Download Guide for Students

Guide for
Students
English
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2
Reading ............................................................................................................................ 4
Becoming a Better Reader .........................................................................................................4
Reading Strategies (Practical and Philosophical) ...............................................................5
Reading Tips ............................................................................................................................6
Levels of Reading Literature ..................................................................................................7
Reading for Theme Rather than Plot .....................................................................................9
Effective Reading Behaviours Checklist ............................................................................10
Short Story Theory ...................................................................................................................11
Characteristics of the Short Story .......................................................................................11
Poetry Theory ............................................................................................................................12
Deriving Meaning from Poetry .............................................................................................12
Understanding and Appreciating Poetry ............................................................................13
Writing............................................................................................................................ 15
Managing Your English Assignments ....................................................................................15
Title Page................................................................................................................................16
Format for All Written Work .................................................................................................17
Writing for Theme Rather than Plot.....................................................................................18
Quoting from Literary Sources ............................................................................................19
Prose Forms That Develop Personal Response to Texts.....................................................22
The Essay ..................................................................................................................................25
The Parts of an Essay ...........................................................................................................25
Essay Writing.........................................................................................................................26
Writing an Outline for an Essay ...........................................................................................27
Hints for Writing Good Essays ............................................................................................28
The Thesis Statement: Some Caveats and Examples ......................................................29
Suggestions for Self-Editing and Peer Editing ..................................................................30
Grammar ....................................................................................................................................32
Parts of Speech .....................................................................................................................32
Sentences...............................................................................................................................33
Problems with Sentences.....................................................................................................35
Improving Your Grammar.....................................................................................................37
Punctuation Guide (Simplified)............................................................................................40
Style............................................................................................................................................43
How to Write Without Sounding Sexist...............................................................................43
Transitional Words and Phrases .........................................................................................45
Improving Your Style ............................................................................................................46
Speaking and Listening................................................................................................ 48
Overcoming the Fear of Speaking in Class............................................................................48
Listening Skills..........................................................................................................................48
Viewing........................................................................................................................... 51
The Language of Film...............................................................................................................51
The Role of Visual Communication.........................................................................................52
The Visual Elements .............................................................................................................53
Understanding Fonts ............................................................................................................53
Presenting...................................................................................................................... 60
Making Class Presentations ....................................................................................................60
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Contents
Appendix A .................................................................................................................... 66
Literary Terms for Grade 10 Students ....................................................................................66
Appendix B .................................................................................................................... 67
Commonly Confused Words....................................................................................................67
Appendix C .................................................................................................................... 70
Strategies for Taking Multiple Choice Tests ..........................................................................70
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Introduction
This Guide for Students was developed by our teachers to help students learn and understand the
technical skills that form the basis of a successful high school experience in the English Language
Arts. Like our students, it is a “work in progress”; that is to say that it is neither a final and finished
work, nor is it perfect. It will grow, change, and improve with you as you progress through your
education.
As you begin your first year at Sir Winston Churchill High School, we welcome you with enthusiasm
and optimism. We have every expectation that you come to us prepared to work, to learn, and to
succeed.
The English Language Arts Department has an enduring and proud tradition of academic excellence
and achievement. With the hope that you will continue to develop habits of successful scholarship,
we offer you some advice based on our experience with the thousands of outstanding students who
came to us before you:
•
Review your English notes and literary terms regularly, even if this is not assigned
homework.
•
Read actively, writing notes and keeping track of observations as you read.
•
Articulate your learning goals.
•
Determine the best ways of studying or preparing for different types of tests and
assignments.
•
Consciously plan the most effective strategies to approach a test or assignment.
•
Consistently read pieces of literature that we are studying more than once, even if this is
not assigned by your teacher.
•
Enthusiastically contribute ideas in small group discussions.
•
Willingly and frequently contribute ideas in large group discussions.
•
Consistently use class time effectively and efficiently.
•
Read regularly, even if reading is not assigned for homework.
•
Read newspapers, magazines, short stories, plays, essays or novels for pleasure.
•
Connect the ideas in the literature that we read to your own life and experiences, and
connect ideas presented in the texts we study
•
Think about the ideas presented in the literature we are studying even after we have
finished discussing the piece in class.
•
Develop a strong, clear, and internalized understanding of the ‘language of literature’.
(That is, know and properly use the terms that are used to discuss literature intelligently
and effectively.)
•
Do not rely on what other people say in class to form the basis of your interpretation of a
piece of literature.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
•
Seek extra help when you are unsure of a concept or need some feedback on a project.
•
Follow up with your teacher if you miss a class for any reason to find out what must be
done for class that day. (Or, phone a friend you can trust.)
•
Keep up to date on world events (by watching the news or reading the newspaper regularly)
and connect these events with the ideas presented in the literature we read.
•
Take advantage of opportunities to participate in the arts by attending theatrical or musical
performances.
•
Pay attention to the ‘details’ in the works that we read and consistently ask yourself the
question “why might the author have included this?”
•
Be familiar with at least 10 reading/reflecting strategies you can access to help you come to
an understanding of a piece of literature.
•
Regularly bring a dictionary to class.
•
Always look up a reference in a work that you are not familiar with.
•
Be comfortable working individually, and in small and large group settings.
•
Understand what skills are required to make effective oral presentations.
•
Have a valid Calgary Public Library card.
•
Be consistently conscious of spelling and grammar.
•
Always spend time editing and proofreading your work. Look closely at marking
guidelines to ensure your work meets the necessary criteria.
•
Understand the conventions of writing a proper theme statement.
•
Be familiar with several strategies to use in the introduction of a piece of writing.
•
Recognize and understand the elements of design and the strategies used in visual text.
•
Develop strong critical viewing skills.
•
Give every assignment your best effort.
•
Enthusiastically accept challenges.
•
Willingly explore new ideas and concepts.
•
Be an active participant in explorations.
•
Speak and write honestly and passionately about your ideas and opinions.
•
CARE!
The Department of English Language Arts
Sir Winston Churchill High School
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Reading
Reading
“Reading provides students with a means of accessing the ideas, perspectives and
experiences of others. By using effective reading strategies, students construct meaning and
develop thoughtful and critical understandings and interpretations of a variety of texts. They
also use reading strategies to reconstruct the meanings of others.”*
Becoming a Better Reader**
Reading involves a combination of skills which must be practiced; so, read every day. You have to
read a lot to become a good reader.
When you read, picture in your mind what you read. This is very important. It is called "visualizing."
Good readers see in their heads what is happening in a story. Many students today have a difficult
time visualizing what they read because they have gotten so used to watching television and movies
where things are laid out in front of them without having to think. A good reader needs to see what
she or he is reading. One has to think. The more you read, the better reader you will be.
When you find a reference (called an allusion) to something you do not know much about, such as a
historical occurrence, a myth or a Bible story, look it up. This will help you to understand why the
author has referred to that event or story, and try to relate it to the story you are reading.
Remember that even when you are reading fiction you can learn. Good readers, over time, come to
know a lot about many things, which they pick-up when they are reading. In addition, the more you
learn, the more you will understand. It is like a snowball rolling downhill: the farther it rolls, the bigger
it gets. The more you read, the more you will understand.
*
**
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
Adapted from documents prepared by AACTchRdg, AAC Staff. Use of this material is protected under America Online and
other copyright. Any use of this material must cite AOL's Academic Assistance Center and the author as a source. (edited
by AACTchrAmy) (05/99)
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Reading
Reading Strategies (Practical and Philosophical)
1.
Maintaining Focus
• While you read, avoid distractions such as conversation, music — especially music with
lyrics, and thoughts unrelated to what you are reading. Contrary to popular belief, we
cannot thoroughly understand multiple messages at the same time;
• “White noise” is okay for most people;
• If you own the book and do not mind writing in it, use a highlighter to bring out important
passages you will want to review; use a pen or pencil to write interactive notes;
• Keep a separate sheet, with page references, for your impressions of characters and their
important actions, thoughts, values, morals, and for important quotations
• If the book is not yours and you cannot write in it, use yellow “stickies” to mark and
comment upon important passages;
• Whenever possible, buy used books that are already highlighted and with marginalia—the
thoughts of others might focus your own.
2.
Reading Habits and Preferences
• Learning to approach literature in a thoughtful and reflective way is rewarding and
enjoyable; however, it is also challenging. Developing the ability to take an analytical
approach towards literature requires practice and discipline.
• Literature’s grand themes require us to think about characters and their choices. They
also require us to think about, and make sense of, these choices in terms of our own
lives. “Fiction” that is action driven does not; so, it does not develop the vital ability to be
introspective about one’s life and connected to the world around us. (In other words, if
you are currently reading “popular fiction”, expect to think critically in order to “get”
Literature.);
• Television programs and other media that are “dumbed-down” (i.e., their messages are
so blunt that you need not interpret them), can dull our ability to interpret ideas objectively
and insightfully because they convey the simple view that there are only two ways to look
at a given situation.
3.
Unfamiliar Words
• Buy a dictionary and thesaurus, and use them;
• Work at understanding word origins (etymology) and groupings. Seeing patterns in roots,
prefixes, and suffixes, will help you “guess” meaning more accurately;
• Decode meaning through the way a word is used (usage) and the words around it
(context);
• Read diverse material to build a varied vocabulary and to see the same words used with
different connotations (associated meaning) and denotations (dictionary definitions);
• Convince yourself that nothing is more important than human language, the origin of
words, their meaning, and their use;
• Understand that everything you want to do in life requires language;
• Because English has borrowed words from just about every other culture, studying other
languages will help you see the same words in a different way; taking Latin will increase
your vocabulary the most, especially if you plan on entering any profession, such as law,
medicine, zoology, or archaeology, that still demand more than a rudimentary familiarity
with Latin words;
• Learning the logic of another language’s grammar should also help you see the logic
in the grammar of English.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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4.
Reading
The Reading and Writing Connection
• Your ability to read intelligently and deeply is directly related to your writing skill,
especially in Thought and Detail. (How can you possibly write intelligently about a work
of literature that you have not understood beyond the basics of “who does what where”?);
Reading Tips
This list of reading tips is by no means comprehensive. It does, however, provide you with a set of
strategies to help you begin to develop your interpretation and analysis.
1. Size up the piece before we begin. Articulate your genre expectations and adjust your reading
according to the type of literature you are reading (short story, play, novel, poetry, essay, article,
etc.)
2. Examine the piece to get a sense of what it is. (Check out the cover, the print size, the title, the
additional information given, the illustrations, the hook, etc.)
3. Read assuming the author is trying to reveal a truth.
4. Try to relate the literature to your own life and experiences.
5. Find key lines. Write these out (or underline, or highlight). Mark up the piece. It may be worth
copying a particularly challenging story so that you can highlight important parts and make
annotations.
6. Re-read. Just like a good CD gets better as you play it more, a well-written story should improve
as you re-read it. Subtle complexities may only be revealed after several readings.
7. Look for the basics. Identify the setting, the conflict(s), the main characters, and the point of view.
Note any repetition.
8. Determine whether or not the piece is a recollection.
9. Ask yourself whether or not setting seems to be significant. If so, what role(s) does it serve?
10. Pay attention to how language reveals characters’ personalities and motivations.
11. Turn the title into a question to help you predict what the story might be about.
12. Picture the story in your mind. Make “movies” in your head. See the setting and feel the mood.
13. Read slowly to “hear” in your head. You may need to slightly exaggerate the punctuation in order
to do this effectively.
14. Identify the literary devices and try to determine their purpose and effect in the story. (For
example, what is the symbol and what does it symbolize? What is the impact of the dramatic
irony? What purpose does the figurative language serve?)
15. Review the questions at the end of the piece.
16. Paraphrase difficult passages into your own language. In some places, it may be useful to
rearrange or reorder sentences.
17. When circumstances allow, read the piece out loud and/or discuss it with others.
18. Ask questions as you are reading. (For example, ask yourself what the author is trying to tell you.
Or, ask yourself, “Why is this here?”)
19. Pay attention to word choices. Identify connotations and look up the denotations of any words
that are not familiar to you.
20. Research any allusions that are not familiar to you.
21. If you are really stuck, research the author. It may provide a clue as to where to start your
analysis.
22. Ask yourself if you (as the reader) are feeling what the main character is feeling.
23. Check pronoun references. (This is particularly important in poetry and Shakespeare.)
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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Reading
Levels of Reading Literature
Reading occurs on three critical and equally important levels. We cannot read at the deeper
levels without first understanding the surface levels, but sometimes these processes occur
concurrently.
Level One: Reading for Information
Summary: When reading at this level, we are gathering information that is not open to interpretation.
This information would answer some or all of the who, what, when, and where questions.
Questions:
•
•
•
•
Who is in the story or poem? (Character)
What actions do they take? What actions are taken upon them? (Plot)
Where and when does the story take place? (Setting)
In what manner is the story told? (Narration)
Observe:
•
•
•
Characterization (discussed later)
Plot/Conflict (discussed later)
Milieu (social, religious, political, economic, and cultural influences upon
setting)
Narration (discussed later)
•
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Reading
Level Two: Reading for Understanding
Summary: When reading at this level, we are grasping the subtleties of the Conflict. (Conflict is
central to literature and exists everywhere in life; without Conflict, literature would not exist as such or
would be deathly dull and non-instructive.)
Questions:
•
•
•
•
Observe:
•
•
•
What is the story or poem’s central conflict or tension?
What is the motivation of each character? (What do these characters want
from themselves, others, the situation, and life?)
What do their motives reveal about them?
Characterization (How do these characters reveal themselves via their
thoughts, words, and actions?)
Plot/Conflict (What is the motive of each character?)
Narration (What does the author reveal to us about character? What does
the author have others say or think about the character?)
