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Data Warehousing/Mining Comp 150 DW Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing Instructor: Dan Hebert Data Warehousing/Mining 1 Chapter 3: Data Preprocessing Why preprocess the data? Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary Data Warehousing/Mining 2 Why Data Preprocessing? Data in the real world is dirty – incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of interest, or containing only aggregate data – noisy: containing errors or outliers – inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names No quality data, no quality mining results! – Quality decisions must be based on quality data – Data warehouse needs consistent integration of quality data Data Warehousing/Mining 3 Multi-Dimensional Measure of Data Quality A well-accepted multidimensional view: – – – – – – – – Accuracy Completeness Consistency Timeliness Believability Value added Interpretability Accessibility Broad categories: – intrinsic, contextual, representational, and accessibility. Data Warehousing/Mining 4 Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing Data cleaning – Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and resolve inconsistencies Data integration – Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files Data transformation – Normalization and aggregation Data reduction – Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces the same or similar analytical results Data discretization – Part of data reduction but with particular importance, especially for numerical data Data Warehousing/Mining 5 Forms of data preprocessing Data Warehousing/Mining 6 Data Cleaning Data cleaning tasks – Fill in missing values – Identify outliers and smooth out noisy data – Correct inconsistent data Data Warehousing/Mining 7 Missing Data Data is not always available – E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such as customer income in sales data Missing data may be due to – equipment malfunction – inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted – data not entered due to misunderstanding – certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry – not register history or changes of the data Missing data may need to be inferred. Data Warehousing/Mining 8 Missing Data Example Bank Acct Totals - Historical Name SSN Address Phone # Date Acct Total John Doe 111-22-3333 1 Main St Bedford, Ma 111-222-3333 2/12/1999 2200.12 7/15/2000 12000.54 8/22/2001 2000.33 12/22/2002 15333.22 John W. Doe Bedford, Ma John Doe 111-22-3333 James Smith 222-33-4444 2 Oak St Boston, Ma 222-333-4444 Jim Smith 222-33-4444 2 Oak St Boston, Ma 222-333-4444 Jim Smith 222-33-4444 2 Oak St Boston, Ma 222-333-4444 How should we handle this? Data Warehousing/Mining 12333.66 9 How to Handle Missing Data? Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (assuming the tasks in classification—not effective when the percentage of missing values per attribute varies considerably. Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible? Use a global constant to fill in the missing value: e.g., “unknown”, a new class?! Use the attribute mean to fill in the missing value Use the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class to fill in the missing value: smarter Use the most probable value to fill in the missing value: inferencebased such as Bayesian formula or decision tree Data Warehousing/Mining 10 Noisy Data Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable Incorrect attribute values may be due to – – – – – faulty data collection instruments data entry problems data transmission problems technology limitation inconsistency in naming convention Other data problems which requires data cleaning – duplicate records – incomplete data – inconsistent data Data Warehousing/Mining 11 Noisy Data Example Bank Acct Totals - Historical Name SSN Address Phone # Date Acct Total John Doe 111-22-3333 1 Main St Bedford, Ma 111-222-3333 2/12/1999 2200.12 John Doe 111-22-3333 1 Main St Bedford, Ma 111-222-3333 2/12/1999 2233.67 James Smith 222-33-4444 2 Oak St Boston, Ma 222-333-4444 12/22/2002 15333.22 James Smith 222-33-4444 2 Oak St Boston, Ma 222-333-4444 12/23/2003 15333000.00 How should we handle this? Data Warehousing/Mining 12 How to Handle Noisy Data? Binning method: – first sort data and partition into (equi-depth) bins – then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc. Clustering – detect and remove outliers Combined computer and human inspection – detect suspicious values and check by human Regression – smooth by fitting the data into regression functions Data Warehousing/Mining 13 Simple Discretization Methods: Binning Equal-width (distance) partitioning: – It divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid – if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width of intervals will be: W = (B-A)/N. – The most straightforward – But outliers may dominate presentation – Skewed data is not handled well. Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning: – It divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately same number of samples – Good data scaling – Managing categorical attributes can be tricky. Data Warehousing/Mining 14 Binning Methods for Data Smoothing * Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34 * Partition into (equi-width) bins: - Bin 1 (4-14): 4, 8, 9 - Bin 2(15-24): 15, 21, 21, 24 - Bin 3(25-34): 25, 26, 28, 29, 34 * Smoothing by bin means: - Bin 1: 7, 7, 7 - Bin 2: 20, 20, 20, 20 - Bin 3: 28, 28, 28, 28, 28 * Smoothing by bin boundaries: - Bin 1: 4, 4, 4 - Bin 2: 15, 24, 24, 24 - Bin 3: 25, 25, 25, 25, 34 Data Warehousing/Mining 15 Binning Methods for Data Smoothing (continued) * Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34 * Partition into (equi-depth) bins: - Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15 - Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25 - Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34 * Smoothing by bin means: - Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9 - Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23 - Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29 * Smoothing by bin boundaries: - Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15 - Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25 - Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34 Data Warehousing/Mining 16 Cluster Analysis Allows detection and removal of outliers Data Warehousing/Mining 17 Regression y Y1 Y1’ y=x+1 X1 x Linear regression – find the best line to fit two variables and use regression function to smooth data Data Warehousing/Mining 18 Data Integration Data integration: – combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store Schema integration – integrate metadata from different sources – Entity identification problem: identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., A.cust-id B.cust-# Detecting and resolving data value conflicts – for the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources are different – possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric vs. British units Data Warehousing/Mining 19 Handling Redundant Data in Data Integration Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple databases – The same attribute may have different names in different databases – One attribute may be a “derived” attribute in another table, e.g., annual revenue Redundant data may be able to be detected by correlational analysis Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and improve mining speed and quality Data Warehousing/Mining 20 Correlational Analysis R A,B = Sum (A-A’) (B-B’) (n-1) sdAsdB Where A’ = mean value of A sum (A) n sdA = standard deviation of A SqRoot ( Sum (A-A’)2) n-1 <0 negatively correlated, =0 no correlation, >0 correlated – consider removal of A or B Data Warehousing/Mining 21 Correlational Analysis Example A – 2, 5, 6, 8, 22, 33, 44, 55 B – 6, 7, 22, 33, 44, 66, 67, 70 A’ = 22, B’ = 45 Sum (A-A’) = -1, Sum (B-B’) = -45 sdA = .378, sdB = 17.008 RA,B = 45/45.003 = .999 RA,B>0 - correlated – consider removal of A or B Data Warehousing/Mining 22 Data Transformation Smoothing: remove noise from data Aggregation: summarization, data cube construction Generalization: concept hierarchy climbing Normalization: scaled to fall within a small, specified range – min-max normalization – z-score (zero mean) normalization – normalization by decimal scaling Attribute/feature construction – New attributes constructed from the given ones to help in the data mining process Data Warehousing/Mining 23 Data Transformation: Normalization min-max normalization v minA v' (new _ maxA new _ minA) new _ minA maxA minA Example – income, min $55,000, max $150000 – map to 0.0 – 1.0 $73,600 is transformed to : – 73600-55000 (1.0 – 0) + 0 = 0.196 150000-55000 Data Warehousing/Mining 24 Data Transformation: Normalization z-score normalization v meanA v' stand _ devA Example – income, mean $33000, sd $11000 $73600 is transformed to : – 73600-33000 = 3.69 11000 Data Warehousing/Mining 25 Data Transformation: Normalization normalization by decimal scaling v v' j 10 Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(| v ' |)<1 Example recorded values - -722 to 821 Divide