Download A Buddhist View of Adult Learning in the Workplace

A Buddhist View of Adult
Learning in the Workplace
Barry-Craig P. Johansen
D. Gopalakrishna
The problem and the solution. Buddhism is a way of life practiced by more than 500 million people. The continued globalization
of work and the expanding economic power and influence of Asian
nations ensures that the beliefs, goals, practices, and traditions of
Buddhism will take on increasing importance to business, education,
and human resource development (HRD) professionals in every part
of the world. Buddhism, like most worldviews, is not homogeneous
and has many variations. Indeed, this adaptability is one of the hallmarks of Buddhism and is a major contributing factor to its spread and
applicability around the world. The differences in these approaches
are not as relevant to this article as are their commonalities in foundational beliefs, goals, and methods. Thus, this article presents a
Buddhist view of learning, not the Buddhist view.
Keywords:
Buddhism; religion; worldviews; HRD; work; adult learning
In this article we review the foundational tenants of Buddhism, describe how
these beliefs shape individual and organizational workplace learning practices,
and discuss the implications for human resource development (HRD) practice,
theory, and research.
Buddhism is based on the life and teachings of Siddhartha Gautama who
lived 2,500 years ago. Born into a wealthy family, he had a life of privilege and
was protected from the unpleasant aspects of life. Around the time of his 29th
birthday, he saw the reality of disease, age, and death. He gave up his life of
luxury to become a holy man and discover a way to overcome these aspects of
life. Eventually, through practice and meditation, he became enlightened and
understood the causes of suffering and how to overcome them.
There are three major schools of Buddhism. The Theravada school is the
oldest and is most prominent in parts of India, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia,
Myanmar (Burma), and parts of China. Mahayana Buddhism is commonly
practiced in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, and parts of China and Vietnam. The Vajrayana
Advances in Developing Human Resources Vol. 8, No. 3 August 2006 337-345
DOI: 10.1177/1523422306288426
Copyright 2006 Sage Publications
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school is found in Tibet, Nepal, and parts of Russia, Mongolia, and Bhutan.
Although there are some differences between these approaches, their commonalities are much more significant and are the focus of this article.
Buddhism is not a religion in the traditional sense (Loy, 2003). Although it
does allow for supernatural beings, it is nontheocratic. The Buddha is not worshipped as a god but is respected as an enlightened teacher. The term Buddha
means “one who is awake.” Buddhism might be better conceived as a philosophy or perhaps a psychology in that it offers a particular worldview and way
of living that leads to personal understanding, happiness, and development.
This individual development leads directly to the development of healthy and
harmonious communities and organizations.
Buddhism is a moral, ethical, value-based, scientific, educational system,
the goal of which is to allow the individual to discover the true nature of things
(becoming enlightened) and, in so doing, escape from suffering and attain
happiness—not only for oneself but for all sentient beings. “The first step in
seeking happiness is learning” (Dalai Lama & Cutler, 2003, p. 38).
Buddhist Foundations
This section describes the basic tenets of Buddhism.
The Four Noble Truths
The Four Noble Truths are considered a summary of the Buddha’s teachings and are foundational to understanding the Buddhist worldview. They have
been presented in a variety of formats. The truths are as follows: (a) human life
inevitably involves suffering (dukkha), (b) suffering arises from our desires
(samudaya), (c) there is a state of being in which there is no suffering
(nirodha), and (d) there is a way to achieve this state (marga).
Dukkha is often translated as suffering, but a more appropriate or accurate
translation would be unhappiness or frustration (Loy, 2003, p. 3) or perhaps
“hard to bear,” “dissatisfactory [sic],” or “hollow” (Das, 1997, p. 77).
A more contemporary statement of the Four Noble Truths is offered by
Das (1997): (a) Life is difficult, (b) life is difficult because we crave satisfaction in ways that are inherently dissatisfying, (c) the possibility of liberation
from difficulties exists for everyone, and (d) the way to realize this liberation and enlightenment is by leading a compassionate life of virtue, wisdom,
and meditation.
The Buddha may be likened to a physician: he confirms our illness, diagnoses the cause, instills hope that we can be cured, and then tells us how to
cure ourselves (Loy, 2003). Indeed, the approach could be considered an educational approach; it identifies and confirms a need, seeks the root cause,
offers support, and intervenes in an appropriate manner.
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The Eightfold Path
The Eightfold Path describes a way of living to escape suffering, find happiness, and develop insight leading to higher levels of thinking and greater
understanding. The eight aspects or parts of the path are tightly intertwined
and reinforce each other. Although it is beyond the scope of this article to
explain each in detail, they are key to understanding the Buddhist worldview,
so each is described briefly.