Relationships between characters:
• Family
• Class, Status, and Power
• Friends and Foes
• Natural and Supernatural
Level Three: Reading for Application
Summary: When reading at this level, we are processing and then applying theme (a universal truth
about or insight into humans, human behavior, and human nature); we ask (and answer for)
ourselves what major idea the work explores. While doing these things, we are applying this new
idea in our thoughts, feelings, and, eventually, actions.
Questions:
•
•
•
•
What would my life be like if I were like these characters?
What would the world be like if everyone/no one were like them?
What in the behavior of these characters do I see in myself and wish I didn’t?
What in the behavior of these characters do I not see in myself and wish I
did?
Observe:
•
Characters that undergo a major change, or receive a major insight, known as
an epiphany.
This change or epiphany will often tell you what the story or poem “is about”
or “means.” (Their learning experience can be your learning experience.)
•
Other Questions: For Gaining an Appreciation for and Understanding of
Literature:
1. What are the predominant characteristics of the major characters in the story?
2. Do you know people with these characteristics?
3. How do these characteristics help or hinder them in life? (How do these characteristics solve
or create conflict?)
4. If the world were “run” by the antagonist or the protagonist, what would it look like?
5. What statement about people and life is the author making through these characters and their
conflicts?
6. What meaning does this have in your own life or the lives of the people around you?
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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Reading
Reading for Theme Rather than Plot
It is important to note that, at the high school level, plot will rarely be the focus of literary
analysis. “Theme” may be described as “the author’s commentary on the central idea of a
work and the affect of that idea on our lives.”
Reading For Plot
vs.
Reading For Theme
•
Plot is concrete. You can (or should be
able to) read a story and say it is about
a certain topic, with certain characters,
features a certain plot progression, it
takes place in a certain setting(s), and
so on.
•
Theme is abstract. When you read a
story on a thematic level, it is more about
you (and the people you know, or
humanity as a whole) than it is about a
certain set of characters and a certain
plot. When reading for theme, you
should ask yourself how the story affects
you and what the world would be like if
everyone in it were like the people in this
story.
•
When reading for plot, character is not
as important as events or action.
•
When reading for theme, character,
especially characters’ motivation, is vital.
Why characters do what they do is as
important — if not more so — than what
they do.
•
When reading for plot, conflict is
important only because it advances the
plot.
•
When reading for theme, conflict, and
the way characters respond to it, should
give us insight into ourselves, (and/or
humanity). In this context conflict
reveals deeper aspects of humanity.
•
When reading for plot, the resolution of
the conflict means that the story has
come, or is coming, to an end.
•
When reading for theme, the resolution
of the conflict is the beginning of
reflection for the reader. It allows us to
see what life, especially our lives, would
be like if we employed the same
behavior or made the same choices as
the characters in the story.
•
When reading for plot, the reader’s
engagement with the story ends when
the story ends. There is little, if
anything, learned, and no application for
the story. Such stories do not tend to
stick in the reader’s mind.
•
When reading for theme, the end of the
story signals a phase of deeper
engagement with the concepts
generated by the story. Anything that
might have been learned may remain
with the reader for years to come.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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Reading
Effective Reading Behaviours Checklist*
When
What
Before
Reading, I…
•
•
•
activate prior knowledge
understand task and set purpose
choose appropriate strategies
During
Reading, I…
•
•
•
focus attention
anticipate and predict
use fix-up strategies when
understanding breaks down
experiment with intonation and
emphasis
read fluently with attention to
phrasing and expression
use contextual analysis to
understand new terms
recognize important vocabulary and
references
use text structure to assist
comprehension
organize and integrate new
information
understand that the ultimate goal is
understanding
self-monitor comprehension
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Never
Sometimes
Usually
Often
Always
You know that you are stuck when…
•
•
•
•
•
•
After
Reading, I…
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
*
Your “inner voice” stops its conversation with the text, and you only hear the voice
pronouncing the words.
The camera inside your head shuts off, and you can no longer visualize what is
happening as you read.
Your mind begins to wander.
You cannot remember or retell what you have read.
You cannot get your clarifying questions answered.
Characters are reappearing in the text and you cannot recall who they are.
reflect on what I read
recognize that success is a result of
effort
summarize the major ideas of the
piece
evaluate the success of my
comprehension and reread points
where confusion occurred
seek necessary outside information
to clarify
ask questions
apply information/ discoveries to a
new situation
Adapted from Tovani, Chris, I Read It, But I Don’t Get It.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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Reading
Short Story Theory
Characteristics of the Short Story
1. General Characteristics
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
a fictional piece of prose, telling of an incident or event
based on one character
usually has three to six characters
deals with a conflict, thereby creating suspense
usually has, but does not require, a definite conclusion or outcome.
2. Point of View
The story may be written from a variety of perspectives:
a.
b.
c.
d.
omniscient – the thoughts and feelings of most characters are known by narrator
limited omniscient – the thoughts and feelings of one character are known
objective – from the perspective of an outside observer
first person – a character within the story tells the story using the word “I”.
3. Elements of Plot in the Short Story
a. Exposition – background information needed by the reader to help make sense of
the story.
• Exposition includes time, place, antecedent action (prior events that help
the reader make sense of subsequent events and may provide motivation),
atmosphere or mood.
b. Initial Incident – the first incident in the conflict or suspense of the story
c. Rising Action – complications that cast doubt on the resolution of the conflict.
d. Conflict – There are four main types of conflict:
• Man versus Man – the protagonist is pitted against another person or group
• Man versus Himself – the protagonist is pitted against some aspect of his
personality or nature
• Man versus Nature or the Environment – the protagonist is pitted against
large external forces.
• Man versus Society – the protagonist is pitted against the values or ideas
of his society.
e. Climax – A moment of great intensity in a literary work, generally bringing events to a
head and leading to the conclusion.
f. Resolution / Denouement – the set of events that bring the story to a close. The
author may explain the climax or what happens to the characters following the
climax. There are three basic types of endings:
• Happy – in which the protagonist successfully resolves the conflict
• Unhappy – in which the protagonist suffers from, or is beaten by the forces
against him
• Indeterminate – in which the protagonist neither wins nor loses. The
conflict is not solved.
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Reading
Poetry Theory
Deriving Meaning from Poetry
1. What event, situation, or experience does the poem describe or record?
2. Why has the poet written this poem? What message does he or she want to communicate?
3. What is the strongest emotion in the poem? Does it change?
4. What does the poet want those who read or hear the poem to feel?
5. Is the poem’s form important?
6. If you are having trouble applying the above questions, try the following. Poems are:
Concrete
•
The poem will describe some
literal event. If you do not
understand this literal event, you
will not understand the poem and
you will not be able to derive any
meaning at a deeper level.
•
Poetry is, above all, about feeling,
which will almost always be
personal, but it will also be
universal in that any reader (with a
bit of work, experience, and
understanding) can identify it and
identify with it.
•
Poetry can be about situations we
are not that familiar with, but it
must present us with, or make us
feel, feelings with which we are
familiar. If it fails to do this, the
poet has failed to communicate
and, thus, has failed to write a
poem.
Abstract
and
•
This literal event will probably
symbolize or stand for something else.
The poet might or might not give you
signs as to the meaning of these
symbols. If they are there, you must
follow them; if they are absent, and the
poem cannot be understood by
working with just the literal level, you
must work with the context of the
poem to gain an understanding of the
figurative level.
•
Because human nature is shared and
constant, poetry appeals to that which
all of us, regardless of race, religion,
creed, politics, wealth, gender, and so
on, have in common or can
understand. Thus, when it challenges
us, it should challenge our ability to
grasp ideas, values, moral, ethics, and
so on.
•
All of this means that you are as
responsible as the poet for making
meaning in poetry. As long as you
can point to the concrete text to
support your abstract text, your
interpretation is valid
Do not forget that, in addition to interpreting the poem, if you are working with a Personal Response
Question, you must keep the question in mind and look for key words in the poem and the question.
Your interpretation of the concrete and abstract meanings of the poem should be reshaped by the
Personal Response Question. Your response should include your interpretation shaped by the
question, references to the poem, and references to your experience.
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Reading
Understanding and Appreciating Poetry
In order to understand and appreciate a poem, consider the following:
1. The Craft of Poetry
•
Subject – What event, situation, or experience does the poem describe or record?
•
Theme – Why has the poet written this poem? What message does he or she want to
communicate?
•
Mood – What is the strongest emotion in the poem? What does the poet want those who
read or hear the poem to think or feel?
•
Technique – What literary and poetic techniques has the poet employed?
•
Structure – How is the poem structured? (See Types of Poems, below). What is the
poem’s metre (See scansion, also below).
•
Language – Is the poet’s use of words effective. Are the words appropriate to the
poem’s theme?
•
Imagery – What figures of speech (see below) does the poet employ? Are they
effective?
•
Movement, Sounds -- Does the poem rhyme? What is the effect of this rhyme, or lack
thereof? Does the poet use sounds such as onomatopoeia, alliteration, or assonance?
2. Figures of Speech
•
Based on Comparison -- Look up the following terms: simile, metaphor, personification,
analogy, hyperbole.
•
Based on Association -- Look up the following terms: symbolism, metonymy.
•
Based on Sound -- Look up the following terms: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia.
3. Other Effects of Language
•
Look up the following terms: apostrophe, antithesis, paradox, rhyme.
4. Scansion
a. Scansion is seeing the way the emphasis falls on syllables the poet uses. This
emphasis creates a rhythm the poet and reader must observe ( Stressed = / ) (
Unstressed = u ).
Iamb ( u / ), Anapest ( u u / ), Trochee ( / u ), Dactyl ( / u u ), Spondee ( / / ), Pyrrhic
( u u ).
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Reading
b. Scansion is also counting metre, the number of syllables in a line.
• Monometre = one foot,
• Dimetre = two feet,
• Trimetre = three feet,
• Tetrametre = four feet,
• Pentametre = five feet,
• Hexametre = six feet,
• Heptametre = seven feet,
• Octametre = eight feet.
c.
•
Scansion is also paying attention to the length of stanzas, or groups of lines.
• Couplet = two lines,
• Triplet = three lines,
• Quatrain = four lines,
• Cinquain = five lines,
• Sestet = six lines,
• Septet = seven lines,
• Octave = eight lines.
Types of Poems
Look up the following terms:
Ballad
Blank Verse
Concrete Poetry
Dramatic Monologue
Elegy
Epigram
Free Verse
Light Verse
Lyric
Narrative
Ode
Prose Poem
Imagination of Poetry
Sonnet
Tercet
Found Poetry
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 14
English
Writing
Writing
“Writing enables students to explore, shape and clarify their thoughts and to communicate
these thoughts to others. By using effective writing strategies, students discover and refine
ideas, and compose and revise with increasing confidence and skill.”*
Managing Your English Assignments
A.
When submitting an English assignment, please:
1.
B.
*
Staple and hand in your assignment in the following order:
•
Title Page (if one is required by your teacher; note: you need not illustrate it);
•
Good Copy (i.e., your final draft);
•
Rough Copy (i.e., earlier draft; if one is required by your teacher);
•
Outline (if one is required by your teacher);
2.
Do not use a cover;
3.
Place your assignment where directed by your teacher, or else risk losing it;
4.
Do not staple different assignments together or place them together;
5.
Expect your assignment back within four days or four weeks, depending on your
teacher’s marking load;
6.
Please note that some assignments, because of their nature or purpose, will not be
returned.
When receiving a marked English assignment:
1.
Read it with the marking criteria to see how your mark was determined;
2.
Meet with your teacher to address your questions;
3.
Take it home for your parents to see;
4.
Learn from your teacher’s comments, if s/he makes them, and make corrections (note:
some teachers prefer to give verbal rather than written feedback);
5.
Conference with your teacher if you are having trouble or if s/he requests it;
6.
Appeal outside of class, not in class, unless your teacher has time;
7.
Keep all marked assignments until the end of the semester.
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 15
English
Writing
Title Page
(if required for your assignment)
How to Submit Assignments*
By
Your Name
(or/and Your ID Number)
Teacher’s Name
ELA 10-1, Period ____
Or ELA 10-2, Period ____
Date Here
* Your title should do two things:
•
Tell your reader what he or she is about to read, and;
•
Make the reader want to read it.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 16
English
Writing
Format for All Written Work
The following are some simple guidelines for formatting your future assignments. Some of these
guidelines apply to all written assignments. Others are specific to word-processed or hand written
forms.
1.
At the top right corner of the first page of your assignment, indicate the following:
Your First and Last Name (or ID number, if required by your teacher)
Date (e.g., October 24, 2005)
English 20-1
Your Teacher’s Name
2.
Centered, above your assignment, indicate the following:
The Title of Your Paper (or Name of Assignment)
3.
At the top right corner of the second page, and subsequent pages, indicate the following:
Your last name and the page number
(e.g., Doe, page 2)
4.
5.
6.
Word-processing:
•
For most assignments, use a standard font. Do not get creative with font choice
unless there is a very good reason for doing so (i.e., it is a creative project.)
•
Use 10 point Arial or 12 point Times Roman type
•
Double space (1.5 spacing is also acceptable).
•
Leave a 1 inch margin on all sides
Hand written work:
•
Use blue or black ink. Assignments in any other colour, or in pencil without prior
agreement, are unacceptable.
•
Double space (to allow room for me to write comments).
•
Use white, 8½” x 11”, “clean edged” paper (i.e., not ripped from coil notebooks)
All assignments:
•
Use only the front of the page (punched holes on the left side of the page).
•
Correct mistakes with correction fluid or one neat stroke through the error. If you
use correction fluid, wait for it to dry before writing on it.
•
Staple or bind all pages together.
•
Indent new paragraphs. It is not necessary to skip a line for new paragraphs.
Proofread and edit all written work!
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 17
English
Writing
Writing for Theme Rather than Plot
It is important to note that, at the high school level, plot will rarely be the focus of literary
analysis. “Theme” may be described as “the author’s commentary on the central idea of a
work and the affect of that idea on our lives.”
Writing for Plot
vs.
