps can show the networks and links that exist within and between political units. Texas: Political Political maps show human-made features such as boundaries, capitals, cities, roads, highways, and railroads. THE WORLD Political maps may show some physical features such as relief, rivers, and mountains. Areas surrounding the subject area of the map are usually a different color to set them apart. They are labeled to give you a context for the area you are studying. 1. Explain the significance of: political map, human-made. Human-Made Feature 2. What types of information would you find on a political map that would not appear on a physical map? Austin 3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain what you can learn from the map about each of the human-made features listed. Texas state boundary What You Can Learn from the Map El Paso Chapter 1 Thematic Maps Maps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of information about an area are called thematic maps. There are many kinds of thematic maps, each designed to serve a different need. This textbook includes thematic maps that show climate, natural vegetation, population density, and economic activities. Maps that use colors, symbols, lines, or dots to show information related to a specific idea are called qualitative maps. Such maps are often used to depict historical information. For example, the qualitative map below shows resources and exports in Latin America over time. Latin America: Resources and Exports Unit 1 Maps that illustrate the movement of people, animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physical processes like hurricanes and glaciers, are called flow-line maps. Arrows are usually used to represent the flow and direction of movement. The flow-line map to the right shows the movement of Slavic peoples throughout Europe. Europe: Slavic Migrations Geography Skills Handbook Geographic Information Systems Modern technology has changed the way maps are made. Most cartographers use computers with software programs called geographic information systems (GIS). A GIS is designed to accept data from different sources — maps, satellite images, printed text, and statistics. The GIS converts the data into a digital code, which arranges it in a database. Cartographers then program the GIS to process the data and produce maps. With GIS, each kind of information on a map is saved as a separate electronic layer. This modern technolgy allows cartographers to make maps—and change them—quickly and easily. 2 Additional layers of information are added based on the problem or issue being studied. In this case, hospital administrators want to find out about the population living near the hospital so they can offer the community the services it needs. A second layer showing African Americans who live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been added to the GIS. 1. Explain the significance of: thematic map, qualitative maps, flow-line maps. 2. Which type of thematic map would best show natural vegetation regions in Europe? 3 Complex information can be presented using more than one layer. For example, the hospital’s surrounding neighborhoods include other groups in addition to African Americans. A third layer showing whites who live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been added to the GIS. Administrators can now use this information to help them make decisions about staffing and services associated with the hospital. 5. Complete a chart like the one below by identifying three examples of each type of thematic map found in this textbook. Note the page numbers of each. Qualitative Maps Flow-Line Maps 3. Which type of thematic map would best show trade routes between the United States, Canada, and Mexcio? 4. How does GIS allow cartographers to create maps and make changes to maps quickly and easily? Chapter 1 THE WORLD 1 The first layer of information in a GIS pinpoints the area of interest. This allows the user to see, in detail, the area he or she needs to study. In this case, the area of study is a 5 mile (8 km) radius around Christ Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey. SECTION 2 Guide to Reading This section explains the elements of geography and the methods geographers use to study patterns of human and physical geography. • • • • • site (p. 18) • movement situation (p. 18) (p. 19) place (p. 18) • humanregion (p. 18) environment formal region interaction (p. 18) • functional region (p. 18) • perceptual region (p. 18) • ecosystem (p. 19) • occur (p. 17) • traditional (p. 18) (p. 19) • cartography (p. 20) • geographic information systems (GIS) (p. 21) • obtain (p. 21) • alter (p. 22) • assist (p. 24) The Geographer’s Craft Geography is more than just learning place-names. It also has practical uses. For example, ecologist J. Michael Fay conducted a flyover to identify the physical changes and human impact on the African continent. Voices Around the World “ . . . [T]he Megaflyover is a zig-zaggy marathon of low-altitude flights tracing cloverleaf patterns over much of the continent, from Cape Town to Tangier . . . to gather abundant, incremental, and systematized data on the state of wild landscapes and the trends of human-caused transformation. Fay’s motive isn’t idle curiosity. His aerial enterprise is closely linked with . . . a major initiative of the Wildlife Conservation Society, known as the Human Footprint project. That project, which involves . . . multidimensional mapping to show gradients of wildness and human impacts around the world, is intended to help WCS target conservation efforts.” — David Quammen, “Tracing the Human Footprint,” National Geographic, September 2005 • aspect (p. 19) Organizing As you read about the work of geographers, complete a graphic organizer similar to the one below by listing the specialized research methods geographers use. Research Methods