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1 THE COMING OF NEW REVOLUTIONS "No man is more ardently intent to see the public debt soon and sacredly paid off than I am. This exactly marks the difference between Colonel Hamilton's views and mine, that I would wish the debt paid tomorrow; he wishes it never to be paid, but always to be a thing where with to corrupt and manage the legislature." Thomas Jefferson I. Introduction In our previous discussion we examined the factors that led to the creation and ratification of the Constitution. We also explored some of the domestic and international challenges the United States faced during this period. More specifically, we analyzed Hamilton's fiscal program and the opposition it created. We also explored how the French Revolution contributed to internal division in the United States. These challenges, along with others, fueled the rise of "party politics" as individuals rallied to the ideals of either the Federalists or Republicans. We ended our discussion with an overview of the key events in the Washington and Adams administrations. Today's discussion will focus on the administration of Thomas Jefferson. For Jefferson, a new revolution was necessary, "as real as a revolution in the principles of our government as that of 1776 was in its form." Jefferson believed that the Federalist measures needed to be reversed. In 1810, Jefferson wrote "I have been ever opposed to the party so falsely Federalists because I believe them desirous of introducing into our government, authorities hereditary or otherwise independent of the nation will. These always consume the public contributions and oppress the people with labour or poverty." How effective was Jefferson in addressing his concerns? By the time we finish this discussion you should be able to do the following: 1. Explain the impact the Industrial Revolution had on the United States. 2. Identify causes and effects of the Political Revolution of 1800. 3. Explain the factors that led to the War of 1812. 4. Analyze the impact of westward expansion on Native American communities and slavery. II. A New Revolution is Felt A. The Industrial Revolution and Cotton 1. Historians generally agree the second part of the Dual Revolution had its origins in Great Britain in the 18th century. It was fueled by the following factors: a. Atlantic economy where British textile goods were marketed. 2 b. An agricultural boom that produced more crops at a cheaper price. c. Britain also had an effective bank and credit market. d. Britain also had a stable government. 2. The industrial revolution first made its presence felt in the textile industry. Changes in the textile industry were fueled by a taste for cotton rather than wool. Originally, cotton textiles were imported from India (calicoes - Calicut). Hoping to compete with calicoes from India, British manufacturers started to buy cotton from North America. The problem they faced was how to spin it effectively to meet the demands. a. James Hagreaves (1720-1778) was the first to tackle this challenge with an invention called the spinning jenny. It was hand operated, but mechanized spinning cotton. Image 1A41i01: Spinning Jenny b. Richard Arkwright (1732-1792) to spinning to a new level when he developed the water frame. c. Across the Atlantic, Eli Whitney's (1765-1825) "Cotton Engine" (1793) made cotton a viable commodity. It accelerated the removal of seeds. Image 1A41i02: Cotton Engine 3. This mechanization led to the first factories, textile factories. There still was one problem looming that would eventually be resolved, energy. James Watt (1736-1819) tackled this problem by developing an effective steam engine. a. It was applied to existing industries such as the textile industry. b. It revolutionized transportation. B. The Implications for North America 1. The Cotton Engine made cotton as a commodity viable. a. The end result was that by 1840 the American South produced about 60% of the world's cotton supply and it accounted for about 2/3s of American exports. 2. Innovations in transportation also contributed to economic growth. 3 a. Forms of water transportation were developed as exemplified by the building of the Erie Canal (1818-1825). By 1840, over 3,300 miles of canals had been built. Image 1A41i03: Erie Canal b. Steamboats began to appear after Robert Fulton (1765-1815) demonstrated the benefits of having a boat propelled by steam engine. By 1855 there were 727 in service. Image 1A41i04: Steamboat c. Important railroads began to appear by about 1830. By 1840 over 3,000 miles of track had been placed down. Image 1A41i05: Railroad 3. Factories were constructed and some had a new "spin" to them. Francis Cabot Lowell established in 1814 a textile factory at Waltham (Massachusetts) that both worked cotton and manufactured cloth. Image 1A41i06/07: Textile Factory C. The Implications 1. "We could bring the whole world to our feet." "Cotton is King" Slavery - Native Americans 2. Transportation revolution III. The Political Revolution of 1800 A. Thomas Jefferson's Administration (1801-1809) and Agrarian Republicanism 1. Thomas Jefferson's election, referred to the Revolution of 1800, signaled a transition from Federalist leadership to a Democratic-Republican one. For Jefferson, this was an opportunity to commit the United States to republican principles, to limit the role of government, to curve its expenses, and to promote westward expansion. a. Historians believe that Jefferson's years as ambassador to France had a profound impact on his political views. How? While in Europe, he witnessed the extremes of wealth and poverty. He was also exposed to England’s factory system. Finally, Thomas Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) also impacted Jefferson. 