Writing for Theme
•
When writing about plot, there is too
much summary and too little analysis of,
or focus on, meaning. Remember that
the reader of your paper already knows
the story so you do not need to retell it
to them.
•
When writing about theme, the primary
focus is on the meaning(s) generated by
the story and the insights about these
meaning(s) taken by the reader.
•
When writing about plot, analysis is
usually incidental, and is probably there
only to support the summary of the plot.
•
•
This writing is derivative (in other words,
it is more the author’s than it is the
student’s).
When writing about theme, any summary
is incidental, and is there to support
analysis. Such writing should be
primarily about the insights and
observations that the student has taken
from the story.
•
Writing about plot is rather shallow more
often than not. By the high school level
your teachers expect you to only use
plot as a means of delving into deeper
reflections.
•
Reading for theme leads to insight into
deeper meaning(s), and encourages the
reader to make judgments about such
insights. So, when writing with a
thematic focus, the student has a far
greater chance of creating a paper that is
authentic and original.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 18
English
Writing
Quoting from Literary Sources*
When writing an essay based on a literary work, it is sometimes necessary to quote from the work to
support or illustrate your assertions. The following is a guide for doing so.
1. Quotations have three parts:
a. You must Set the Context—tell your reader a bit about the context in which the
quotation occurs.
• Who is speaking? To whom is this person speaking? Why?
• What will the reader of your paper need to know about the quotation to make
sense of the story, the assignment, your thesis, or the particular point you are
making?
b. Give the Quote. Set it in proper quotation marks, ascribe it properly, and end it
properly. (See below)
c.
Analyze the Quote. The quote is meaningless until you talk about its meaning in
relation to the literature, the assignment, your thesis, or the particular point you are
making.
2. A series of properly introduced, quoted, and ascribed quotations do NOT an essay
make.
•
In other words, it is better to refer accurately and discuss clearly than it is to
merely memorize and string a bunch of accurate quotations together without
connection or apparent understanding.
3. Quotations should either be Embedded or Blocked:
a. Embedded quotations are, oddly enough, embedded into your sentence. For
example:
Hemingway’s writing in The Old Man and the Sea is vivid and pulsating. For example,
when describing the fishing expedition, he says “It was difficult in the dark and once
the fish made a surge that pulled him down on his face and made a cut below his eye”
(p.52), making readers feel the intensity of the pursuit and catch.
They can be embedded with some of your writing preceding, following, or both.
b. Blocked quotations are used for quotations of more than four lines (or 40 words) and,
especially, for dialogue in plays so that you can ascribe this dialogue without the
bulky devices of “he said . . . and then she said . . . and then he replied . . . and then
she went…”
When blocking a quote, justify it from the left and the right, singlespace it (the rest of your essay should be double-spaced, and do not
use quotation marks. The fact that you have single-spaced it,
separating it physically and intellectually from the rest of your essay
tells your reader that it is a quotation. Place the page number at the
end on the right.
(p.52)
*
Adapted from: Mr. Jones’ Course Guide, Page 26-29
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 19
English
Writing
If you are blocking dialogue, you do not need to justify:
Romeo:
Mercutio:
Romeo:
Mercutio:
I dreamt a dream tonight.
And so did I.
Well, what was yours?
That dreamers often lie.
(Act I, scene iv, lines 52-55)
4. Never begin a body paragraph with a quotation.
•
The Essay is a form that allows you to express your opinions and perhaps
persuade readers that they should share them. The thoughts of others cannot
replace yours.
5. Never end a paragraph with a quotation.
•
If you use a quotation, you need to comment on it.
6. Never use a quotation without good reason.
•
Don’t throw one in simply because you feel you have to. If it does nothing, it
detracts from your argument rather than adding to it.
7. Make sure the quotation you are using is the best (the most apt) available.
•
The more your quotation supports your point, the more clear and forceful your
point will be.
8. Do not ignore quotations that contradict your argument.
•
Acknowledging a portion or all of an opposing argument is an excellent way to
remove it.
9. The meaning of the quotation must not be changed.
•
“Mr. X drinks a lot . . .” is vastly different from “Mr. X drinks a lot of water” and it is
intellectually dishonest of you to fool your reader this way.
10. If you exclude words from a quote, show where with ellipsis (three dots, four in a row
if they end your sentence).
11. If you add or change words, show where with square brackets.
•
Use these only for clarity, not because your hand or brain is tired and you do not
feel like writing or typing the whole passage.
12. Quotations appear in double quotation marks, followed by the page number in
parenthetical marks, followed by your punctuation, if necessary.
•
Punctuation is usually either a period, if you are ending your sentence, or a
comma, if you are incorporating the quote into the rest of it.
13. When you are quoting a passage that includes another quotation or dialogue, use
double quotation marks for the main quote and single quotation marks for the
secondary quote.
•
For example, “Juliet said to Romeo, ‘If they do see thee, they will murder thee.’ ”
14. `When embedding poetry or a play in verse, use a slash to indicate line endings (so
that you do not have to end your line every time the poet or playwright does).
15. When quoting poetry, give the line numbers, even if you have to count them yourself
to do so.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 20
English
•
•
•
•
Writing
When quoting plays, give act number, scene number, and line numbers, if the
play gives them.
If the text uses Arabic numerals, use them; if it uses Roman numerals, you may
choose between them and Arabic numerals.
Line numbers will always be in Arabic numerals.
If the text is using Roman numerals, the Act will be in upper and the scene will be
in lower. You can formulate it as follows:
a. Act I, scene i, line 1
b. I, i, 1
16. A quick primer on Arabic and Upper- and Lower-Case Roman numerals:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
8
9
10
50
100
1000
VIII
IX
X
L
C
MM
viii
ix
x
l
c
mm
17. The titles of novels, books, plays, and longer poems are underlined.
•
The rule is if they can be published on their own, in their own book, they get
underlined.
18. The titles of short stories and poems appear in quotation marks.
•
The rule is that they are so short they must appear with others in an anthology, a
collection of literary works, which is then underlined.
19. The titles of films can appear either underlined or in quotation marks, NOT both.
•
They are, usually, in formal writing, in BLOCK LETTERS.
20. Titles of songs are in quotation marks.
21. There is never an instance or reason to both “underline a title and put it into
quotation marks!”
22. “All Major Words in a Title Get Capitalized.”
•
Non-Major Words, such as as, a, an, or, or the, “Get Capitalized Only if They
Begin the Title.”
23. Always include a page number when quoting from a literary source.
•
If the title of the work is apparent from your title, you do not need to give it. If it is
not, give it only the first time you quote from the work.
•
If you are referring to more than one work, you may refer to them by the name of
the author; unless two or more of the works are by the same author.
24. You do not need a page number if you are referring rather than quoting.
25. Buy and consult a good reference book for Examples of Bibliographic Forms.
26. Consult with your teachers; they may have personal preferences when it comes to
these rules.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 21
English
Writing
Prose Forms That Develop Personal Response to
Texts*
Note:
all forms require a beginning, middle and an end. How each is developed and the manner of
expression depends on the prose form. Ultimately, remember that there are time
constrictions and that your audience is a group of educated and literate evaluators.
Form
Development
•
Blog
CD Inlay
•
•
List of songs
Biography of the
performer(s)
Discussion of the
music
Depends on the audience
and the style of music.
Identify context
Discussion developed
around ideas
Summary Statements
Dependent upon participants
and intended audience.
Identify the context
and establish your
opinion
Examples to support
opinion
Reasons for opinion
Restate opinion
Evokes an emotional reaction
Tone depends on subject
matter
•
Identify context
Questions and
Answers
Summary Statements
Dependent on interviewer
and interviewee. These
should reflect the intended
audience.
•
•
•
Identify context
Develop ideas
Draw conclusion
•
•
•
•
•
•
Interview
Journal/Diary
*
Usually some level of opinion
and persuasion.
include Title, Body,
URL, Post
•
Editorial Column
Depends on audience. Who
will be reading this and why?
•
•
Dialogue
Identify context,
Reverse chronological
order, Combines text
and images, Opinion
based
Style/Tone (Voice)
•
•
With thanks to C.P. Hetherington from Central Memorial HS.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 22
English
Writing
Letter
•
•
•
•
Greeting
Introduce Idea
Develop with support
Closing
Depends on the audience.
(i.e. friend, relative, business
associate, editor, etc.)
Memoir
•
•
•
Rationale
Develop ideas
Draw conclusion
Depends on audience. Who
will be reading this and why?
Newspaper Article
•
•
Inverted pyramid plan
Begin with the
essentials 5 W’s
Add details in order of
importance
Report objectively
Limit details to the facts
Deceased’s full name
and date of birth
Recount the main
events in the person’s
life.
Acknowledge
survivors
Announce when and
where the funeral,
burial, wake and/or
memorial service will
take place.
sombre, nostalgic,
reminiscent
•
Obituary
•
•
•
Pamphlets /
Travel Literature
•
•
•
Headings
Identify context
a few small images
which contribute to
the text
clear, concise and coherent
depends on the purpose and
audience
Parable
•
•
SCP (setting, conflict,
point of view)
Moral / Theme
Tone is a convention as are
the style choices. (e.g.,
Characters are often animals)
Rant (Caution!)
•
•
•
Introduce Idea
Develop with support
Closing
Style is still developing.
Incorporates an adamant
tone and usually strong on
poetic devices.
Reflective Writing
(Essay)
•
Identify inspiration for
reflection.
Develop ideas
regarding the topic.
Draw conclusions
Writing may be developed
through metaphors, personal
experience, literary
references, etc.
•
•
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 23
English
Writing
Script
•
Similar to short story
in that SCPTs
(setting, conflict, point
of view, theme) must
be included
Form is with separation of
dialogue and context.
Short Story
•
SCPT
Intended target audience:
Children, teens, men/women,
athletes, artists, etc.
Speech
•
•
•
•
Greeting
Introduce Idea
Develop with support
Closing
Depends on the audience.
(club members, political rally,
colleagues, family reunion,
etc.)
Tabloid Article
•
Mirrors format of
Newspaper article
Inverted pyramid plan
Begin with the
essentials 5 W’s
Add details in order of
importance
Report subjectively
Details have little to do with
facts
Exaggeration and Rumour
•
•
•
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 24
English
Writing
The Essay
The Parts of an Essay
The Introduction
1. The Lead
a. Get the reader’s attention.
b. May be an anecdote, a challenge, a joke, a shocking statistic, one person’s experience, a
description, a question, or a quotation.
2. The Connector
a. A transitional phrase or sentence that serves as a bridge from the lead sentence to the
thesis (main idea) statement.
3. The Thesis Statement
a. The most important part of the introductory paragraph.
b. A generalized statement that tells the reader:
i. What the topic (main idea) is.
ii. How you will limit the topic.
iii. How you will organize the topic.
c. May be one or more sentences, depending on the complexity of the thesis.
d. A thesis clearly and concisely conveys the writer's main argument in an essay, and it
allows readers to clearly grasp the focus of the essay, which will be developed in the
body of the work.
i. An effective thesis cannot be answered with a simple “yes” or “no”.
e. Example:
i. Judy Syfer's essay, "I Want a Wife," exaggerates the marital expectations facing
women in our society today. Those expectations include managing a household,
maintaining a career, and having a good relationship with a spouse.
Body Paragraphs
1. Topic Sentence
a. Alerts the reader as to which aspect of the thesis statement you are covering in this
particular paragraph.
b. Usually located at the beginning of the paragraph.
2. Specific Support
a. Provide details from the literary text as evidence to persuade the reader to believe what
you are saying.
The Conclusion
1. Rephrase or summarize the thesis.
2. Restate the key points that you covered in the body paragraphs.
3. Conclude with a statement that proves your thesis (main idea).
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 25
English
Writing
Essay Writing
4.
Lead: Get the reader’s attention with:
An anecdote
A shocking statistic
A question
A Challenge
One Person’s Experience
A Quotation
A Joke
A Description
Connector
Use a transitional phrase or sentence that clearly shows
the relationship of the initial ideas in the paragraph to the
concluding thesis statement.
The last sentence of the introductory
paragraph, it should clearly state the
main point the paper makes
Thesis
Tell the reader what to expect.
Body Paragraphs
Be sure to include all of the following components:
• topic sentence
• supporting evidence in the body sentences
• a closing sentence.
Follow this same format as you write the second and third body paragraphs.
• Save your best point for the last paragraph
• Start with your second-best point
Rephrase
Summarize the subject of the essay
Recap Supporting
Evidence
Explain what you concluded about the
essay
Big Idea Related to Thematic Issue
Summarize how the information in the body of your
essay proves your point.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 26
English
Writing
Writing an Outline for an Essay
“If you could sit down to write what you have thought and not sit down to think what you
will write, the difficulties in actually putting words to paper would lessen. You can do so if
you approach writing gradually by planning ahead or pre-writing.”
—
Harry Shaw, Handbook of English, page 381.
Brain-storming, thought-webbing, mind-mapping, and other similar techniques are great for getting
your ideas flowing, but not great for putting them in logical order. All writing, regardless of type, has a
beginning, a middle, and an end. The Essay, however, is more formal and thus has more rigid and
disciplined requirements. It also has a beginning, a middle, and an end, but certain things must be
done in each section.
Please note: An Essay for English and an Essay for Social Studies are vastly different. In an
English Essay, your Introduction states your thesis, and the rest of the Essay proves it or, at least,
explains it; in a Social Studies Essay, your Introduction explores a concept that you work toward
accepting or rejecting in your conclusion.
1)
Introductory Paragraph
a. Lead Sentence (Get the reader’s attention.)
b. Connector Sentence (Connect your lead sentence to your thesis statement)
c. Thesis Statement (Introduce the key points, preferably at least three that you will
expand further in your body paragraphs.)
2)
Body Paragraph #1
a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph — the second most important key
point from the thesis statement.)
b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being
studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)
c. Transition Sentence (Indicate that you are moving to the next paragraph and topic.)