J. Michael Fay Unit 1 Mark Christmas/National Geographic Image Collction The Elements of Geography Absolute Location and Relative Location Geographers study the location of people and places on Earth’s surface and the patterns in which they are arranged. GEOGRAPHY AND Is your community located near a river or in the mountains? Why do you think this is so? Read to learn how the study of geography can help you understand the world around you. Geographers study the Earth’s physical and human features and the interactions of people, places, and environments. They search for patterns in these features and interactions, seeking to explain how and why they exist or occur. In their work, geographers consider six elements: the world in spatial terms, places and regions, physical systems, human systems, environment and society, and the uses of geography. ABSOLUTE LOCATION 1 2 3 To find the absolute location of Indianapolis, first identify the line of latitude that runs near the city. This is 40° N. Then identify the line of longitude that runs near Indianapolis. This is 86° W. Finally, write the location of Indianapolis using latitude and longitude. This is latitude 40° N, longitude 86° W. RELATIVE LOCATION 4 5 6 To find the relative location of Lansing, identify places such as cities, lakes, rivers, and states near Lansing. Unlike absolute location, relative location can be described in many ways. For example, Lansing is northwest of Ann Arbor. Lansing is also east of Lake Michigan. 1. Location What is the absolute location of Chicago? How did you determine it? 2. Place Describe the relative location of Chicago in two different ways. 3. Location What is the absolute location of Springfield? The relative location? 4. Place Describe the relative location of Madison using physical features. Use StudentWorks™ Plus or glencoe.com. Chapter 1 THE WORLD Spatial relationships are the links people and places have to one another because of their locations. For geographers, location, or a specific place on the Earth, is a reference point in the same way that dates are reference points for historians. One way of locating a place is by describing its absolute location—the exact spot at which the place is found on the Earth. To determine absolute location, geographers use a network of imaginary lines around the Earth. Remember that the Equator, the Prime Meridian, and other lines of latitude and longitude cross one another to form a grid system. Using the grid, you can name the absolute location of any place on Earth. This location is stated in terms of latitude, degrees north or south of the Equator, and longitude, degrees east or west of the Prime Meridian. For example, Dallas, Texas, is located at latitude 32° N (north) and longitude 96° W (west). Although absolute location is useful, most people locate a place in relation to other places, known as its relative location. For example, New Orleans is located near the mouth of the Mississippi River. Knowing the relative location of a place helps you create mental maps to orient yourself in space and to develop an awareness of the world around you. Learn how to find absolute location and relative location by following the steps below. Using the concepts of absolute location and relative location, geographers make a distinction between the site and situation of a place. Site refers to the specific location of a place, including its physical setting. For example, the site of San Francisco is its location at the end of a peninsula, surrounded by the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay. Situation is an expression of relative location. It refers to the geographic position of a place in relation to other places and its connections to other regions. San Francisco’s situation is as a port city on the Pacific coast, close to California’s agricultural lands. A place is a particular space with physical and human meaning. Every place on Earth has its own unique characteristics, determined by the surrounding environment and the people who live there. One task of geographers is to understand and explain how places are similar to and different from one another. To interpret the Some traditional Hawaiian beliefs are used to explain the flow of fiery lava from a volcano. Human-Environment Interaction How does volcanic activity shape the Earth’s surface and impact human activities? Unit 1 Paul Richards/Bettmann/CORBIS Earth’s complexity, geographers often group places into regions, or areas with similar characteristics. The defining characteristics of a region may be physical, such as climate, landforms, soils, vegetation, and animal life. A region may also be defined by human characteristics. These may include language, religion, political systems, economic systems, and population distribution. Geographers identify three types of regions: formal, functional, and perceptual. A formal region is defined by a common characteristic, such as a product produced there. The Corn Belt—a band of farmland from Ohio to Nebraska in the United States—is a formal region because corn is its major crop. A functional region is a central place and the surrounding area linked to it. Metropolitan areas, as well as smaller cities and towns, are functional regions. A perceptual region is defined by popular feelings and images rather than by objective data. For example, the term “heartland” refers to a central area in which traditional values are believed to predominate. ‘‘ We don’t see her work as destruction but as cleansing. She’s a creator. When she comes through, she wipes the land clean and leaves us new fertile ground. We don’t get mad. It is all hers to begin with. ’’ — Jennifer S. Holland, “Red Hot Hawaii,” National Geographic, October 2004 Geographers study how physical features interact with plants and animals to create, support, or change ecosystems. An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals that depend upon one another, and their surroundings, for survival. Geographers also examine how people shape the world — how they settle the Earth, form societies, and create permanent features. A recurring theme in geography is the ongoing movement of people, goods, and ideas. For Farmers in many countries alter the natural environment by creating terraced fields. Human-Environment Interaction How have people changed the physical environment in your community? example, new people entering a long-established society usually bring different ideas and practices that may transform that society’s existing culture. In studying human systems, geographers look at how people compete or cooperate to change or control aspects of the Earth to meet their needs. Human-environment interaction, or the study of the interrelationship between people and their physical environment, is another theme of geography. Geographers examine the ways people use their environment, how and why they change it, and what consequences result from these changes. In some cases the physical environment affects human activities. For example, mountains and deserts often pose barriers to human movement. In other instances human activities, such as building a dam, cause changes to the physical environment. By understanding how the Earth’s physical features and processes shape and are shaped by human activity, geographers help societies make informed decisions. Chapter 1 THE WORLD Michael Coyne/Lonely Planet Images Geography covers a broad range of topics. To make their work easier, geographers divide their subject area into different branches. The two major branches are physical geography and human geography. Physical geography focuses on the study of the Earth’s physical features. It looks at climate, land, water, plants, and animal life in terms of their relationships to one another and to humans. Human geography, or cultural geography, is the study of human activities and their relationship to the cultural and physical environments. It focuses on political, economic, social, and cultural factors, such as population growth, urban development, and economic production and consumption. Physical geography and human geography are further divided into smaller subject areas. For example, climatology is the study of weather, climate, long-term conditions of the atmosphere, and their impact on ecology and society. Historical geography is the study of places and human activities over time and the geographic factors that have shaped them. Geographers analyze how certain natural phenomena, such as volcanoes, hurricanes, and floods, shape the Earth’s surface. A Hawaiian uses traditional beliefs to describe the fascinating force of a volcano: Geography provides insight into how physical features and living things developed in the past. It also interprets current trends to plan for future needs. Governments, businesses, and individuals use geographic information in planning and decision making. Data on physical features and processes can determine whether a site is suitable for human habitation or has resources worth developing. Geographic information on human activities, such as population growth and migration, can help planners decide whether to build new schools or highways in a particular place. As geographers learn more about the relationships among people, places, and the environment, their knowledge helps us plan and build a better future. Location How is absolute location different from relative location? Research Methods Geographers use different research methods to conduct their work. GEOGRAPHY AND How do you prepare to write a research report? Read to learn how geographers organize and study geography. Geographers use specialized research methods in their work. These methods include direct observation, mapping, interviewing, statistics, and the use of technology. Geographers use direct observation to study the Earth and the patterns of human activities that take place on its surface. They will often visit a place to gather specific information about it and its geographic features. Geographers also employ remote sensing to study the Earth, using aerial photographs and satellite images. For example, aerial photographs or satellite images can be used to locate mineral deposits or to determine the size of freshwater sources. Maps are essential to geographers. Specialists who make and design maps are known as cartographers. Their area of work, known as cartography, involves designing and making maps. Many findings from geographic research can be shown on maps better than they can be explained in written text. Cartographers select complex pieces of information about an area and present them in a more understandable form on a map. In this way they show the location, features, patterns, and relationships of people, places, and things. In addition, maps allow a visual comparison between places and regions. For example, a geographer might compare population density maps of two counties in order to determine where to build new schools. Through direct observation, a scientist studies ice cores to learn about patterns of global warming and cooling. Location Why is direct observation in areas like Antarctica important? Unit 1 Paul Nicklen/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images# To answer a geographic question, geographers must often go beyond observation. In many cases, they want to find out how people think or feel about certain places. They also may want to examine the ways in which people’s beliefs and attitudes have affected the physical environment. Skills for Thinking Like a Geographer Skill Examples Tool and Technologies Asking Geographic Questions — helps you pose questions about your surroundings • Why has traffic increased along this road? • What should be considered when building a new community sports facility? • Maps • Globes • Internet • Remote sensing • News media Acquiring Geographic Information — helps you answer geographic questions • Compare aerial photographs of a region over time. • Design a survey to determine who might use a community facility. • Direct observation • Interviews • Reference books • Satellite images • Historical records Organizing Geographic Information — helps you analyze and interpret information you have collected • Compile a map showing the spread of housing development over time. • Summarize information obtained from interviews. • Field maps • Databases • Statistical tables • Graphs • Diagrams • Summaries Analyzing Geographic Information — helps you look for patterns, relationships, and connections • Draw conclusions about the effects of road • Maps construction on traffic patterns. • Charts • Compare information from different maps • Graphs that show available land and zoning districts. Answering Geographic Questions — helps you apply information to real-life situations and problem solving • Present a report conveying the results of a case study. • Suggest locations for a new facility based on geographic data gathered. One of the most important geographic tools is the ability to think geographically. The five skills identified above are key to geographic understanding. 2. Regions Why are the news media and the Internet important tools for geographers? Such information is obtained by interviewing. Geographers choose a particular group of people for study. Instead of contacting everyone in that group, however, geographers talk to a carefully chosen sample whose answers represent the whole group. Some of the information geographers use is numerical. Temperature and rainfall data indicate a region’s climate, for example. Geographers use computers to organize and present this information. They also analyze the data to find patterns and trends. For example, census data can be studied to learn about the age, ethnic, and gender makeup of the population. After identifying these patterns and trends, geographers use statistical tests to see whether their ideas are valid. Sketch maps Reports Research papers Oral or multimedia presentations As noted in the chart above, geographers often use scientific instruments in their work. They especially depend on advanced technological tools, such as satellites and computers. Satellites orbiting the Earth carry remote sensors, high-tech cameras, and radar that gather data and images related to the Earth’s environment, weather, human settlement patterns, and vegetation. Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer tools that process and organize data and satellite images with other types of information gathered by geographers and other scientists. GIS technology can be used for many purposes. For example, urban planners use it to help determine where to build roads. Biologists use it to monitor wildlife populations in a specific area. Public safety officials use it to pinpoint safe and efficient evacuation routes from hurricane paths. The development of computer technology has also transformed the process of mapmaking. Today, most cartographers rely on computers and computer software to make maps. Each type of data on a map is kept as a separate “layer” in the map’s digital files. This method allows cartographers to make and change maps quickly and easily. Location How has technology changed the way maps are created? Chapter 1 THE WORLD 1. Place What types of information can you gain from a map that would help you ask questions about why traffic has increased along a specific road? • • • • • GIS • Spreadsheets Geography and Other Subjects Geography is related to other subject areas such as history and economics. GEOGRAPHY AND Do you use math when figuring out a science problem? Read to learn how geographers use knowledge from other subject areas to understand the world around them. Geographers use geographic tools and methods to understand historical patterns, politics and political patterns, societies and culture and their impact on landscape, and economies. Geographers use historical perspectives to understand what places could have looked like in the past. For example, geographers might want to know about the changes that have occurred in Boston, Massachusetts, over the past two centuries. They may begin by gathering information about different time periods in the city’s history. This information could be used to answer such geographic questions as: How have human activities changed the natural vegetation? Are the waterways different today than they were in the past? Answers to such questions help people make informed decisions about the present and better plans for the future. Geographers study political patterns to see how people in different places are governed. They look at how political boundaries have formed and changed. Geographers are also interested in how the natural environment has influenced political decisions and how governments change natural environments. For example, in the 1960s the Egyptian government built the massive Aswa-n High Dam on the Nile River to help irrigate the land. The dam altered the Nile River valley in profound ways and has had a significant impact on the region’s people. Human geographers, or cultural geographers, use the tools of sociology and anthropology to understand cultures around the world. They study the relationships between physical environment and social structures. They examine people’s ways Unit 1 Charlotte Thege/PeterArnold, Inc. Human geographers often depend on elements of sociology and anthropology to help them observe and study different cultures. Human-Environment Interaction How can discussion with an area’s inhabitants evolve into a greater understanding of a region’s people? of life in different parts of the world. Human geographers also seek to understand how the activities of