Right Understanding is the first aspect of the eightfold path and involves
deep reflection to examine our personal motivations. The second aspect, Right
Thinking, has been described as the “speech of the mind” (Hanh, 1998, p. 55).
Developed through meditation, it fosters living in the moment and understanding the links between thoughts, assumptions, and actions. Right Speech
is the third aspect and involves speaking truthfully and in a manner not harmful to others. It is the externalization of our thoughts, thus based on Right
Thinking. It recognizes the power of words to influence our life and the lives
of others. The fourth aspect, Right Action, is about nonviolence and responsible behavior. Right Action is grounded in mindfulness (Right Thinking). Right
Livelihood, the fifth aspect, is perhaps the aspect most easily associated with
HRD. It requires finding a way to earn a living that does not cause suffering
or violence. Right Effort might be best described as diligence. This sixth aspect
of the Eightfold Path is the ongoing discipline to find and follow a life marked
by compassion, mindfulness, and nonviolence. Right Mindfulness, the seventh
aspect, is reached by being constantly aware of one’s thoughts and actions, as
well as the effect they have on others. The eighth aspect of the Eightfold Path
is Right Concentration. The result of Right Effort and Right Mindfulness, it
integrates all our energy and awareness into a coherent whole so that all of our
being is working toward enlightenment (Das, 1997, p. 335).
The Precepts
To help follow the Eightfold Path, Buddhists make a personal commitment
to follow a set of rules known as precepts. The precepts are not commandments in the Judeo-Christian sense (including Islam) in that breaking a vow
does not constitute a sin, nor will it incur the wrath of God or any other being.
The precepts are vows made to oneself. Following the precepts results in
behavior that is congruent with the Eightfold Path and finding liberation from
suffering (Das, 1997). The number of precepts undertaken varies. The laity will
undertake 5; novices take 10; pathkow (women living in a monastery) take 8;
while monks may undertake more than 200 as part of the monastic life (Ward,
1993). The basic five precepts are as follows: (a) abstain from killing (protect
life), (b) abstain from stealing (prevent exploitation of all living beings and
nature), (c) abstain from unwholesome sexual conduct (protect all from sexual
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abuse and misconduct), (d) abstain from incorrect speech (practice deep listening
and loving speech), and (e) abstain from using intoxicants (consume in a manner
that promotes mindfulness) (Hanh, 1998; Loy, 2003).
With this basic understanding of the foundational beliefs, we can explore
their implications for adult learning and HRD.
Buddhism and Adult Learning
Buddhism promotes a spirit of inquiry and does not ask that its lessons be
accepted as dogma. Rather, it encourages personal testing and verification of its
prescriptions (Hanh, 1998; Terhune, 1999). The Kalama Sutta reads, “After
careful observation and analysis when you find that anything agrees with reason and conducive to the good and benefit of one and all, then accept it and live
up to it” (Buasri, 2000, p. 54). The Buddha himself has been quoted as saying,
“You must examine my words to their very depths, then test what I say as you
would test gold, and having so tested and proven the validity and truth of what
I say for yourselves, only then should you accept it” (Tehrune, 1999, p. 128).
Although Buddhism is not a theory of HRD or adult learning, it does
address what should be the proper roles of a relationship between the teacher
and the learner. The four reliances were developed by Buddhist scholars to
assist in understanding Buddhist teachings (Hanh, 1998). They are (a) one
should rely on the teachings and not the teacher (it is possible to learn from a
teacher whose espoused theory and theory-in-use are not congruent); (b) start
the teaching and/or learning process with basic information and build on it
toward more complicated concepts; (c) learning should be based on understanding meaning, not simply relying on rote methods (in this way learning
becomes more flexible and less contextually bound); and (d) consider both
differentiating and finding unity in understanding (this is a call for both
inductive and deductive approaches as well as for what we now would call a
systems view).
Teaching
The Sigalovada Sutta (Kelly, Sawyer, & Yareham, 2005) provides insight
into the responsibilities of the teacher. It states, “Teachers so respected reciprocate with compassion in five ways: by training in self-discipline, ensuring
the teachings are well-grasped, instructing in every branch of knowledge, introducing their friends and colleagues, and providing safeguards in every direction” (p. 29).
The Udai Sutta (Bhikkhu, 1997) lists five attributes of sound teaching.
These attributes may be summarized as follows: (a) Instruction should be broken
into steps, (b) instruction should address cause and effect, (c) the teacher should
teach with compassion for the student, (d) teaching should not be motivated by
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personal gain, (e) teaching should not disparage others, and (f) teachers must
be competent before instructing others.
Buddhist teaching recognizes that there are differences between people and
stresses the importance of customizing teaching to the individual based on the
temperament and background of the individual.