3)
Body Paragraph #2
a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph — the third most important key
point from the thesis statement.)
b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being
studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)
c. Transition Sentence (Indicate that you are moving to the next paragraph and topic.)
4)
Body Paragraph #3
a. Topic Sentence (Identify the topic of the paragraph — the most important key point
from the thesis statement.)
b. Support (Provide pieces of evidence, preferably taken directly from the text being
studied, that support your topic. Ideally, use Significant Sections.)
5)
Conclusion
a. Rephrase the Thesis Statement in the first sentence of the Conclusion.
b. Briefly summarize the key ideas presented in the three body paragraphs.
c. Make a broad sweeping statement about the central theme of your essay.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 27
English
Writing
Hints for Writing Good Essays
1. Writing should be logically sound and grammatically correct.
a. Leave out irrelevant information.
b. Try not to appeal strictly to emotion (When writing Literary Essays, strive to
be objective rather than subjective, and rational rather than emotional).
c. Present your thoughts and supporting details clearly and coherently.
d. Be concise (i.e., Economy of Style), using the fewest words necessary to
convey your meaning.
e. Grammar should be correct, and your “voice” should reflect usage by the
educated population.
2. Diction (word choice and arrangement) should be precise and specific.
a. Avoid slang. Use the correct word to convey your meaning (e.g., Do not use
“paranoid” when you mean “suspicious”.)
b. Anticipate questions; arrange your message so that the reader cannot
misunderstand you. If the reader is confused about the writer’s meaning, it
is the writer’s problem.
3. Consider your audience.
a. Use words that the reader will understand and appreciate.
b. Use a respectful tone to your reader and to your topic.
c. Organize your points in a logical and emphatic manner.
4. Consider revising your work.
a. Make as many revisions as necessary to ensure that
1. it says what you want it to say, the way you want to say it;
2. it is clear, concise, and coherent;
3. it is grammatically correct.
5. Proofread carefully
a. You want the reader to take your work seriously — show that you do too!
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 28
English
Writing
The Thesis Statement: Some Caveats and Examples *
*
•
A thesis is a Statement of Opinion or Fact.
•
A thesis is never a question. Readers of academic essays expect to have questions
discussed, explored, or even answered.
•
A thesis is never a list.
•
A thesis should never be vague, combative or confrontational. It can, however, be original,
challenging, and thought provoking.
•
An effective thesis has a definable, arguable claim.
•
A thesis should be as clear and specific as possible. Avoid overused, general terms and
abstractions.
Copyright 1999, Maxine Rodburg and The Tutors of the Writing Center at Harvard University
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 29
English
Writing
Suggestions for Self-Editing and Peer Editing
Have you ever been told to peer-edit or self-edit without being told how to do either of these important
tasks? There is, a method for editing, whether it is used for your work or for a classmate’s. If you
break the work into its constitute parts and then examine those parts for certain things, you will
improve the quality of your writing, your ability to edit, and the quality of others' writing.
1. Begin with the work as a whole. In other words, examine the writer's purpose and
organization. Ask yourself: What does the writer want to achieve, and has the writing been
organized in a way that achieves or facilitates that purpose? When editing a literary essay,
ask yourself if the following necessary parts are present and doing what they are supposed to
do. (Note: These tips are most suitable for the literary essay. See your teacher for the
structure of other types of essays and writing.):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Is there an Introduction that contains the Title, Author, and a Summary of the literature
to be discussed?
Does the Introduction have a Thesis Statement or Controlling Idea that is rational,
defensible, and related to the brief summary of the literature?
Does the thesis statement include, or is it followed by, Three Reasons or Hooks that
show the thesis statement is the result of consideration of the literature and map the
direction in which the essay will develop?
Has any explanation of the reasons for the thesis statement been saved for the Body
Paragraphs?
Do the Body Paragraphs follow the order the writer set out in the Introduction with the
three reasons?
Do the Body Paragraphs develop these reasons with supporting details, examples,
explanations, references, and quotations?
Are any references to and quotations of the literature the best examples to prove the
writer's assertions?
Are all quotations commented upon and documented properly?
Has the writer used transitions for supporting evidence within a paragraph and from
paragraph to paragraph?
Has the writer included a Concluding Paragraph that brings the writing to a sense of
finality but at the same time makes the reader look beyond the paper to his or her life or
the lives of others?
2. Look at the ideas in the Body Paragraphs. Are they suitable to the literature and to the
thesis statement expressed about it? Are they complex and well-stated or merely straightforward and uninsightful or superficial? Do they increase your understanding of the literature,
life, people around you, and yourself, or are they merely unoriginal confirmations or
rearrangements of previous thoughts?
3. Examine the structure of each of the paragraphs. Are they of sufficient length to
properly develop a complex topic or argument? Do the Body Paragraphs have strong Topic
Sentences that are clearly related to the thesis statement and which clearly tell the reader
what the Body Paragraph is to be about? Are these Topic Sentences followed by
Developmental Sentences that develop and prove ideas? Do the Body Paragraphs end
with a Concluding Sentence that brings the paragraph to a close?
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
Page 30
English
Writing
4. Consider the structure of each of the sentences in each of the paragraphs. Are the
sentences complete? In other words, has the writer avoided sentence-fragments and run-on
sentences? Do the sentences have variety? In other words, has the writer achieved a nice
combination of simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences?
5. Look at the components of the sentences; in other words, examine the sentences for word
choice, grammar, punctuation, spelling, and capitalization. (These are explained for you
in your Course Guide or will be explained for you in class, but you should take ownership of
your writing by getting guides such as The Elements of Style1 and The Elements of
Grammar2). Are choices superior, and are the mechanics correct?
6. Is the writing still missing something? Then it is probably still missing something! You are
going to have to develop an intuitive feel for what writing needs. This will come with practice
and experience, but only if you admit writing can be improved, and only if you are ruthless in
attempting to improve it.
1
Strunk, E.B., and White, E.B. (2000), The Elements of Style, Toronto: Longman
2
Shertzer, M. (1986), The Elements of Grammar, New York: MacMillan
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Writing
Grammar
Parts of Speech
Knowing the following terms will make your discussion of your writing more accurate.
1. Adjectives are used to modify or describe nouns or pronouns.
a. Descriptive Adjectives occur before the noun or pronoun they are describing:
•
e.g. red book, short answer, loud noise, soft touch.
2. Adverbs are used to modify a verb (ran quickly), an adjective (a very quick answer), or
another adverb (ran fairly quickly).
a. Most adverbs end in "ly."
b. Adverbs can be used to tell:
•
how (carefully),
•
when (today),
•
where (here), or
•
why (purposefully) an action was done.
3. Articles are a special type of adjective. There are three types: The, a, and an.
a. The is called The Definite Article because it refers to something specific.
•
e.g. The book; the man with the red hair.
b. A and an are called Indefinite Articles because they are not specific. They refer
generally to "any" or "one."
•
c.
e.g. A dog refers to any dog; An answer means one answer.
Use a in front of a word that begins with a consonant sound (a book, a youth) and
an in front of a word that begins with a vowel sound (an honour).
d. The n in an creates a glide so we do not have to perform a difficult guttural stop
between two vowel sounds.
4. Conjunctions are used to join words or groups of words and/or sentences. (see
“Sentences” for more detailed notes)
5. Nouns name people, places, things, ideas, qualities, and actions. Nouns can be:
a. Common (boy),
b. Proper (Sally),
c.
Concrete (book),
d. Abstract (Love)
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6. Pronouns take the place of nouns.
a. Pronouns can be
•
personal (he),
•
relative (who),
•
indefinite (someone),
•
demonstrative (those), or
•
interrogative (whose?).
b. Use a singular pronoun to replace a singular noun (he for boy) and a plural
pronoun to replace a plural noun (they for boys).
7. Prepositions are words that show a relationship between a noun or a pronoun and another
noun, another pronoun, or a verb.
a. The most common prepositions are "about," "above," "across," "after," "against,"
"along," "among," "around," "at," "before," "behind," "below," "beneath," "beside,"
"between," "beyond," "but," "by," "despite," "down," "during," "except," "for,"
"from," "in," "inside," "into," "like," "near," "of," "off," "on," "onto," "out," "outside,"
"over," "past," "since," "through," "throughout," "till," "to," "toward," "under,"
"underneath," "until," "up," "upon," "with," "within," and "without."
8. Verbs describe
a. action (hit, swim, eat) or
b. state of being (is, are, were, was).
Sentences
(also known as clauses)
1. A complete sentence:
a. has a subject.
•
The Subject is a noun or pronoun that is the person, place, or thing that the
sentence is about.
b. has a predicate.
•
c.
The Predicate is a verb that states the subject’s action (or existence).
expresses a complete thought.
•
A Complete Thought answers one or more of the “who, what, when, where,
why, or how questions.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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2. Sentence Types*
a. In English we have four types of sentences:
•
Simple
•
Compound
•
Complex
•
Compound – Complex.
b. Sentence types have nothing to do with sentence length; rather they are created by
the use of conjunctions (or the lack of conjunctions).
c.
Simple Sentence (expression of one full idea, includes both a subject and predicate)
•
Bob went to the store.
•
Bob and Sue went to the store.
•
Bob and Sue went to the store on the corner near the centre of town to buy groceries
and to get some drinks for the party.
d. Compound sentences (two complete sentences joined with either a semicolon or a
coordinating conjunction (BOYFANS) Remember: BOYFANS (but, or, yet, for, and,
nor, so — For and so can also act as subordinating conjunctions)
•
Bob went to the store, and Sue went to the office.
•
Bob went to the store; however, he forgot his wallet at home.
e. Complex sentences. These sentences use subordinate conjunctions to join a
dependant clause to an independent clause.
•
Frequently used subordinate conjunctions: after, since, when, although, so
that, whenever, as, where, because, than, whereas, before, that,
wherever, though, whether, if, which, in order that, till, while, lest, unless,
who, no matter, until, why, how, what, even though.
•
f.
Because the problem proved difficult, they decided to from a committee.
•
They decided to form a committee because the problem proved difficult.
•
The issue, which we thought we had solved, came back to haunt us.
Subordinate conjunctions can be found both at the beginning or the middle
of the sentence.
Compound –Complex Sentences. A compound-complex sentence is made up of
at least one dependent clause, and two or more independent clauses. These
sentences will include both a coordinating conjunction and a subordinating
conjunction.
•
*
•
Even if you fail, at least you tried, and you're a better person for it.
Adapted from: http://www.class.uidaho.edu/adv_tech_wrt/resources/sentence_style/sentence_types.htm
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English
Writing
Problems with Sentences*
1. Sentence Fragments
•
A sentence fragment is not a complete sentence. It usually lacks either a subject or a
verb, or both.
•
For example, three dogs and a goat. (no verb - what did the animals do?)
•
Studying too hard on weekends. (no subject - who was studying?)
•
Because I couldn't find my shoes. (contains a subject and verb, but is a
dependent clause)
2. Run-on Sentences: Fused Sentences and Comma Splices
•
A run-on sentence is one in which two or more independent clauses are
inappropriately joined.
•
Remember that the length of a sentence does not determine whether it is a run-on
sentence: a sentence that is correctly punctuated and correctly joined can be
extremely long.
•
Two types of run-on sentences are fused sentences and sentences with comma
splice errors.
1. In a fused sentence, clauses run into each other with no punctuation.
•
The experiment failed it had been left unobserved for too long.
2. A comma splice refers to the error of placing only a comma between two
complete sentences, without a connecting word such as and, but, or because.
•
The experiment failed, it had been left unobserved for too long.
3. A comma splice also occurs when commas are used before adverbial
conjunctions. (i.e., therefore, however, nevertheless, moreover,
consequently, as a result etc.) connecting two sentences.
NO:
The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, therefore it failed.
YES:
The experiment had been left unobserved for too long; therefore, it failed.
YES:
He wasn't prepared to defend a client who was guilty; however, he could be
persuaded to accept a bribe.
4. To correct a fused sentence or a comma splice error, you can use either
use a period, semi-colon, coordinating conjunction, or subordinating
conjunction.
*
•
The experiment failed. It had been left unobserved for too long.
•
The experiment failed; it had been left unobserved for too long.
•
The experiment had been left unobserved for too long, so it failed.
•
The experiment failed because it had been left unobserved for too long.
http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByFormat/OnlineResources/OnlineFastfacts/OnlineWritingFastfacts/
FastfactsImprovingSentenceStructure.html
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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3. Wordy Sentences
•
A loose sentence may result if you use too many "and" connectives when other
conjunctions would convey a more precise meaning.
•
John had a weight problem, and he dropped out of school.
•
•
Note the difference in meaning:
•
John had a weight problem so he dropped out of school.
•
John had a weight problem because he dropped out of school?
A wordy sentence also results from weak sentence construction and the inclusion of
many phrases and clauses in no particular order. For example:
1.
In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the
necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done, so with this end in mind
a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is scheduled
for February 12.
2. NOTE: Writing the previous passage as several sentences would be
more effective.
4. Choppy Sentences
•
A succession of short sentences, without transitions to link them to each other, results
in choppy sentences. (see transitions list)
NO:
Our results were inconsistent. The program obviously contains an error. We need to
talk to Paul Davis. We will ask him to review the program.
YES:
5.
We will ask Paul Davis to review the program because it gave us inconsistent results.
Excessive Subordination
•
Excessive subordination is not an effective substitute for choppiness.
NO:
Doug thought that he was prepared but he failed the examination which meant that
he had to repeat the course before he could graduate which he didn't want to do because it
would conflict with his summer job.
YES: Doug thought that he was prepared, but he failed the examination. Therefore, he
would have to repeat the course before he could graduate. He did not want to do that because
it would conflict with his summer job.
6.
Parallel Structure
•
Parts of a sentence which are in sequence must all follow the same grammatical or
structural principle.