different groups affect physical systems and how the physical systems affect human systems differently. Geographers study economies to understand how the locations of resources affect the ways people make, transport, and use goods, and how and where services are provided. Geographers are interested in how locations are chosen for various economic activities, such as farming, mining, manufacturing, and trade. A desirable location usually includes plentiful resources and good transportation routes. Geographers are also interested in the interdependence of people’s economic activities around the world. New developments in communications and transportation—such as the Internet, cellular phones, and overnight air delivery—make the movement of information and goods faster and more efficient than ever before. With such everchanging technology, a modern business can operate globally without depending on any one place to fill all of its needs. Human-Environment Interaction Why do geographers study economies? Geography as a Career Geography skills are useful in a variety of jobs and work environments. GEOGRAPHY AND What skills do you use when learning how to get to the library? Read to learn how geography is used in the workplace. Although people trained in geography are in great demand in the workforce, many of them do not have geographer as a job title. Geography skills are useful in so many different situations that geographers have more than a hundred different job titles. Geographers work in a variety of jobs in government, business, and education. They often combine the study of geography with other areas of study. For example, an ecologist must know the geographic characteristics of a place or region in which he or she studies living organisms. Also, a travel agent must have knowledge of geography in order to plan trips for clients. One broad cluster of career opportunities in geography is teaching and education. Teaching opportunities exist at all levels — from elementary school to high school to university. Teachers with some background and training in geography are in demand in elementary and high schools in the United States. At the university level, teaching and research focused on specific branches of geography have been established for decades. Students with formal geographic training from a university have found work in many different industries. Because geography itself has many specialized fields, there are many different kinds of geographers. Those with knowledge of physical geography work as climate and weather experts and soil scientists. Recently, geographers with training in environmental studies have been in demand for work as environmental managers and technicians. Such work includes assessing the environmental impact of proposed development projects on air, water quality, and wildlife. They also prepare the environmental impact report that is often required before construction can begin. Human geographers find work in many areas, including health care, transportation, population Storm chasers use technology to record, measure, and document the intensity of storms. Human-Environment Interaction Aside from dramatic images, what other information can the work of storm chasers provide? Chapter 1 Jim Reed/CORBIS studies, economic development, and international economics. Some human geographers with a background in urban planning are hired as planners in local and state government agencies. They focus on housing and community development, park and recreation planning, and urban and regional planning. Planners map and analyze land use and transportation systems, and monitor urban land development. Geographers who specialize in a specific branch of geography—such as economic geography or regional geography—also find jobs outside of the university setting. For example, an economic geographer examines human economic activities and their relationship to the environment. He or she may work at such tasks as market analysis and site selection for stores, factories, and restaurants. A regional geographer studies the features of a particular region and may assist government and businesses in making decisions about land use. Geographers also find employment as writers and editors for publishers of textbooks, maps, atlases, and news and travel magazines. Place Why are there many different types of geographers? SECTION Geography skills are used to survey the land near a construction site. Human-Environment Interaction In what other types of situations may geography skills be necessary? ONLINE Student Web Activity Visit the World Geography and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on Student Web Activities—Chapter 1 for an activity about careers in geography. 2 REVIEW Vocabulary 1. Explain the significance of: site, situation, place, region, formal region, functional region, perceptual region, ecosystem, movement, human-environment interaction, cartography, geographic information systems (GIS). Main Ideas 2. Describe the research methods geographers use. 3. What other subject areas is geography related to? 4. List examples of jobs and work environments in which geography skills are useful. 5. Use a table like the one below to describe the elements geographers use to study people and places on Earth’s surface. The Elements of Geography The World in Spatial Terms Critical Thinking 6. Think about the physical and human characteristics that constitute a region. Identify the differences and similarities among formal, functional, and perceptual regions. 7. Making Generalizations How does the study of other subject areas help geographers in their work as countries become increasingly interdependent? 