Meditation
Meditation is a key component of learning in the Buddhist tradition and is
often misunderstood. Often seen in the West as a mysterious and esoteric practice involving isolation, uncomfortable sitting postures, closing your eyes, and
chanting in another language, it is in fact a primary method to cut through the
clutter and noise of everyday life and to “arrive at the total immediacy and
authenticity of life in the very present moment” (Das, 1997, p. 260). Meditation
is a way to create mindfulness. “This development of awareness eradicates
ignorance—about ourselves and others as well as reality” (Das, 1997, p. 260).
The goals of meditation training and the development of mindfulness are to
help learners “not only to notice fully their experiences, but also to become
aware of the underlying structures and workings of experience” (Johnson,
2002, p. 109). “The learning and practice of Buddhism has nothing to do with
economic determinism, although the peaceful clarity of mind, which results,
certainly can facilitate life and work skills” (Johnson, 2002, p. 112). Johnson
(2002) further pointed out that through meditation, the learner becomes his or
her own teacher, becomes more independent and self-confident, and is able
to learn from all life experiences. He concludes that a Buddhist approach to
education embodies the core principles of life-long learning.
Buddhism and Work
A Buddhist worldview is a systems view in that each aspect is tightly connected to the others, and they operate synergistically; they cannot be separated.
Nonetheless, there are certain aspects that have particular relevance to HRD and
work. The sixth step of the Eightfold Noble Path, Right Livelihood, is described
by Hanh (1997) as earning a living in a manner that does not violate any of the
basic five precepts. The first precept (abstain from killing) makes it clear that
engaging in any occupation involving killing or that supports others killing is not
condoned. Hence, occupations such as dealing in the arms industry, meatpacking
or butchering, the military, police officers, and so on, are not appropriate. This
admonition extends to other work as well, such as making or selling poisons or
drugs (including alcohol and tobacco) and could logically be extended to working in any industry or manner that pollutes or does environmental damage.
The second precept (abstain from stealing) prohibits not only outright theft
but also any work that preys on superstitions, unfounded beliefs, or weaknesses
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of others. Thus working in the gambling industry, fortune-telling, or marketing
unneeded products (especially high pressure sales methods) are not considered
right livelihood. Abstinence from stealing includes not making exorbitant
demands for profit, pay, and benefits, particularly if it will be at the expense of
others.
The third precept admonishes against unwholesome sexual conduct, prohibiting working in slavery, prostitution, pornography, or any type of sexual
exploitation. Aside from these obvious trades, it can also be seen as prohibiting
sexual harassment in any form and could logically be extended to any trade that
promotes unwholesome sexual behavior, including entertainment and fashion.
Correct speech, the fourth precept, requires that work communications
be honest and conducted with the best interest of others in mind. It is a prohibition against gossip, slander, data manipulation, false reporting, false advertising,
“spin,” “phishing,” and other communications that are not truthful.
The fifth precept encourages mindful consumption and admonishes against
consumption of anything that might be harmful to others or self. This includes
not only alcohol and drugs but also unwholesome foods, foods that contain
toxins, and drugs not medically necessary. It also prohibits the consumption of
unwholesome entertainment (books, magazines, movies, computer simulations, video games, etc.) and conversations that might be harmful.
Hanh (1998) summarized the ideas of right action as “protect life, practice
generosity, behave responsibly, and consume mindfully” (p. 98).
What of situations where work demands actions counter to the principles of
Right Livelihood? In today’s world, it is difficult to find any type of job that,
upon reflection, does not have the potential to do harm to others. Even the Dali
Lama (Dali Lama & Cutler, 2003) conceded that the current world political situation demands weapons, soldiers, and training for security purposes. Weapons
are needed to ensure the safety of our society (protect life), yet they are also
the tools for killing.
These dilemmas cannot be resolved purely at the individual level; these are
societal issues for which there has been little appetite for finding alternatives.
From a Buddhist perspective, creating stores of weapons for defensive purposes
is justified. But how can we be sure that they will not be used for offense? How
do we justify sending arms to non-Western states in support of civil wars and
genocide yet allow others around the world to starve? Rather than dictate how
an individual or society should act when facing such issues, a Buddhist worldview seeks to examine and reflect upon the motivation and effects of the various alternatives before making decisions. If there is no alternative that will not
cause harm, we can at least choose the least harmful alternative, be aware of
the harm, and accept responsibility for it. Demands of the modern world may
make it almost impossible totally to embrace the precepts; however, one
should make choices that move toward compassion and the reduction of
suffering.
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Implications for Work-Based HRD Practice
The Four Noble Truths offer an understanding of the various challenges and
difficulties we will face in the course of our work. Difficulties are to be
expected; they are a normal part of work and life. Many of these difficulties
are self-created in that there is a misunderstanding of what makes people
happy and satisfied. Western, capitalistic societies would have us believe that
the accumulation of things leads to happiness. We are constantly bombarded
by advertising that promotes consumption as the way to happiness. One particularly ironic, or perhaps perverse, advertisement proclaims, “To be one with
everything, you must have one of everything.” Because such desires are artificially created, any happiness gained from their satisfaction is shallow and
short lived. Soon we move on to the next created desire. This cycle repeats, not
creating genuine happiness but only additional consumption and new desires
(Kaza, 2005).