NO:
I like to swim, to sail, and rowing.
YES:
I like to swim, to sail, and to row.
YES:
I like swimming, sailing, and rowing.
NO:
This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and
how they were solved.
YES:
This report is an overview of the processes involved, the problems encountered, and
the solutions devised.
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English
Writing
Improving Your Grammar*
1. Subject-Verb Agreement A verb should always agree with its subject.
a. Subject and verb agree even when words come between them.
•
•
•
The teacher, as well as her students, was pleased with the results of the test.
The design with its intricate patterns is especially clever.
The group of students is meeting now to discuss the tuition increase.
b. Two or more subjects joined by “and” take a plural verb.
•
The teacher and the students were pleased with the results of the test.
c. Singular subjects joined by “or” or “nor” take singular verbs; plural subjects joined by
“or” or “nor” take plural verbs.
•
•
Neither the professor nor her spouse was happy with the salary adjustment.
Neither the students nor their friends were pleased with the tuition increase.
d. When a singular subject and a plural subject are joined by “or” or “nor”, the verb
agrees with the subject closer to it.
•
•
Neither the professor nor the students were happy with the results.
Neither the students nor the professor was happy with the results.
e. Words ending in one, thing, or body (such as everyone, anyone, anything, nobody,
somebody, etc.) and words such as each, either, and neither take singular verbs.
•
f.
Everyone involved in implementing the company's new policies and procedures is here.
The agreement of pronouns such as any, most, all, many, more, some, who, that, and
which depends on the countable nature of the word or phrase to which the pronoun
refers.
•
•
Most of the sugar is in the cup. (uncountable noun)
Most of the apples are ripe. (countable noun)
g. Collective nouns can take singular or plural verbs, depending on whether the
sentence is referring to the group as a unit or as individuals.
•
•
The jury is announcing its verdict. (as a unit)
The faculty were in disagreement over their options. (as individuals)
h. When a sentence begins with there or here, or when the sentence is in inverted word
order, the verb still agrees with the subject which follows the verb in these
arrangements.
•
•
•
*
There are several answers to the problem.
There is one reason for his anger.
Driving along the highway were several tanker trucks.
Adapted from: http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByTopic/Writing/WritingMechanics/index.html
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English
Writing
2. Pronoun-Noun Agreement
a. A pronoun must agree in person (I, he, it, they, etc.) and number (singular or plural)
with the noun to which it refers. Remember that who and whom are used to refer to
people, and that and which refer to everything else.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mr. Smith took his work home with him.
Mr. Smith and Mr. Jones worked hard on their projects.
Neither John nor his parents enjoyed their afternoon. (The pronoun agrees with the
subject closest to it - as with subject-verb agreement with or and nor)
The woman who voted for an increase in pay looked happy.
The women who voted for an increase in pay looked happy.
Each apple was chosen for its rosy appearance.
Everyone must finish his or her work by Friday.
•
•
NOTE: Since frequent use of his or her could sound awkward, as in the
previous example, it may be preferable to substitute plurals.
Students must finish their work by Friday.
b. All pronouns must clearly refer to the noun they replace.
NO:
Our patients are enjoying the warm days while they last. (Does “they” refer to
“patients” or “days”?)
YES:
While the warm days last, our patients are enjoying them.
c. Do not mix "persons" (i.e., second person "you" with third person "he/she/it") unless
meaning requires it.
NO:
To improve one's stroke, you have to learn the basics.
YES:
To improve one's stroke, one has to learn the basics.
YES:
To improve your stroke, you have to learn the basics.
3. Placement of Modifiers
a. Always place modifiers as close as possible to the words they modify.
Confusing: The supervisor told me they needed someone who could type badly.
Better: The supervisor told me they badly needed someone who could type.
Confusing: The fish was found by a fisherman floating in the river. (Who was
floating?)
Better: The fish was found floating in the river by a fisherman.
Or: The fisherman found the fish floating in the river.
Confusing: Wearing high boots, the snake failed to injure the supervisor. (The
snake is wearing high boots)
Better: Wearing high boots, the supervisor was protected from the snake.
Or: Because the supervisor was wearing high boots, the snake did not
injure him.
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English
Writing
4. Use of Apostrophes
a. The apostrophe is used to indicate either a contraction or possession.
•
When two words are shortened into one, the apostrophe replaces the missing
letter.
•
The rule for using an apostrophe with a contraction always holds. (e.g., it
is or it has = it's; who is or who has = who's; they are = they're; will not =
won't [note change in spelling]; is not = isn't, etc.)
b. When showing possession, add 's to the owner word. Then, if the word ends in a
double or triple s, erase the one after the apostrophe and leave the apostrophe in
place.
1. one table's leg OR several tables' legs
2. one student's name OR several students' names
3. one day's work OR several days' work
4. one woman's job OR several women's jobs (note the plural form women does not use
an s)
5. one boss' house OR several bosses' houses
NOTE: Some grammar textbooks recommend keeping the -s's or -ss's
ending for words such as the Jones's party, boss's house, class's
work, congress's motion, and Jesus's life for easier pronunciation.
c.
The exception to the possessive rule is that pronouns show possession without the
use of 's. (e.g., my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, our, ours, their, theirs, its,
whose, etc.). Compare the use of apostrophes here:
• That is my book. That book is mine. (no apostrophe for the possessive pronoun mine)
• That is Bob's book. That book is Bob's. (apostrophe for the possessive noun Bob's)
d. Compare contractions versus possessive pronouns here:
• They're hoping to increase their budget.
• You're having trouble with your car.
NOTE: To test whether to use it's or its in a sentence, read your sentence replacing
it's with it is. If it is doesn't fit, the word you need is its. Note that there is no
such word as its' with an apostrophe following the s.
• It's almost time to give the cat its medication.
e. Don't use an apostrophe for plurals of regular nouns.
f.
NOT:
Several students' went to the meeting.
NOT:
The Smith's are on vacation.
Use an apostrophe for plurals of numerals, letters, and words being named.
• He received mostly A's on the papers marked by TA's.
• All she heard were no's in response to her proposal.
• Exception: Technology advanced greatly in the 1990s.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Writing
Punctuation Guide (Simplified)
The following is a guide to using common punctuation marks. It is by no means exhaustive, and has
been adapted from Margaret Shertzer's The Elements of Grammar.
( . ! ? ) The Period, The Exclamation Mark, and The Question Mark are the three punctuation
marks used to end a sentence.
a. The Period comes at the end of an ordinary sentence
• This is a punctuation guide.
b. The Exclamation Mark comes at the end of an exclamatory sentence ( a
sentences that shouts)
• What an excellent punctuation guide!
c. The Question Mark comes at the end of interrogatory sentences
(sentences that ask questions)
• Is this punctuation guide a good one?
(,)
The Comma is used to:
a. introduce ideas, time, or place
b. separate parts or ideas in a sentence
c. show that the second part of a sentence is logically dependent upon the
first part.
• When I was a little boy, I loved English.
• I like Shakespeare, Keats, and Shelley.
• Because I like English, I teach it.
(;)
The Semi-Colon* is used to:
a. link two independent clauses with no connecting words.
• I am going home; I intend to stay there.
• It rained heavily during the afternoon; we managed to have our picnic
anyway.
• They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; they decided to
camp for the night.
b. You can also use a semicolon when you join two independent clauses
together with one of the following conjunctive adverbs (adverbs that join
independent clauses): however, moreover, therefore, consequently,
otherwise, nevertheless, thus, etc
•
•
•
*
I am going home; moreover, I intend to stay there.
It rained heavily during the afternoon; however, we managed to have
our picnic anyway.
They couldn't make it to the summit and back before dark; therefore,
they decided to camp for the night.
http://www.arts.uottawa.ca/writcent/hypergrammar/semicoln.html
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English
(:)
Writing
The Colon** is used to
a. introduce lists. In this case, the words in front of the colon must be a
complete sentence.
Correct example: My new car came equipped with many options: power
windows, power locks, a sunroof, and a CD player.
Incorrect example: My new car came equipped with: power windows, power
locks, a sunroof, and a CD player.
b. introduce an appositive at the end of a sentence.
Example: He was shocked at what he saw: his reflection.
c.
separate a title from a subtitle.
Example: I am writing Lost and Found: A Chronicle of a Mid-Life Crisis.
d. substitute for a semicolon between two independent clauses if the
second clause further explains the first, or provides an example. (If the
material following the colon is an independent clause, it may or may not
be capitalized. Choose one method and be consistent.)
Example: The directions to the office are easy: once you have taken the train
to Penn Station, go upstairs and grab a cab downtown to 9th street.
(-)
The Hyphen*** is used
a. to divide words of at least two syllables which will not fit at the end of a
line; the hyphen indicates that the word is continued on the next line.
Make sure that each part of the divided word has at least two letters
b. to show that certain compound words function as a single word. Be sure
to always check the dictionary if in doubt.
•
•
•
c.
Compound adjective (preceding a noun): “double-jointed”
Compound noun: “head-hunter”
Compound verb: “kick-boxing”
with certain combination words. Be sure to check your dictionary.
Example: “mother-in-law”
d. in certain prefixes and suffixes.
•
•
•
Hyphenate a prefix with a capitalized base word: “un-Canadian”
Hyphenate a prefix with a date: “pre-1600”
Hyphenate a single-letter prefix: x-ray
e. Use a hyphen with all-, ex-, self-, and -elect: all-knowing; ex-husband;
self-help; president-elect
f.
Use a hyphen to separate an awkward combination of letters: fall-like.
g. Use a hyphen to differentiate between homonyms:
•
**
***
Recover - to get back; to regain
Re-cover - to cover again
adapted from: http://www.mccc.edu/students/tutoring/colon.html
adapted from: http://www.mccc.edu/students/tutoring/hyphen.html
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
(')
Writing
The Apostrophe shows
a. possession
b. contraction.
• John's book (i.e. the book belongs to John).
• John's tired (i.e. John is tired).
(see Improving Your Grammar)
(" ")
(Double) Quotation Marks show
a. that you are quoting speech or writing that belongs to another
b. referring to the title of a work of literature that is too short to be published
on its own. (Longer works that can be published in their own books are
underlined. Film titles can be in quotation marks or underlined.)
• Shakespeare said, "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."
• My favourite short story is "A Man Called Horse."
(' ')
(Single) Quotation Marks show that you are quoting within a quotation.
• Mr. Ramsay said, "Shakespeare said, 'A rose by any other name would smell as
sweet.'"
(—)
The Dash* is used to:
a. emphasize a point or to set off an explanatory comment. Don't overuse
dashes, or they will lose their impact.
•
To some of you, my proposals may seem radical—even revolutionary.
b. indicate an appositive phrase that already includes commas.
•
The boys—Jim, John, and Jeff—left the party early.
( ( ) ) Parentheses set aside parts of the sentence that are not important grammatically but are
important to meaning. Overuse can be distracting.
•
I like hockey (except when I fall against the boards).
( [ ] ) (Square) Brackets enclose words of a quotation that are yours and not the author's.
•
Thinking that she is alone, Juliet muses aloud for Romeo to, “deny [his]
father and refuse [his] name.”
( . . . ) Ellipsis takes the place of omitted text.
•
*
e.g. Shakespeare wrote "a rose . . . would smell . . . sweet."
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_overvw.html
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English
Writing
Style
How to Write Without Sounding Sexist*
Achieving unbiased language so that readers will concentrate on what you have to say rather than
how you say it is an admirable goal. It is also a necessity. For example, businesses and individuals
have been sued because job descriptions used "he" and seemed to exclude women--whether or not
the exclusion was intended. Therefore, gender-free language is a requirement of school and the
workplace.
It may be easy to avoid gender-biased nouns by replacing sexist nouns with more neutral ones:
chairman with chair, mailman with postal carrier, and policeman with police officer. But, how can you
avoid the pronouns he, him, and his when you refer to nouns meant to include both genders?
The following five options will enable you to revise your writing so that your use of pronouns is both
gender-free and correct. As you review this list, compare the biased language of the original
sentences with the gender-free phrasing of the revisions.
1. Use the plural form for both nouns and pronouns.
•
Biased Language: Studying the techniques by which a celebrated writer achieved his
success can stimulate any writer faced with similar problems.
•
Gender-free Language: Studying the techniques by which celebrated writers achieved
their success can stimulate any writer faced with similar problems.
2. Omit the pronoun altogether.
•
Biased Language: Each doctor should send one of his nurses to the workshop.
•
Gender-free Language: Each doctor should send a nurse to the workshop.
3. Use his or her when you occasionally need to stress the action of an individual. Such
references will not be awkward unless they are frequent.
*
•
Biased Language: If you must use a technical term he may not understand, explain it.
•
Gender-free Language: If you must use a technical term he or she may not
understand, explain it.
http://leo.stcloud.msus.edu/genderbias.html
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English
Writing
4. Vary pronoun choice when you want to give examples emphasizing the action of an
individual. Ideally, choose pronouns that work counter to prevailing stereotypes. Growing
Child Newsletter (1982) decided to use this strategy throughout its publication, which
focused on children's developmental levels.
•
Biased Language: Gradually, Toddler will see the resemblance between block
creations and objects in his world, and he will begin to name some structures, like
"house," "choo choo," and "chimney."
•
Gender-free Language: Gradually, Toddler will see the resemblance between block
creations and objects in her world, and she will begin to name some structures, like
"house," "choo choo," and "chimney."
•
Biased Language: The kitchen can serve as a centre for new experiences, an
interesting place where important things happen, and where she has a chance to learn
about the way big-people things are done.
•
Gender-free Language: The kitchen can serve as a centre for new experiences, an
interesting place where important things happen, and where he has a chance to learn
about the way big-people things are done.
5. Switch from the third-person (he) to the second-person (you) or a "you" understood when
this shift is appropriate for what you're writing.
•
Biased Language: Each manager should report his progress to the undersigned by
May 1.