8. Analyzing Visuals Study the physical map of the United States on pages xl–xli. What kinds of information can you learn from this map? How does the information on this map differ from the political map on pages xlii–xliii? Writing About Geography 9. Expository Writing As a geographer working on a plan for a new community center, what research methods would you use? Explain your choices in a paragraph. Places and Regions Physical Systems Human Systems Environment and Society The Uses of Geography Unit 1 Purestock/SuperStock ONLINE Study Central To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central. CHAPTER Study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes and flashcards to your PDA from glencoe.com. VISUAL SUMMARY WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY? • Geography is the study of the location of people and places and the patterns in which they are arranged on Earth. • Physical geography focuses on the physical features and processes of Earth. • Human geography focuses on the political, economic, or cultural characteristics of human populations. • An important element in geography is the interaction between people and their environment. Geographers try to understand how Earth’s physical environment shape and are shaped by human activities. A researcher takes ice core samples to study climate change. Great Circle Routes THE GEOGRAPHER’S TOOLS France: Physical TYPES OF MAPS • Maps can be used to show many different types of information. • Most maps show location. The two most common types of maps show the location and physical features of a place, or the location and political boundaries. • Some other types of maps are qualitative maps and flow-line maps. These are useful when dealing with historical information or when trying to show movement. Chapter 1 (bkgd)Robert Laberge/Getty Images, (tr)Paul Nicklen/National Geographic Image Collection/Getty Images THE WORLD • To understand geography, you first need to understand how maps work. • Three-dimensional globes are the most accurate depiction of Earth. For example, the shortest distance between two places is not always a straight line but a great circle. This is due to the curvature of the Earth. • Flat maps use one of several types of projections that distort Earth’s features in some way. • It is important to understand how each projection distorts Earth so you can pick the map projection that best suits your needs. CHAPTER 1 STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE TEST-TAKING TIP Be sure to read all the choices before you answer a question so that you are sure that you have picked the best choice. Reviewing Vocabulary Reviewing Main Ideas Directions: Choose the word or words that best complete the sentence. Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions. Section 1 (pp. 4–15) 1. To draw a map of the round Earth on a flat surface, map makers use . 5. The shortest distance between two places on the Earth follows a . A absolute locations A great circle B relative locations B straight line on a map C map projections C scenic route D hemispheres D map projection 6. 2. Lines of are drawn on maps from the North Pole to the South Pole to measure distance east and west. A latitude location is a place’s global address. A Relative B Global C Absolute B parallels D Cartographic C location D longitude Section 2 (pp. 16–24) 3. A city and its surroundings make up a region. A functional A projections B perceptual B regions C formal C places D virtual 4. Designing and making maps is the work of 7. To study and interpret the Earth’s complexity, geographers often divide it into . D situations . 8. In studying the Earth and its people, geographers use . A history A direct observation B cartography B interviews C anthropology C technology D economies D all of these GO ON 26 Unit 1 ASSESSMENT Critical Thinking Document-Based Questions Directions: Choose the best answers to the following questions. Directions: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer questions that follow the document. 9. How has the geographer’s craft changed over the last 100 years? Geography is increasingly important because our ties to the rest of the world increase every day. Here is what geographer George J. Demko said about geography: A The world has literally become smaller. B Maps are no longer as important as they once were. Geography — real-world geography — is the art and science of location, or place. It is about spatial patterns and spatial processes. It is about which way the wind blows from Chernobyl, the Pacific “ring of fire,” AIDS, terrorists, and refugees. It is about acid rain, El Niño, ocean dumping, cultural censorship, droughts and famines. . . . C Technology has provided computers and views from the air and from space. D Interviewing is used less often to learn about and compare cultures. Base your answer to question 10 on the map and on your knowledge of Chapter 1. Real-world geography also explores things in locations: why something is where it is and what processes change its distribution. Geography is the why of where of an ever-changing universe. Its surpassing objective is to discover the processes that move over space and connect places and continually transform the location and character of everything. Scandinavia — George J. Demko, Why in the World: Adventures in Geography 11. What are some of the world issues that Dr. Demko lists as concerns of geography? 12. According to the excerpt, what is the main objective of geography? Extended Response 13. Why is it important for geographers to use a variety of methods to study the Earth? 14. Identify the six essential elements of geography. How are each of these used in the study of geography? 10. The absolute location of Oslo is STOP A 60° south and 10° west. B 60° west and 10° north. C 60° north and 10° east. ONLINE D 10° east and 60° south. For additional test practice, use Self-Check Quizzes— Chapter 1 on glencoe.com. Need Extra Help? If you missed questions. . . Go to page. . . 1 6 2 8 3 18 4 20 5 5 6 8 7 18 8 20 9 10 10 8 11 20 12 21 13 22 14 17 Chapter 1 27