each value by 1000 – -28 normalizes to -.028 – 444 normalizes to 0.444 Data Warehousing/Mining 26 Data Reduction Strategies Warehouse may store terabytes of data: Complex data analysis/mining may take a very long time to run on the complete data set Data reduction – Obtains a reduced representation of the data set that is much smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the same) analytical results Data reduction strategies – – – – Data cube aggregation Dimensionality reduction Numerosity reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Data Warehousing/Mining 27 Data Cube Aggregation The lowest level of a data cube – the aggregated data for an individual entity of interest – e.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse. Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes – Further reduce the size of data to deal with Reference appropriate levels – Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve the task Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered using data cube, when possible Data Warehousing/Mining 28 Dimensionality Reduction Feature selection (i.e., attribute subset selection): – Select a minimum set of features such that the probability distribution of different classes given the values for those features is as close as possible to the original distribution given the values of all features – reduce # of patterns in the patterns, easier to understand Heuristic methods (best & worst attributes determined using various methods: statistical significance, info gain, … Chpt 5 – more detail): – – – – step-wise forward selection step-wise backward elimination combining forward selection and backward elimination decision-tree induction Data Warehousing/Mining 29 Data Compression String compression – There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms – Typically lossless – But only limited manipulation is possible without expansion Audio/video compression – Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement – Sometimes small fragments of signal can be reconstructed without reconstructing the whole Time sequence is not audio – Typically short and vary slowly with time Data Warehousing/Mining 31 Data Compression Compressed Data Original Data lossless Original Data Approximated Data Warehousing/Mining 32 Wavelet Transforms Haar2 Daubechie4 Discrete wavelet transform (DWT): linear signal processing Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of the strongest of the wavelet coefficients Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy compression, localized in space Method: – Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0s, when necessary) – Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference – Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2 – Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length Data Warehousing/Mining 33 Principal Component Analysis Given N data vectors from k-dimensions, find c <= k orthogonal vectors that can be best used to represent data – The original data set is reduced to one consisting of N data vectors on c principal components (reduced dimensions) Each data vector is a linear combination of the c principal component vectors Works for numeric data only Used when the number of dimensions is large Data Warehousing/Mining 34 Numerosity Reduction Parametric methods – Assume the data fits some model, estimate model parameters, store only the parameters, and discard the data (except possible outliers) – Log-linear models: obtain value at a point in m-D space as the product on appropriate marginal subspaces Non-parametric methods – Do not assume models – Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling Data Warehousing/Mining 35 Regression and Log-Linear Models Linear regression: Data are modeled to fit a straight line – Often uses the least-square method to fit the line Multiple regression: allows a response variable Y to be modeled as a linear function of multidimensional feature vector Log-linear model: approximates discrete multidimensional probability distributions Data Warehousing/Mining 36 Histograms 25 20 15 10 90000 80000 70000 60000 0 50000 5 100000 Data Warehousing/Mining 30 40000 35 30000 40 20000 A popular data reduction technique Divide data into buckets and store average (sum) for each bucket Can be constructed optimally in one dimension using dynamic programming Related to quantization problems. 