•
Gender-free Language: You should report your progress to me by May 1.
or
•
Report your progress to me by May 1.
Sir Winston Churchill High School - Department of English – Student Guide (September 2006)
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English
Writing
Transitional Words and Phrases*
Transitional words and phrases provide the glue that holds ideas together in writing. They provide
coherence by helping the reader to understand the relationship between ideas, and they act as
signposts that help the reader follow the movement of the discussion. Transitional expressions, then,
can be used between sentences, between paragraphs, or between entire sections of a work.
Examples of Transitions:
*
Illustration
Thus, for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other words, in particular,
specifically, such as.
Contrast
On the contrary, contrarily, notwithstanding, but, however, nevertheless, in spite of, in
contrast, yet, on one hand, on the other hand, rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same time,
while this may be true.
Addition
And, in addition to, furthermore, moreover, besides, than, too, also, both-and, another,
equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as,
in the second place, next, likewise, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the same
way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore, otherwise.
Time
After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first,
formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute,
hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to
begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime,
immediately, eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.
Space
At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath,
under, around, above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite,
at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond,
in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight, across, under, nearer, adjacent,
in the background.
Concession
Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true,
in spite of, of course.
Similarity of
Comparison
Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to.
Emphasis
Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides,
also, furthermore, in addition.
Details
Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail, namely,
including.
Examples
For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.
Consequence
or Result
So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason,
therefore, so, because, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.
Summary
Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result,
accordingly.
Suggestion
For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore.
Adapted from: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/trans1.html and http://www.virtualsalt.com/transits.htm
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Writing
Improving Your Style*
1.
Choose an appropriate tone. The level of formality depends on the kind of assignment, the
reader, and the purpose.
•
Informal tone is personal, simple, and direct. Active voice is used more frequently than
is passive. Sentences may be somewhat shorter. Personal pronouns (I, we) may be
used. This style is used in more casual writing assignments, journal entries, and class
work which are designated as informal. Remember, however, that writing informally does
not necessarily mean you should use slang, colloquialisms, and contractions.
• Researchers believe there may be a link between vitamin A and cancer, but they
do not know exactly what it is yet.
•
Formal tone is impersonal, uses a fairly learned vocabulary, and longer sentences, and
avoids personal pronouns. This style is used for academic articles and essays.
Remember, however, that writing formally does not mean that you should use
unnecessary jargon, clumsy structures, awkward vocabulary, excessive verbiage, or
pompous phrases such as this author believes in order to avoid using I or we, or that you
should overuse the passive voice.
• Research has shown an interesting connection between vitamin A and cancer, but
the exact nature of the connection has not been conclusively determined.
Whatever tone you use, always be clear, direct, and comprehensible.
2.
Avoid using the passive voice unless absolutely necessary.
3.
•
Passive Voice: the object is being acted upon by an actor (e.g., "The man was bitten by
the dog"). Use the wordier passive structure only when the identity of the "actor" is
unknown or is less important than the receiver or the act itself.
• All beef has been marked down by the butcher. (i.e., the beef is the most
important idea.)
• The water was boiled for ten minutes. (The actor is unidentified; i.e., the water
was boiled by whom?)
•
Active Voice: an actor acts upon a receiver (e.g., "The dog bit the man").
• The butcher has marked down all the beef. (i.e., the butcher is the most important
idea.)
• I boiled the water for ten minutes. (The actor is identified: "I".)
Be simple and concise in your writing.
•
•
•
Choose a short word instead of a long one when the meaning is the same, and avoid
jargon.
Cut out unnecessary words.
Avoid starting a sentence with empty passive phrases such as: “it should be noted that”,
“it is recommended that”, or “it was found that”.
•
Wordy: Poor living accommodations give promise of incrementing the negative side
of the morale balance so far as new personnel are concerned.
•
Better: Poor living accommodations lower the morale of new personnel.
*
Adapted from: http://www.learningcommons.uoguelph.ca/ByFormat/OnlineResources/OnlineFastfacts/OnlineWritingFastfacts/FastfactsImprovingStyle.html
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4.
5.
Writing
Be precise in your writing.
•
Avoid clichés and overused words or expressions.
•
Do not use vague words
•
Avoid words or expressions that are ambiguous.
Avoid starting a sentence with the pronouns “this” or “that” unless it is followed by a
noun or refers clearly and directly to a noun in the previous sentence. These pronouns
should not be used to refer to the concept of the entire sentence (or paragraph, or essay)
preceding it.
•
A scientist's work has no value unless he shares his thoughts with the scientific
community. That is the cornerstone of science. (What is “that”? Try "That
communication...")
6.
7.
Use verbs effectively.
•
Ineffective: The bacteria had an influence on the morphology of the plant.
•
Effective: The bacteria influenced the morphology of the plant.
Avoid the use of empty modifiers such as very, quite, and fairly.
•
8.
Avoid redundancies in the qualification of words.
•
9.
10.
Instead of “very large”, consider “huge”, “enormous”, or “gigantic”.
“absolutely perfect”, “completely surrounded”, “conclusive proof”, “green in colour”,
“serious crisis”
Watch out for dangling or misplaced modifiers. (see Improving Your Grammar)
Find out the proper usage of words that can be confused. (see Commonly Confused Words)
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Speaking and Listening
Speaking and Listening
Overcoming the Fear of Speaking in Class*
1. One of the easiest ways to begin controlling your fears is to start with "comfortable
communication" — speaking up briefly in non-risky environments. For example, you might begin
by asking one question in class each day or saying at least one thing in every group discussion or
trying to answer at least one of the teacher’s questions each day. You will not feel as if you're in
the spotlight, but you will be speaking up and getting practice in presentational skills.
2. A second technique to manage your fears of speaking in class is to concentrate more on your
message than on yourself.
3. Most of us are afraid of speaking in public because we are afraid we might do something
embarrassing. You may have experienced all the embarrassing things that can happen when
public speaking fears take hold: dry mouth, shaky knees, and losing your train of thought. While
these can be embarrassing, people in the class tend to overlook them or nod empathetically
because they have had similar experiences. People have come to hear what you say, rather than
how you say it. So, if you concentrate on delivering a relevant and organized message, your selfconsciousness becomes less important.
4. One of the best ways to become an accomplished communicator is to PRACTICE, PRACTICE,
and PRACTICE. Good communicators are not made overnight. The more you practice, the more
your fears will subside. Then public speaking will no longer be your number one fear.
Listening Skills**
Listening is not the same as hearing. Listening is a communication skill that takes practice. By
becoming a better listener in class, you will become a better note-taker and a successful student.
Listening is an art and a gift. It is a tool that is essential to your success as a student, an employee,
and a friend, yet most of us have never been taught how to listen. Most of us listen poorly. We
concentrate more on ourselves than on what other people are telling us.
Becoming a better listener requires improving behaviours and attitudes. Listening is an active
process. A long time ago Epictetus told his Greek friends, "Nature has given us one tongue, but two
ears, that we may hear from others twice as much as we speak!"
Weak listening skills lead to misunderstanding. In industry millions of dollars are lost every year as a
result of poor listening. It has become standard practice at most major companies to "write it down" to
improve the possibility of being understood. Xerox, a leading corporation, has developed and now
markets to other industries its own listening improvement course.
*
**
Adapted from: http://www.uwm.edu/letsci/transitions/old/conquer.html
Adapted from: http://dl.clackamas.cc.or.us/os11class/LearningSkills/listenskills.htm
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Speaking and Listening
LISTENING PROBLEMS
•
Daydreaming is probably the most common listening problem because it affects everyone.
Frequently a speaker will mention some person or thing that triggers an association in our minds,
and off we go. When we return to reality and start listening again, we may find that the third point
is being discussed, and we have no recollection of points one and two.
There are lots of opportunities for daydreaming because the speaker's speed of talking is so
much slower than our speed of thought. While the teacher is talking at 125 words per minute, your
mind is racing along at several times that speed.
•
Closed-mindedness is a fault that happens more outside the classroom, especially when we are
arguing. We often refuse to listen to the other side of the argument, especially when we have
already made up our minds. We think there is no use in listening since we know all there is to
know!
Anytime you fail to listen with an open mind, you may lose valuable information. Closedmindedness interferes with learning and relationships. Besides, it is not fair to the speaker — your
family, your teacher, your minister, your friend, your co-worker, your partner. If your point of view
is the correct one, opposing arguments will only reinforce your beliefs. If, on the other hand, your
position is wrong, refusing to listen won't make it right!
•
False attention is a protection technique that everyone uses from time to time to fake out the
speaker. When we're not really interested in what someone is saying, we pretend to listen. We
nod our heads and make occasional meaningless comments and eye contact to give the
impression that we're listening. Usually our minds are a million miles away.
Sometimes the fake-listener has no choice; a boring person may be talking, and the listener
cannot escape. Maybe the listener is seated at a table or in a room with relatives when some very
important personal matter comes to mind. Conveniently, this listener can go through the motions
of listening, even make an occasional comment, while giving real attention to something of a
higher priority. This habit of false listening can become a problem for you if it becomes a routine
procedure, a technique to use whenever something not very interesting comes your way.
Remember that boredom is a state of mind. Do not let the bad habit of false attention become a
part of your life.
•
Intellectual despair means giving up before you even get started. Listening can be hard to do
sometimes. In school, you have to sit through many discussions that are hard to understand.
Expect it; that is why you're going to school — to learn what you do not understand.
Occasionally, you may feel the urge to give up. You may say to yourself, "No matter how hard I
try, I don't get it. I just can't learn this stuff." With this type of thinking, it's easy to stop trying.
This listening despair is a self-defeating behaviour and may lead to a negative self-fulfilling
prophecy. Obviously, you will never understand it if you give up. The thing to do is to listen more
carefully than ever. Take notes in class; it will help you focus. It is your responsibility to ask
questions when you do not understand something. Discuss the material with another student.
Attack the problem as soon as you identify it. Try not to let several weeks go by before you take
some action! Procrastination is not the answer to intellectual despair. Catch up right away, and
you will feel more in control of your learning process.
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•
Speaking and Listening
Memorizing is a problem that happens when listeners try to memorize every word the teacher
says. These are usually students who are stressed, and in their goal to listen well; they commit
this listening fault because of their anxiety and come away from class remembering less.
There is no way to remember everything a teacher says. When you try, you miss the overall
sense of the class, and you are worse off than ever. A student who has this listening problem
does not seem to know any other way and may never have been taught techniques for effective
listening.
•
Personality listening is something we all do. It is natural for listeners to evaluate a speaker, but
our impressions should not interfere with our listening. The content (what the speaker is saying)
should be judged on its own value to you and the speaker.
Sometimes you may be tempted to tune out the speaker because of his or her appearance. If an
instructor is sloppily dressed and careless about his or her appearance, you may conclude that
what s/he is saying is not worth listening to. Avoid the temptation and do not let your personal
feelings interfere with your learning.
GOOD LISTENING SKILLS
•
Prepare to listen. Your attitude in attending class is important. If you feel that a particular class
is generally a waste of your time, you obviously will not be in a good mood to listen. Use some
positive self-talk by deciding before class that this time will be well spent. Commit yourself to this
learning experience.
•
Watch the speaker. Do not take your eyes off the speaker! Eye contact is a very important part
of the active listening process. Of course, taking notes is recommended to help you maintain your
focus; however, when you look away, you will be aware of visual distractions that compete with
the teacher for your attention. You have to listen with your eyes and your ears!
Try to develop an awareness of your instructor's mannerisms. Gestures, tone of voice, and other
body language usually emphasize a speaker's remarks. Some experts say that tone of voice and
body language are 95% of the listening communication process. All speakers communicate
physically as well as orally, so you must watch as you listen.
•
Note questions. If you listen with a questioning attitude, learning will be easier for you. When the
teacher asks a question, pay close attention. This is usually a signal that the instructor thinks this
is important information. You have to realize that the teacher knows the answer, so there is
nothing he or she can learn from the answer. S/he is asking it so you will learn. S/he wants you to
understand and remember the answer. Speakers' questions are designed to help you listen and
learn.
•
Also, be sure to notice questions asked by others in class. Student questions signal the teacher
about how the information is coming across to students. At this point, the teacher will often give a
more detailed explanation, repeat the point, or give examples to help the class to understand
better. Questions from both the teacher and students are valuable; pay attention to them.
•
Listen creatively. You should not be listening and thinking about other things at the same time,
but you should be evaluating and organizing the speaker's words by taking notes. If you sit
passively, like a sponge, expecting to soak up knowledge, you are really only half listening. To
listen totally, you have to react by putting your mind to work. Like a computer, start to process the
data coming in. This causes you to think ahead and anticipate what is coming up.
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Viewing
Viewing
“Visual imagery is an integral part of contemporary life. By developing viewing strategies
and skills, students come to understand the ways in which images may be used to convey
ideas, values and beliefs. Critical viewing enables students to acquire and assess
information, appreciate the experiences of others, and understand and evaluate others’ ideas
and perspectives.”*
The Language of Film
Technique
*
What camera records/
eye sees
Effect on Viewer
Low angle shot
•
Camera looks up to
subject
Makes subject or object
appear larger, stronger, or
superior
High angle shot
•
Camera looks down on
subject
Makes subject or object look
smaller, weaker or inferior
Extreme long shot (or
establishing shot)
•
Depicts a vast area from
a great distance
Establishes setting and mood,
records action on a grand/
epic scale
Long shot
•
Shows an entire area
Establishes setting/ context,
records action of one or more
subjects
Medium shot
•
Subjects are viewed from
above the knees
Reveals actions, gestures,
facial expressions of several
subjects
Close-up
•
Camera focuses on the
upper body of one
subject
Facial expressions convey
emotion/reveal character
Extreme close-up
•
The face of one subject
dominates the frame
Subtle facial expressions
convey emotion/reveal
character
Superimposition
•
Two shots on screen at
same time
Reveals action in two different
places, juxtaposition, contrast
Dissolve
•
One scene fades out as
another scene fades in
Smooth, peaceful transition
from one scene to the next
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
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Technique
Viewing
What camera records/
eye sees
Effect on Viewer
Cut
•
Instantaneous change
from one shot to the next
Frequency of cuts influences
pace/tempo
Composition (arrangement
of subjects/ objects within a
frame)
•
Subject- middle of frame
Strength, prominence
•
Subject- off to one side
Weakness, marginalization
Lines
•
Vertical
Strength, inspires awe
•
Horizontal
Restful, implies order
•
Diagonal
Suggests action, conflict
excitement, disorientation
•
Dark tones- serious
•
Bright tones- light
Affects mood, may add
symbolic meaning
•
From above- spirituality
•
From below- mystery,
danger
•
Three tracks: voice,
music and noise
Colour
Lighting
Sound
Direction/ intensity establishes
mood, reveals or conceals
information
Creates mood, provides
information
The Role of Visual Communication
Even though we have five senses, humans rely largely on their sense of sight as a means of
navigating and understanding the world. As such the ability to read visual images effectively and
create effective visual images is of great importance.