4 Image 1A41i08: Poverty b. Jefferson believed that the Federalist program would move the United States toward the same conditions. Image 1A41i09: Farmer c. To counter this, Jefferson envisioned an expanding agrarian republic. The yeoman farmer becoming a landowner would allow them to earn their living from the soil and be dependent on no one. 2. Under Jefferson's administration the US doubled in size. This was accomplished through the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Louisiana was originally control by the Spanish. In 1800 the Spanish ceded control of Louisiana to the French. Jefferson's worst fears became reality as New Orleans port was closed to American shippers. However, it was Napoleon's failure to regain control of Haiti that made the purchase of Louisiana possible. A frustrated Napoleon is said to have exclaimed, "Damn sugar, damn colonies, damn coffee." Without Haiti, Frances's hope for an American Empire came to an end. a. James Monroe (1758-1831) was sent to France with instructions to offer $2 million for New Orleans and part of the Gulf Coast. b. What the American negotiators got was Louisiana (830,000 sq. miles) for $15 million. Map 1A41m01 c. Jefferson wanted detailed information about new acquisition. There was hope for a convenient waterway to the Pacific. Jefferson secured funding from Congress for an expedition to chart unknown land. Meriwether Lewis and William Clarke in 1803 headed this expedition. It reached the Pacific coast in 1805 and returned in with details in 1806. It fueled transMississippi expansion. 3. Jefferson's first major political battle was against the federal courts. When he took office, not one single federal judge was a Republican. The bone of contention was the Judiciary Act of 1801. Congress passed it five days before Adams's term as president ended. It created 16 new federal judgeships all awarded to Federalists by Adams. It also reduced the number of US Supreme Court justices beginning with the next vacancy. a. Adams appointed William Marbury (midnight judges) to one of the federal courts, but he had not received his papers by the time Jefferson took office. Jefferson instructed the new Secretary of State, James 5 Madison, not to issue them. Marbury asked the court to issue a Writ of Mandamus (we command). Image 1A41i11: William Marbury b. In 1803, Chief Justice John Marshall issued his decision in Marbury v. Madison. The court could not issue the Writ Mandamus because it was not stated in the Constitution that it had the authority to do so. Image 1A41i12: John Marshall c. This case set precedent for the Supreme Court to rule on the constitutionality of legislative acts without formal amendment. It also established the Court's right to judicial review. The Court was given power to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional if not in accordance with the Constitution. It also gave it the right to review all cases in the US to determine their constitutionality. IV. The War of 1812 A. The Course of Neutrality is Challenged 1. From 1803 to 1814 Napoleon was on the move in Europe. Image 1A41i13: Napoleon Map 1A41m02 a. The US tried to maintain a course of neutrality, although it became increasingly difficult. b. Between 1803-1811, the British had impressed 6,000 American sailors. c. Fueling matters even further was the Leopard (British man-o-war) Chesapeake (Us frigate) confrontation that saw the death of 3 American sailors. 2. Jefferson responded with the Embargo Act 1807. It imposed an embargo on all foreign trade. Jefferson hoped it would give, ". . . time to the belligerent powers to revise their unjust proceedings and listen to the dictates of justice, of interest and reputation, which equally urge the correction of their wrongs, has availed our country for the only honorable expedient for avoiding war. . . ." 3. Unfortunately, it did not accomplish Jefferson's goals in the end. The Act harmed the American economy more than that of the British and French. 