10000 37 Histograms (continued) Several techniques for determining buckets – Equiwidth – width of each bucket range is uniform – Equidepth – each bucket contains roughly the same number of contiguous samples – V-Optimal – weighted sum of the original values that each bucket represents, where bucket weight = number of values in a bucket – MaxDiff – bucket boundary is established between each pair for pairs having the B – 1 largest differences, where B is user defined V-Optimal & MaxDiff most accurate and practical Data Warehousing/Mining 38 Clustering Partition data set into clusters, and one can store cluster representation only Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data is “smeared” Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multidimensional index tree structures There are many choices of clustering definitions and clustering algorithms, further detailed in Chapter 8 Data Warehousing/Mining 39 Sampling Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is potentially sub-linear to the size of the data Choose a representative subset of the data – Simple random sampling may have very poor performance in the presence of skew Develop adaptive sampling methods – Stratified sampling: Approximate the percentage of each class (or subpopulation of interest) in the overall database Used in conjunction with skewed data Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a time). Data Warehousing/Mining 40 Sampling (continued) All tuples have equal probability of selection Once selected, can’t be selected again Raw Data Data Warehousing/Mining Once selected, can be selected again 41 Sampling (continued) If data is clustered or stratified, performed a simple random sample (with or without replacement) in each cluster or strata Raw Data Data Warehousing/Mining Cluster/Stratified Sample 42 Hierarchical Reduction Use multi-resolution structure with different degrees of reduction Hierarchical clustering is often performed but tends to define partitions of data sets rather than “clusters” Parametric methods are usually not amenable to hierarchical representation Hierarchical aggregation – An index tree hierarchically divides a data set into partitions by value range of some attributes – Each partition can be considered as a bucket – Thus an index tree with aggregates stored at each node is a hierarchical histogram Data Warehousing/Mining 43 Discretization Three types of attributes: – Nominal — values from an unordered set – Ordinal — values from an ordered set – Continuous — real numbers Discretization: – divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals – Some classification algorithms only accept categorical attributes. – Reduce data size by discretization – Prepare for further analysis Data Warehousing/Mining 44 Discretization and Concept hierarchy Discretization – reduce the number of values for a given continuous attribute by dividing the range of the attribute into intervals. Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values. Concept hierarchies – reduce the data by collecting and replacing low level concepts (such as numeric values for the attribute age) by higher level concepts (such as young, middle-aged, or senior). Data Warehousing/Mining 45 Discretization and concept hierarchy generation for numeric data Binning (see sections before) Histogram analysis (see sections before) Clustering analysis (see sections before) Entropy-based discretization Segmentation by natural partitioning Data Warehousing/Mining 46 Entropy-Based Discretization Given a set of samples S, if S is partitioned into two intervals S1 and S2 using boundary T, the entropy after partitioning is E (S ,T ) | S1| | S| Ent ( S1) |S 2| | S| Ent ( S 2) – S1 & S2 correspond to samples in S satisfying conditions A<v & A>=v The boundary that minimizes the entropy function over all possible boundaries is selected as a binary discretization. Data Warehousing/Mining 47 Entropy-Based Discretization The process is recursively applied to partitions obtained until some stopping criterion is met, e.g., Ent ( S ) E (T , S ) Experiments show that it may reduce data size and improve classification accuracy Data Warehousing/Mining 48 Segmentation by natural partitioning 3-4-5 rule can be used to segment numeric data into relatively uniform, “natural” intervals. * If an interval covers 3, 6, 7 or 9 distinct values at the most significant digit, partition the range into 3 equiwidth intervals * If it covers 2, 4, or 8 distinct values at the most significant digit, partition the range into 4 intervals * If it covers 1, 5, or 10 distinct values at the most significant digit, partition the range into 5 intervals Data Warehousing/Mining 49 Example of 3-4-5 rule count Step 1: Step 2: -$351 -$159 Min Low (i.e, 5%-tile) msd=1,000 profit Low=-$1,000 (-$1,000 - 0) (-$4000 - 0) (-$2000 -$1000) Data Max High=$2,000 ($1,000 - $2,000) (0 -$ 1,000) (-$4000 -$5,000) Step 4: (-$3000 -$2000) High(i.e, 95%-0 tile) $4,700 (-$1,000 - $2,000) Step 3: (-$4000 -$3000) $1,838 ($1,000 - $2, 000) (0 - $1,000) (0 $200) ($1,000 $1,200) ($200 $400) ($1,200 $1,400) ($1,400 $1,600) ($400 $600) (-$1000 0) Warehousing/Mining ($600 $800) ($800 $1,000) ($1,600 ($1,800 $1,800) $2,000) ($2,000 - $5, 000) ($2,000 $3,000) ($3,000 $4,000) ($4,000 $5,000) 50 Example of 3-4-5 rule (continued) Step 1 – Min=-$351,976, Max=$4,700,896, low (5th percentile)=$159,876, high (95th percentile)=$1,838,761 Step 2 – For low and high, most significant digit is at $1,000,000, rounding low -$1,000,000, rounding high $2,000,000 Step 3 – interval ranges over 3 distinct values at the most significant digit, so using 3-4-5 rule partition into 3 intervals, $1,000,000-$0, $0-$1,000,000, and $1,000,000-$2,000,000 Step 4 – Examine Min & Max values to see how they “fit” into first level partitions, first partition covers Min value, so adjust left boundary to make partition smaller, last partition doesn’t cover Max value, so create a new partition (round max up to next significant digit) $2,000,000-$5,000,000 Step 5 – Recursively, each interval can be further partitioned using 3-4-5 rule to form next lower level of the hierarchy Data Warehousing/Mining 51 Concept hierarchy generation for categorical data Specification of a partial ordering of attributes explicitly at the schema level by users or experts – Example : rel db may contain: street, city, province_or_state, country – Expert defines ordering of hierarchy such as street < city < province_or_state < country Specification of a portion of a hierarchy by explicit data grouping – Example : province_or_state, country : {Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba} – prairies_Canada & {British Columbia, prairies_Canada} – Western Canada Data Warehousing/Mining 52 Concept hierarchy generation for categorical data Specification of a set of attributes, but not of their partial ordering – Auto generate the attribute ordering based upon observation that attribute defining a high level concept has a smaller # of distinct values than an attribute defining a lower level concept – Example : country (15), state_or_province (365), city (3567), street (674,339) Specification of only a partial set of attributes – Try and parse database schema to determine complete hierarchy Data Warehousing/Mining 53 Specification of a set of attributes Concept hierarchy can be automatically generated based on the number of distinct values per attribute in the given attribute set. The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at the lowest level of the hierarchy. country 15 distinct values province_or_ state 65 distinct values city 3567 distinct values Data Warehousing/Mining street 674,339 distinct values 54 Summary Data preparation is a big issue for both warehousing and mining Data preparation includes – Data cleaning and data integration – Data reduction and feature selection – Discretization A lot a methods have been developed but still an active area of research Data Warehousing/Mining 55 Homework Assignment Design a data warehouse based on the hurricane data provided (four years of data) – Two data sources with slightly different formats and data Utilize a star or snowflake schema Implement the data warehouse utilizing relational tables in postgres Integrate the data from the two separate data sources and import into your data warehouse – Keep the data warehouse as you will utilize it in your next homework assignment Due March 18 at the start of class Data Warehousing/Mining 56 Homework Assignment (cont) Data Source 1 Table 1. Best track, Hurricane Alberto, 3 - 23 August 2000. Date/Time (UTC) Position Pressure(mb) Wind Speed (kt) Stage Lat. (°N) Lon. (°W) 03/ 1800 10.8 18.0 1007 25 tropical depression 04 / 0000 11.5 20.1 1005 30 " 04 / 0600 12.0 22.3 1004 35 tropical storm 04 / 1200 12.3 23.8 1003 35 " 04 / 1800 12.7 25.2 1002 40 " 05 / 0000 13.2 26.7 1001 40 " 05 / 0600 13.7 28.2 1000 45 " 05 / 1200 14.1 29.8 999 45 " 05 / 1800 14.5 31.4 994 55 " Data Warehousing/Mining 57 Homework Assignment (cont) Data Source 2 Date: 04-23 AUG 2000 Hurricane ALBERTO ADV LAT LON TIME WIND PR STAT 1 12.20 -22.70 08/04/09Z 30 1007 TROPICAL DEPRESSION 2 12.40 -25.00 08/04/15Z 35 1005 TROPICAL STORM 3 12.90 -25.90 08/04/21Z 50 999 TROPICAL STORM 4 13.40 -27.50 08/05/03Z 50 999 TROPICAL STORM 5 13.70 -28.70 08/05/09Z 55 994 TROPICAL STORM 6 14.40 -30.70 08/05/15Z 50 1000 TROPICAL STORM 7 14.70 -32.10 08/05/21Z 65 990 HURRICANE-1 Data Warehousing/Mining 58