Artists and designers use visual elements, fonts, and compositional elements to create
pieces of visual communication (photographs, paintings, drawings, graphic layouts, illustrations, etc.).
Even if you are not an artist or a designer you are familiar with these elements. You may not have
formal knowledge of the elements and how they work but you have seen them millions of times.
Chances are you used the visual elements when you created all sorts of masterpieces with your trusty
crayons as a child. The activities covered in the next few pages will introduce you to the basics of the
visual elements, fonts, and the compositional elements. Once you understand these basics you
will be able to analyze and create visuals at a higher level.
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The Visual Elements
There are typically six elements of art that can be found in most art or design. These
elements function as a "visual alphabet."
Line
Line is the most basic element of art; a continuous mark made on a surface can vary in
appearance (length, width, texture, direction, and curve). Five varieties of lines:
vertical, horizontal, diagonal, curved, zigzag
Colour
Colour is produced when light strikes an object and reflects back in your eyes. This
element of art has three properties:
•
•
•
Hue -the name of a colour (ex. - red, yellow. blue)
Intensity -the purity and strength of a colour (ex- bright red or dull red)
Value -the lightness or darkness of a colour
The use of colour is a complicated and subjective topic. The following websites will
provide a wealth of information.
Introduction to Colour Theory http://members.cox.net/mrsparker2/intro.htm
Color Maters – Design Art http://www.colormatters.com/colortheory.html
The Basics of Colour Theory http://www.bracknet.com/ess/Graphics/colourT.htm
Shape
Shape is two - dimensional (circle, square, triangle, rectangle) and encloses space geometric, man-made or free form.
Form
Form is three-dimensional and encloses space and takes up space
made or free form.
Space
Space is defined and determined by shapes and forms. Positive space is where
shapes and forms exist; negative space is the empty space around shapes and forms.
Texture
Texture refers to the surface quality or "feel" of an object - smooth, rough, soft, etc.
Textures may be actual (felt with touch - tactile) or implied (suggested by the way an
artist has created the work of art -visual).
-geometric, man-
Note: An artist or a designer uses the visual elements (or the “visual alphabet”) to make a visual
composition in a similar manner as a writer uses letters and words to make a story. Just like the way a
writer uses words matters in literature the way an artist or designer uses the visual elements matters
in art and design.
Understanding Fonts
“Type is speech made visible, with all the nuances, inflections, tonalities and even dialects of the
human voice. It is one of humanity's most precious possessions.”
- Jan White author of Editing by Design
Where do fonts come from?
In addition to the visual elements, an artist or designer often uses text (words) to complete a
visual piece. Any use of text that is not hand created can be called a font. In times before
computers and desktop publishing fonts came in the form of lead blocks used on printing
presses or as rub off transfer letters like Letraset. However, computers for the most part have
replaced these technologies.
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Who do we have to thank for the thousands of fonts we can choose
from?
Typography is the science/art of designing typefaces, and believe it or not a typographer may
spend up to five years designing one typeface (font)! If you take a close look at a basic font
you can see why. Every letter has to relate in space to every other letter, number, and symbol
in the set. Each part of each letter has to be in harmony and balance. Each word has to work
in space with all other words in a line. And each line has to work in space with all of the other
lines. Who knew that fonts were so complicated?
The Anatomy of Fonts
Abcde… Abcde…
This simple little font is actually a complicated mechanical and mathematical construction (as
you can see in the second set of letters). A typographer is a lot like a doctor and as such has
names for all of the different parts of a letter shape. If you want to know more about this go
ahead and do a little research.
Some Important Categories of Fonts
In addition to type families (types of fonts) there are other categories of typefaces
that we need to consider.
Types of Text Used in Layouts
•
Display Faces
Display faces are used for headlines, subheads, drop caps, pull quotes, etc.
requires the reader to look at the words letter by letter. Accordingly display
faces are usually bold and large.
•
Body Text
Headlines grab your attention and body text conveys the details. Think of the
headline and the story in a newspaper article.
Main Styles of Fonts
•
Serif
Serif typefaces use small decorative marks to embellish characters - Times is a serif
typeface. Serif fonts are commonly used in North America for the body copy of books,
magazines, and newspapers. As such serif fonts tend to have a conservative look
and feel.
TIMES
The little bits at the ends of the letters are called serifs.
•
Sans Serif
Typefaces without these decorative marks to embellish characters are called Sans
Serif - Helvetica is a sans serif typeface. Sans serif fonts are commonly used in
Europe for the body copy of books, magazines, and newspapers. In North America
sans serif fonts are usually reserved for headlines. If serif fonts have a conservative
look and feel then sans serif fonts tend to have sleeker and more contemporary look
and feel.
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HELVETICA
See how this font does not have the little bits at the ends of the letters.
•
Script
Script typefaces resemble calligraphy or other hand written text – Edwardian
Script is a script typeface.
fvÜ|Ñà
•
Ornamental
Ornamental typefaces cover a very wide range of looks and styles; in fact they can
even be from the serif, sans serif, or script families. However, ornamental typefaces
are really only meant for use as large sized text blacks like headlines and titles. They
do not work well as body text since they are hard to read. There are far too many
ornamental fonts to list any names here, but take a look at the samples below and
you will get a good idea of the variety of styles that can be used…
Ornamental Fonts can have all
sorts of looks and “voices.”
Fonts in the Digital World
•
Digital Text
Digital text is quite different from printed text. The nature of the pixels used in digital
devices (monitors or projectors) decreases the legibility of text forms. Therefore it is
of critical importance that clear typefaces are used.
It is also important to keep in mind that for a digital font to work in many digital files
like word processing documents and layout documents it has to be installed on the
computer that is using the document.
Choosing Fonts
Anyone who has used a computer knows that there are a lot of typefaces (or fonts) to choose
from. Some may even ask why we need all these typefaces anyway? There are so many
different fonts because we humans have so many ways of communicating. Each font has its
own personality and meaning. Some fonts are serious, some are bold, some are silly, and
some are outright crazy. Do you remember what Jan White said? He said that, “Type is
speech made visible, with all the nuances, inflections, tonalities and even dialects of the
human voice. It is one of humanity's most precious possessions.” The font that is used in a
visual composition ad offers a certain kind of “voice” to the page.
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fig. 2
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fig. 3
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English
fig. 4
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fig. 5
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Presenting
Presenting
“Representing may be envisioned as the expressive counterpart of viewing. Visual representation
enables students to communicate their ideas through a variety of text forms, including posters,
diagrams, photographs, collages, video presentations, visual art, tableaux and mime.
Representing, however, extends beyond the visual. For example, representations may have an oral
component. A speaker’s tone of voice can convey, or represent, his or her feelings and attitudes.
Music and sound effects that are selected to accompany a dramatic monologue, a dialogue or a
readers’ theatre presentation may be representational in that they set a mood and convey an
atmosphere.
Representing is also manifested in print. Tables and figures that accompany informative texts may
suggest spatial relationships, time sequences, and relationships between and among concepts and
ideas. Posters and other examples of promotional print texts typically employ design principles, such
*
as alignment and repetition, to represent relationships and to create emphases.”
Making Class Presentations**
1. Typical Problems with Presentations
• Class is bored with presentations
• Speaker is nervous
• Speaker is talking too fast
• Speaker does not speak loud enough
• Speaker avoids eye contact with audience
• Speaker gives the impression that s/he would like to be somewhere else.
• Other students do not know about subject
2. How to Make Presentations Enjoyable
• This is not a “performance” in which you are being judged
• It is a communication; people listen to what you have to say
• "Your only task is to get something transferred clearly from your mind to the mind of your
listeners."
• Put your self in the position of your listeners. What is the best way to get your message
across?
*
**
Alberta Education (2003) English Language Arts. Downloaded from:
http://www.education.gov.ab.ca/k_12/curriculum/bySubject/english/
Adapted from Student Achievement Series No. 6, Counselling Service, McMaster University – downloaded from:
http://socserv2.mcmaster.ca/Inquiry/presentationsmaking.htm
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Presenting
3. Preparation
• Identify the scope of your topic (What do you need to cover?)
• Organize it into sections
• Select information to present
• Practice the presentation
• Find out how long you are expected to talk
• Avoid large topics;
• Choose a small number of points which listeners can digest
• Explain each point carefully, with examples
• Narrow your focus in your preparation.
4. Visual Aids
• Visual Aids help listeners understand your points
o Blackboard: problem of writing down all your points; takes time; distracts listeners
o Transparency sheets: prepare material ahead of time (see more below)
o Blank Transparency sheets: write on them; special pens (see more below)
• Prepare photocopies; hand out
• Aim for simplicity and uncluttered visual aids. Use only important information; don't
overload with too much information.
• Visuals must be seen clearly by the whole class; don't make them too small. (see more
below)
• Use several sheets, each with small number of points.
5. Speaking from Notes or Writing It Out
• Speaking from notes is more effective than reading them. This helps create a sense of
direct communication with audience.
• Reading from text can be "absolutely deadly". It sounds memorized.
6. Making Your Topic and Organization Clear
• Start by telling your audience what you are going to talk about
• List the points or subjects you are going to talk about
• Start slowly
• Clearly explain your topics and include any background necessary for your listeners to
grasp your topic
• Organize your points clearly
• Use a natural sequence of points that flow
• Show the relation of your points to each other and to your overall topic
• Failure to do the above means you will lose your audience
7. Helping Your Listeners Understand
• Listening is more difficult than reading;
• Your audience may be easily distracted;
• Your audience cannot go back and check things they missed; therefore, you must help
them understand what you are saying.
• Restate important ideas in different words to help your audience grasp them
• List your points
• Use frequent summaries
• Show connections between one part of your talk and another
• All of this helps your audience form mental pictures of your subject matter.
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8. Practising the Talk
• After preparation is done, practice your talk — repeatedly.
• Time yourself;
o If it is too long, shorten it
o Don't talk faster to cover your material; you will lose your listeners
o Do not run overtime; that shows poor preparation
o Better to be too short than too long
• Practice in advance, not five minutes before your presentation
• Each practice from notes will be a bit different; that's OK.
• Anticipate questions, especially objections, and how you might answer them.
9. The Common Anxieties
• We naturally feel nervous speaking publicly in front of an audience
• We assume our audience will criticize or ridicule us.
• Our audience might wonder whether we really know our subject
• The class may be watching for our mistakes
• The audience may be judging us as poor speakers
• We think our audience will detect our nervousness — our shaky voice and hands.
• Some of us think we have to adhere to some image of “the public speaker”, and follow
formal, professional guidelines for speaking
Coping With These Anxieties:
• Be ourselves, and relax.
• Remind ourselves that our audience is just like us, not a pack of critics
• Our audience is not looking for faults in our speaking; they will ignore minor slips and
mistakes.
• The class is here to obtain some information from our presentation
• Do not act embarrassed over slips and mistakes you might make
• Show you are interested in your own topic; if you display boredom with your topic, so
will your audience
• Show your audience that you have something important to communicate to them.
They will respond positively.
10. Nervousness
• A little bit of nervousness:
o Shows that you are not too arrogant.
o Gives you extra energy to give a really good presentation; channel your
nervousness into positive energy.
o Your feelings of nervousness will not be evident to your audience; examples
ƒ Increased heart rate
ƒ Sweaty palms
ƒ Shaky hands
ƒ Butterflies in your stomach
• Combat nervousness by thorough preparation; the day of the presentation should then be
easy.
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11. Being Yourself and Acting Naturally
• Act naturally, speak the way you would in normal everyday conversation
• Use your normal voice, gestures, and expressions
• Do not "Make a Speech". That would be artificial; your voice will take on a strange pitch
and tone.
• "People are most effective as speakers when they allow themselves to be the people they
are naturally…"
12. Showing Interest in Communicating
• Show your listeners that you have something important or interesting to say.
• Show that you are personally are interested in the topic of your talk
• Talk to the whole group, or the entire class
• Do NOT talk to the teacher or instructor.
13. Eye Contact
• If you do not look directly at your audience, they will feel left out, and so pay less attention
to what you have to say.
• Do not look at the ceiling or the far wall
• Look directly into the eyes of your audience
o If it is a small group, you can do this individually
o If it is a large audience, you will have to look directly at groups or sections of your
audience
• If maintaining eye contact makes you lose your place in your notes, use your finger on the
margins of your notes to keep your place.
• If you read your notes, it is difficult to maintain eye contact; so this is not advisable
• Be spontaneous;
• Do not talk in a monotone;
• Slightly slow down to emphasize points
• Look directly at your audience when you want to emphasize particular points
• Add impromptu comments as if they just came to your and were not part of your prepared
presentation that you practiced on.
14. Volume, Speed, Confidence
• Speak loudly enough so that your audience can hear you.