By developing a new understanding of the relationship between our
thoughts and actions, we can see ways to reduce the dissatisfaction many feel
with work. Our work in HRD must consider the entire person. In our practice,
we must take a systems approach to look at the interrelationships between ourselves, our clients, and other members of the organization. Buddhism recognizes that nothing exists in isolation; everything and everyone is the product of
the interactions between other things and people, what is called “interdependent co-arising” (Hanh, 1998, p. 206).
This systems view, along with other aspects of the Eightfold Path, demands
that we directly address the ethics of our practice and those of the organizations we support. As everything is interconnected, we must examine and
understand the effect of our practice on individuals, the organization, society,
those in other nations, and the environment. We must question the effect of our
HRD practice and our organizations on the happiness, health, and well-being
of all stakeholders. As practitioners, we need to develop a clear understanding
of our own motives, our own desires, and the effect our behavior has on others.
We should also instill the value of such self-reflection in our learners.
Clearly there are industries and types of work that are inconsistent with a
Buddhist worldview and thus are to be avoided by a mindful HRD practitioner.
Trades that support killing, unwholesome behavior, or reduce our mindfulness
are outside Buddhist practice. We need to understand the intended and unintended effects of the products our organizations produce on consumers, as well
as the effects of our HRD activities. It is inappropriate to support products or
services that lead to suffering. Therefore, supporting organizations that foster
or profit from war, weapons, gambling, and drugs ought to be eschewed.
Organizations that promote or profit from unwholesome sexual activity are
inappropriate. Television, video games, magazines, music, and all other forms
of entertainment must be scrutinized closely to see if they have a damaging
effect on the producer, the consumer, or society. Promoting or supporting any
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occupation or activity that promotes addiction (drugs, alcohol, tobacco, etc.) is
also outside Buddhist practice.
As HRD practitioners, our communications about our skills must be honest
and not inflated in an effort to obtain work. We should not work outside our
areas of competence nor offer solutions for which there is no need or that have
limited value in addressing the underlying issues. We should not support organizations in developing communications that are not truthful, including advertising, the development of recruiting materials, career development advice,
and the development of unsound or ineffective training programs (fads should
be examined for their theoretical appropriateness).
In designing performance management, compensation, or incentive systems, a Buddhist worldview demands that we advocate for safe working conditions, adequate and fair compensation and benefits for workers, and ensuring
that no group is put at a competitive disadvantage because of diversity characteristics. Incentive programs should foster harmony, not extreme competitiveness. In rewarding performance, we must temper our approach so as not to
promote greed. Likewise, the fees for our services must be fair and not based
on greed.
A Buddhist approach to HRD encourages experiential learning. We should
encourage the learner to actively test the ideas we bring to our practice.
Practitioners must work from a foundation of true concern and compassion
for the client. Unless we have a true concern for the well-being of the client,
we should admit this openly and refer the work to someone else who can
develop a truly compassionate relationship.
Implications for HRD Theory and Research
A Buddhist worldview opens HRD research to issues ranging from the personal (How can HRD professionals incorporate Buddhist principles into their
practice?), to the organizational (How do we develop performance management and reward systems that do not promote greed?), to social policy and
ethical issues (How do we justify extensive military spending in the face of
compelling domestic and international needs for healthcare, food, and shelter?). Research is also needed on the effect of incorporating a Buddhist worldview into our practice. Does such an approach work in a Western, capitalistic
society? What are the results when this worldview is embraced and used as the
foundation for decisions? In our efforts as a field to become more professional
and to develop global ethics for HRD, what aspects of Buddhist principles
need to be applied?
Answers to all these questions will enhance the field of HRD and forward
its efforts to become more global. It will also, potentially, improve the professionalism of the field and help in our efforts to implement more widely
corporate social responsibility.
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Barry-Craig P. Johansen is an assistant professor of human resource development
(HRD) and adult education at the University of Minnesota. He teaches at both the St. Paul
and Rochester, Minnesota, campuses. His interests include ethics, philosophical foundations, and cross-cultural issues in HRD and adult education. He has worked as both an
internal and external consultant in health care, manufacturing, and public utilities.
D. Gopalakrishna is a professor at the Canabank School of Management, Central
College Campus at Ambedkar Veede, Bangalore, India.
Johansen, B-C. P., & Gopalakrishna, D. (2006). A Buddhist view of adult learning in
the workplace. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 8(3), 337-345.
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