6 B. The Administration of James Madison (1809-1817) 1. The burden of office weighed heavily on Jefferson. So much that Jefferson wrote, "Never did a prisoner, released from his chains, feel such relief as I shall on shacking the shackles of power." Matters would be no easier for Jefferson's successor, James Madison. When Madison took office, John Adams wrote, "Jefferson expired and James Madison came to Life last night . . . . I pity poor Madison. He comes to the helm in such a storm . . . ." Image 1A41i14: James Madison 2. In 1809, Congress replaced the failed Embargo Act with the Non-Intercourse Act. It specified that foreign trade would once again be conducted except with England and France. In 1810, Napoleon agreed to cease seizing American ships and cargoe. Madison warned Britain should follow example. Although England soon did, it was too late as the US declared war on England in 1812. a. War was declared on England in large part to defend Americans and American interests at sea. But also because many believed that the British fueled the Native American conflict in the frontier. b. Treaty of Ghent (1814) resolved little other than Britain's agreement to evacuate the West. C. Native Americans after the War of 1812 1. Tecumsah (Shawnee military leader) organized Native American resistance to western expansion in the Trans-Appalachian region. By 1811, this movement had made its presence felt in Indiana and Michigan. Tecumseh was even able to secure an alliance with the British. His death in 1813, and the end of the War of 1812, brought an end to this movement. Image 1A41i15: Tecumsah 2. The end of the war brought debate as to what policy the US should implement with regards to Native American treatment. During Jefferson's administration, two policies were already being debated. One favored assimilation, the other removal. 3. Jefferson had pushed for removal as a way of ensuring the survival of Native American culture. James Monroe also promoted removal policy as he sought to settle all eastern Native Americans in western lands. It would be under Andrew Jackson, as we will see later, that removal policy reached a new apex. V. 1818 and 1819: The Watershed of America 7 A. The Presidency of James Monroe (1817-1825) 1. The years 1818 and 1819 provided defining moments in US history. For many historians, these years brought an end of an era the opening of a new one. a. The Revolutionary generation was almost gone (10% left), the nation was experiencing unprecedented geographic expansion, and economic growth seemed limitless. b. These years also witnessed the rise of political divisions and sectional rivalries that as one historian has noted, "would dominate the country's politics for the next forty years." 2. Postwar America experienced a period of relative tranquility. a. Historians define the period from about 1815 to 1824 as the Era of Good Feelings. b. The nation was being pulled back together after the War of 1812. It also referred to a period of economic prosperity. c. There was a new westward surge as population increased from 5.3 million to 9.6 million. d. Finally, James Monroe's presidency continued the "dynasty" of Democratic Republican. B. Geographic Expansion and Crisis 1. Monroe's administration secured the Transcontinental Treaty 1819 (AdamsOnis). a. This treaty secured for the US Florida and got Spain to relinquish claims to Louisiana and Oregon territories. In return, the US would relinquish any claims made on Texas. Negotiations for this treaty were aided by Spain's struggle with independence movements in its empire. b. The Land Act of 1820 promoted western expansion as land sold at $1.25 per acre with a minimum purchase of 80 acres. 2. In 1819, a crisis emerged that was, according to Jefferson, like "a fireball in the night." This crisis was fueled by Missouri's application for statehood. What was at stake was the status of slavery west of the Mississippi. In 1819, Missouri applied for statehood as a slave state and the crisis was ignited. 8 a. At stake were moral issues, property issues, and sectional balance. For Northerners, allowing Missouri to enter as a slave state would tip the balance in the Senate (11-11). For Southerners, they believed that Congress did not have the power to limit slavery (their property). b. After much heated debate, a compromise was reached in 1820. It was agreed that Missouri would enter as a slave state. But Maine, which applied for statehood during the debates, would enter as a free state. It also established the 36-30 line. Slavery was not go above it. c. John Quincy Adams referred to the Missouri Crisis as the "title page to a great tragic volume." 3. In 1819, an economic crisis also hit the US. C. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) 1. America's most immediate neighbor, Spanish American, was filled with instability. It was rumored that Spain had plans for regaining its lost colonies to independence movements. Adding further concerns, Russia claimed control of the entire Pacific Coast from Alaska to Oregon. 2. Spurred by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, Monroe made a unilateral declaration of American policy in the "New World." On December 2, 1823 he declared in a message to Congress that, "the American continents . . . are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power." 3. The rights and interests of the US in the Western Hemisphere had now been defined.