• For a large audience or room, you may wish to use a microphone; test it out before your
talk; you do want to fool around with adjusting the mic once your talk begins
• If you are nervous, you may start to talk fast; slow it down.
• If you are reading any text directly from a page, go slowly; prepared written text tends to
be more packed with information, more tightly worded, and more formal; it will take your
audience longer to digest it than if you were to speak more informally.
• Pause at the end of sentences and sections.
• Speak with confidence; it helps to convince your audience of what you are trying to say.
• Do not raise your voice at the end of each sentence as if you are asking a question, and
seeking assurance from your audience.
• If you lose your place or get tongue tied, act “normal” about it; do not appear nervous. At
this point a one-liner that pokes fun at yourself is sometimes quite effective in breaking
the ice in an awkward moment.
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15. Movements and Gestures
• Do not focus or think about what to do with your hands, or facial expressions; these will
come naturally if you focus on your talk.
• Do not fiddle with your hair or your jewellery, pace back and forth, or swivel in your chair,
as you speak. If you are doing some kind of repetitive movement, try to control it. It
distracts your audience. It can be extremely irritating to your audience.
• Sit or stand straight. Place both feet on the floor. But do not be too stiff; relax your body.
16. Answering Questions
• Tell your audience whether you will accept questions during your presentation, or prefer
to hold them to the end.
• Treat a question and answer session at the end of your presentation as an informal
discussion of your subject rather than as a series of challenges of things you have said.
Your audience is primarily interested in seeking more information, clarification of points
you made, and the raising of related points. These can add to your presentation.
Welcome such questions and statements.
• Make sure you understand a question before answering it; if you do not understand it, ask
the questioner to repeat it, or to express it in some other way, or to give examples.
• Answer a question as simply as possible without being long winded, or going off on
unrelated tangents.
• If you do not know the answer to a question, say so. Your audience does not expect you
to know everything. Ask your audience whether they have the answer. Tap into the
knowledge of your audience.
17. Audio Visual Aids (additional points)
• Do not overwhelm your audience with your audio visual aids. Glitz can overwhelm and
drown out the content of your message.
• Make sure that your visual aids can be seen from all parts of the room.
• Overhead Transparencies
o Keep the sequence of your transparencies in order. Do not mix them up. You do not
want to go searching for the correct transparency in the middle of your talk.
o Do not photocopy onto your transparencies normal typed pages (say in 10, 12, or 14
font size). Your audience will not be able to read small text.
o Put only a few points on each transparency. Make each point large enough so that
the person in the back row can see it.
o Make sure the text and visuals are dark enough that they can bee seen by the
audience.
o Do not use tables or charts with small statistics on them. They are very hard to read.
o Use a sheet of paper to control which points the audience sees. Cover the points at
the bottom which you do not want your audience to see until you get to them.
o Writing on blank transparencies with a black felt pen is a way to record feedback from
your audience so that everyone can see it. It helps interactivity.
• Video and Film
o Video and/or film can be an effective way to create impact.
o Use video sparingly only to illustrate a point. You do not want to have a video or film
take over the major portion of your talk.
o Integrate the video clip seamlessly into the rest of your presentation.
o Ensure the video quality is high or acceptable.
o Ensure that the sound track works properly.
o Do not fiddle with video equipment in the middle of your talk. Have it set up and ready
to go before you begin your presentation.
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•
Presenting
Computer-Aided Presentations
o Computer-generated slides, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, have become standard in
many professional presentations. They are used increasingly by students in
classroom presentations.
o One advantage of computer-generated slides is that they can be revised right up to
the beginning of your presentation.
o Make sure your slide show fits on a single diskette, CD, DVD, or memory key for easy
transfer to the computer you will use in the classroom.
o Try to ensure a good balance of text and graphics.
o Use a modest number of computer slides. Do not overwhelm your audience with a
Multimedia show that emphasizes format over content.
o Test the slide show on the computer you are going to use and in the room you are
going to use before your presentation.
o Follow the guidelines for transparencies and slides. In particular, make sure that the
text on the slides is viewable from all parts of the room.
o Always use colour contrast between foreground and background. Never put text on a
noisy background. This drowns out the text.
o Make sure you prepare a hard copy handout of your slides in case something goes
wrong. You can fit three to six slides on a single sheet of paper for photocopying and
hand out.
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Appendices
Appendix A
Literary Terms for Grade 10 Students
Acronym
Alliteration
Allusion
Analogy
Anecdote
Antagonist
Antecedent Action
Archaic Language
Archetype
Aside
Assonance
Ballad
Blank Verse
Character Foil
Cliché
Climax
Coherence
Colloquial
Concrete Poetry
Connotation
Consonance
Context
Controlling Idea
Conventions
Couplet
Denotation
Denouement
Deus Ex Machina
Diction
Dilemma
Direct Characterization
Dramatic Irony
Dynamic Character
Elegy
Eulogy
Euphemism
Exposition
Figurative Language
First Person Point of View
Flashback
Flat Character
Foreshadowing
Free Verse
Hyperbole
Imagery
Indirect Characterization
In Medias Res
Juxtaposition
Limited Omniscient Point of
View
Literal Meaning
Lyric
Malapropism
Metaphor
Metonymy
Monologue
Mood
Motivation
Narrative Poetry
Narrator
Objective Point of View
Octet
Omniscient Point of View
Onomatopoeia
Oxymoron
Paradox
Parallelism
Personification
Plagiarism
Plot
Point of View
Prologue
Prose
Protagonist
Pun
Quatrain
Rhetorical Question
Rhyme
Rhythm
Round Character
Satire
Setting
Sestet
Simile
Situational Irony
Soliloquy
Sonnet
Stanza
Static Character
Stock Character
Symbol
Synonyms
Theme
Thesis
Tone
Verbal Irony
Verisimilitude
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Appendices
Appendix B
Commonly Confused Words*
Words that sound alike or nearly alike but have different meanings often cause writers trouble. Here
are a few of the most common pairs with correct definitions and examples:
•
•
ACCEPT: to receive: He accepts defeat well.
EXCEPT: to take or leave out: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one.
•
•
AFFECT: to influence: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work.
EFFECT: n. result: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous. v. to accomplish: Can
the university effect such a change without disrupting classes?
•
•
A LOT (two words): many.
ALOT (one word): Not the correct form.
•
•
ALLUSION: an indirect reference: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
ILLUSION: a false perception of reality: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the
desert.
•
•
ALL READY: prepared: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
ALREADY: by this time: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.
•
•
ALTOGETHER: entirely: Altogether, I thought that the student's presentation was well planned.
ALL TOGETHER: gathered, with everything in one place: We were all together at the family reunion
last spring.
•
•
ASCENT: climb: The plane's ascent made my ears pop.
ASSENT: agreement: The Martian assented to undergo experiments.
•
•
BREATH: noun, air inhaled or exhaled: You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE: verb, to inhale or exhale: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.
•
•
•
CITE: to quote or document: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
SIGHT: vision: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of the world.
SITE: position or place: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.
•
•
•
•
*
CONSCIENCE: sense of right and wrong: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the
exam.
CONSCIOUS: awake: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.
COUNCIL: a group that consults or advises: The men and women on the council voted in favour of an
outdoor concert in their town.
COUNSEL: to advise: The parole officer counselled the convict before he was released.
adapted from: http://writing2.richmond.edu/writing/wweb/conford.html
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•
•
ELICIT: to draw or bring out: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.
ILLICIT: illegal: The drug dealer was arrested for his illicit activities.
•
•
•
EMINENT: famous, respected: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
IMMANENT: inherent or intrinsic: The meaning of the poem was immanent, and not easily recognized.
IMMINENT: ready to take place: A fight between my sister and me is imminent from the moment I enter
my house.
•
•
ITS: of or belonging to it: The baby will scream as soon as its mother walks out of the room.
IT'S: contraction for it is: It's a beautiful day in the neighbourhood.
•
•
LEAD: noun, a type of metal: Is that pipe made of lead?
LED: verb, past tense of the verb "to lead": She led the campers on an over-night hike.
•
LIE: to lie down (person or animal.): I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.(also lying,
lay, has/have lain—The dog has lain in the shade all day; yesterday, the dog lay there for twelve
hours).
LAY: to lay an object down: "Lay down that gun, Bubba!” the sheriff demanded. The town lay at the
foot of the mountain. (Also laying, laid, has/have laid—At that point, Bubba laid the gun on the
ground.)
•
•
LOSE: verb, to misplace or not win: Mom glared at Mikey. "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even
•
LOOSE: modifier, to not be tight; verb (rarely used): to release: The burglar's pants were so loose that
think of coming home!"
he was sure to lose the race with the cop chasing him. While awaiting trial, he was never set loose
from jail because no one would post his bail.
•
•
PASSED: verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved: The tornado passed through the city quickly,
but it caused great damage.
PAST: belonging to a former time or place: Who was the past president of Microsquish Computers? Go
past the fire station and turn right.
•
•
PRECEDE: to come before: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
PROCEED: to go forward: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam.
•
•
PRINCIPAL: adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority: The principal ingredient in
chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips. The principal of the school does the announcements each
morning.
PRINCIPLE: a general or fundamental truth: The study was based on the principle of gravity.
•
•
QUOTE: verb, to cite: I would like to quote Dickens in my next paper.
QUOTATION: noun, the act of citing: The book of famous quotations inspired us all.
•
•
STATIONARY: standing still: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
STATIONERY: writing paper: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.
•
•
SUPPOSED TO: correct form for "to be obligated to" or "presumed to", not "suppose to"
SUPPOSE: to guess or make a conjecture
o
Do you suppose we will get to the airport on time? When is our plane supposed to arrive?
We are supposed to check our bags before we board, but I suppose we could do that at the
curb and save time.
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•
•
THAN: use with comparisons: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall.
THEN: at that time, or next: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed.
•
•
•
THEIR: possessive form of they: Their house is at the end of the block.
THERE: indicates location (hint: think of "here and there"): There goes my chance of winning the lottery!
THEY'RE: contraction for "they are": They're in Europe for the summer—again!
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
THROUGH: by means of; finished; into or out of: He ploughed right through the other team's defensive
line.
THREW: past tense of throw: She threw away his love letters.
THOROUGH: careful or complete: John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of
dust when he finished.
THOUGH: however; nevertheless: He's really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside.
THRU: abbreviated slang for “through”; not appropriate in standard writing: We're thru for the day!
TO: toward: I went to the University of Alberta.
TOO: also, or excessively: He drank too many cocktails and was unable to drive home.
TWO: a number: Only two students did not turn in the assignment.
WHO: pronoun, referring to a person or persons: Jane wondered how Jack, who is so smart, could be
having difficulties in Calculus.
WHICH: pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s); not used to refer to persons: Which math class
did you get into?
•
THAT: used to refer to things or a group or class of people: I lost the book that I bought last week.
•
•
WHO: used as a subject or as a subject complement: John is the man who can get the job done.
WHOM: used as an object: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement?
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Appendices
Appendix C
Strategies for Taking Multiple Choice Tests
General Rule: Get an understanding of the stem before considering and choosing an alternative.
Underline key terms and clue words in the stem.
Some students find it effective to read the stem and anticipate the correct alternative before looking at
the alternatives. If you generally do better on essay exams, this strategy may help you. Research
shows that one in three students scores better with this strategy alone!
•
Read the questions for the selection. This allows you to read the passage with a more
discerning eye. Knowledge of an impending question directs your focus as you read the
passage.
•
Read the passage and try to identify the most important parts of the text.
•
As you read, consider sources of information aside from the passage itself:
o
o
o
o
Title: may give you a clue about the subject of the passage.
Author’s Name: may be helpful if you have read anything else by the author.
Author’s date of birth and/or death, and country of origin: may be helpful in
establishing the setting of the passage.
Epigraph (a quotation at the beginning of a reading): may give you a clue about
the theme of the passage.
•
Use all of the allotted time and answer every question.
•
Eliminate the unlikely responses and then choose the best answer from those that are left.
•
Do not look for patterns in the answer key. (The examiners have already examined the
answer key and made sure that there are no patterns to the answers.)
•
Do not leave any answers blank. If you find a question that is too difficult, mark it and leave it
for later. The confidence that you gain by doing some easier questions first will often help in
dealing with the more difficult questions later on.
•
If you are not certain of an answer, guess — but do so methodically. Do not guess too soon!
You must select not only a correct answer, but the best answer. It is therefore important that
you read all of the options and not stop when you come upon one that seems likely.
Eliminate the choices that you know are incorrect; then, relate each alternative back to the
stem of the question to see if it fits. Narrow the choices to one or two alternatives and then
compare them and identify how they differ. Finally, make an informed guess.
•
If a question contains line references, then reread those lines before answering the question.
•
Read the selections in order. The examiners will have carefully considered the difficulty of
each reading and in order to help students will have placed easier readings after harder
readings.
•
Use the true-false technique to detect decoys. To use the true-false technique, you make a
complete statement from the stem and each of the options. An option that results in a false
statement is eliminated as a distracter. One that results in a true statement is probably the
correct answer.
•
Do not dismiss an alternative because it seems too obvious and simple an answer.
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•
Do not be wowed by fancy terms in the question (i.e., Do not say to yourself, "That sounds
impressive, so it must be the right answer!") Use context clues or your knowledge of common
prefixes, suffixes, and word roots to make intelligent guesses about terminology that you do
not know.
•
Be wary of options which include unqualified absolutes such as “all,” "never," and "always".
Such statements are highly restrictive and very difficult to defend. They are rarely (though
they may sometimes be) correct options.
•
The less frequently stated converse of the above is that carefully qualified, conservative, or
"guarded" statements tend to be correct more often than would be predicted by chance alone.
Other things being equal, favour options containing such qualifying phrases as "may
sometimes be," or "can occasionally result in."
•
If time permits, review your answers, but change an answer only if you feel that you have a
better understanding of the passage after a second reading.
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